PAPERS

“ BONE IN HUMANS”

ARRANGED BY:

Trisia vironika

FOUNDATION EKA HARAP PALANGKA RAYA

INSTITUDE OF HEALTH SCIENCE
S1 NURSING STUDY PROGRAM
SCHOOL YEAR 2019/2020
 FOREWORD

The authors wish to praise and gratitude for the presence of Allah SWT has

giving His mercy and grace to the author, so you can complete a paper

this.

The author realizes that this paper is still far from perfect and still

many shortcomings because of limitations by the author. Therefore, with

all humility authors expect criticism and suggestions that are

build to perfection this paper. This paper will not happen without

help of various parties, both aid directly or indirectly.

For all the help given to thank the authors and writers

apologize for the many disadvantages that in this paper that

the presence of this paper can be a science to those who read it.

Palangka Raya,16 March 2020

Best regards,

Author
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

FOREWORD ................................................ .................................................. ii .............

TABLE OF CONTENTS............................................................................................................................ iii

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................................1

1.1 Background................................................................................................................. 1

Problem Formulation 1.2......................................................................................................... 1

1.3 Objectives...............................................................................................................................2

CHAPTER II DISCUSSION..............................................................................................................3

2.1 Classification of Human Bone In........................................................................................3

2.2 Histology Human Bones In..................................................................................20

2.3 Development and Bone Growth.......................................................................30

2.4 Nature of Dynamic Bone.................................................................................................. 37

2.5 Disruption of Bone...............................................................................................46

CHAPTER III CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS..............................................................................48

3.1 Conclusion................................................................................................................. 48

3.2 Advice.............................................................................................................................. 48

REFERENCES...................................................................................................................49

iii
 CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

Bone is a connective tissue composed of cells, fibers and matrix

Extracellular. The matrix of bone is the hardest part located outside dilapisan

bone, caused by the precipitation of minerals in the matrix, so that bones

even calcified. In the human body there is also the name

cartilage ( Cartilage) that is the connective tissue that have the ability

stretch, forming a strong advocate for the soft tissue, giving

flexibility, and highly resistant to pressure.

Bone serves as a rigid body frame, and place

adhesions in the muscles and organs are present in a person's body. bone

also protect the brain, which is located within the skull, you can imagine when it

happens accidents hit someone's head if without the skull, then

vital organs such as the brain and all therein nerves arrangement with ease

be destroyed.

Bones protect the heart and lungs in the chest cavity, and the sexual organs

and urinary protected by bone, called bone pelvis. Besides bones too

function in haematopoietic ( the formation of blood cells), and as reservoir ( the

place storage) of calcium, phosphate, and many other minerals. Almost all of the

calcium (99%) in the body is stored in bone, and when the body needs to

calcium, the calcium will be taken from the bones. While cartilage

serves as shock absorber ( pressure reducer). Which when someone

landing after a jump, then the body will receive great pressure,

this is one function of cartilage play a role, which is to reduce the pressure

there is. This cartilage is avascular or not connected with the vessel

blood.

1.2 Formulation of the problem

1. How classification of human bones?

1
 2. How bone histology in humans?

3. How is the development and growth of bone in humans?

4. How dynamic properties of bone in humans?

5. Any health problems in human bone

1.3 Objectives

1. To determine the classification of human bones

2. To determine the bone histology in humans

3. To know the development and growth of bone in humans

4. To determine the dynamic properties of bone in humans

5. To find health problems in human bone

 CHAPTER II
DISCUSSION

2.1 Classification of Bones In Humans

2.1.1 Definition, Function and Classification of Bones

Bone is a connective tissue composed of cells, fibers and matrix

Extracellular. Bone serves as a rigid body frame, and give

attachment for muscles and organs are present in a person's body. Bone

also protect the brain, which is located within the skull. Bones protect the heart

and lungs in the chest cavity, and the sexual and urinary organs are protected by the bones

called the pelvic bone.

Besides the bones are also functioning in haematopoietic (blood cell formation),

and a reservoir (storage) of calcium, phosphate, and many minerals

more. Almost all of the calcium (99%) in the body is stored in bone, and

when the body needs to calcium, the calcium will be taken from the bones.

Human bones have diverse forms, depending on its location in

inside the body. Based stretch and shape, bones are divided into:

Based Bone Shape and Size Example

Long bones ( Ossa longa) Femur, humerus,

radius, ulna, tibia, fibula,
- Shape like a tube, a second
metacarpals and
round tip, and middle slindris (diaphysis)
metatarsals
- Consists of 3 parts:
called the epiphyseal end, the middle section is composed of hard bone diaphysis.

The section between the epiphysis and diaphysis called cakraepifisis or metaphysical

composed of cartilage and contains osteoblasts

- Serves as a tool for supporting the lever or
the tool body
Short bones ( Ossa Brevia) Carpus and tarsus

- Shaped like a cube or irregular short. Length, height

and width almost equal
- Not having the marrow cavity, on the inside consists of spongy bone ( ngy
spo
bone) filled by
 marrow space
- On the outside surrounded by a thin layer of
compact bone
- Its function is to brace clash
Flat bones ( Ossa plana) Scapula, ribs, skull

- Squashed flat bones shaped flattened

- Has two layers of compact bone, the lamina externa and interna ossis
karnii. Both layers are separated by a layer of spongy bone called
diploe

- Its function is to protect the soft parts of the body such as the
brain, heart and lungs.
Bone irregular ( irregular) bone veterbrae

- Having irregular shape

- This bone structure showed great
durability against power press
sesamoid bone Patella (kneecap)
and fabellae
- Similar with sesame seeds
- Function to
reducing shifts and changes the direction of the tendon (Ossa sesamoidea)

pneumatic bones Frontal and maxillary

(upper jaw bone),
- Have room or sinus connecting with air ( atmosphere)

bone splanchnic os Penis

- Bone growing in soft organs

Figure 1 type of bone: (a) the long bones ( os humerus), ( b) short bones ( os tarsus), ( c) flat
bones ( rib), ( d) bone irregular (lumbar vetebrae)
Figure 2 Type bone: (a) pneumatic bones, and (b) a sesamoid bone.

2.1.2 Parts Bone

Parts of bones, among others:

 foramen : A hole through which passes the blood vessels, nerves and

ligament
fossa : An indentation in the bone

processus : bulge
condyles : Round-shaped protrusion

Tuberculum: small bulge

Tuborositas: Large bulge
trochanter: A huge bulge (femur / thigh) Krista: Periphery or edge of the bone
Spina: Pointy-shaped bulge
kaput: Head bones
Kollum: Neck bone
The corpus: Body bone

2.1.3 Bone Structure

The bones in the body form the skeletal system. human skeleton

consists of 206 bones. The skeletal system is jointly developed the framework for the body.

Broadly speaking, the human skeleton consists of 206 bones which are divided

into two order axial ( body axis) and order appendicular (

member body).

Calculation of Total Kesesluruhan Human Bones

1. Head bones that form the skull: 8 pieces

2. Advance Bone: 14 pieces

3. The bones of the inner ear: 6 Fruit

4. The bones of the tongue: 1 piece

5. Bone skeleton chest: 25 pieces

6. Bone forming the spine and pelvic girdle: 26 pieces

7. Upper limb bones: 64 pieces

8. Lower limb bone: 62 pieces

 Frame Man

A. Axial order

Axial order a group of bone located at the axis of the body.

Order axial bone totaled 80. Axial framework consists of:

1. The cranium (skull)

7 Figure 3
 Skull shape someone's head. This bone is

lamellar bone fragments interconnected hollow. Human skull

consisting of 22 bones. The bone is divided into the bone of the head (cranial)

and the face (facial). Cranial bone forming shell and functioning

protect the organs in it, namely the brain. Facial bones forming the eye socket,

nasal cavity, the person's face. Tulangini serve to protect the eyes and organs
mouth and the inside of the nose.

The bones of the head consists of:

a. Bone rear head ( osipital) are the bones of the head.

This bone only amounted to 1.

b. Fontanel bone ( parietal) located at the top until the head laterally.

This bone totaled 2 pieces.

c. Bone forehead ( fronta l) located at the front (face up). this bone

numbered 1 piece.

d. Orbital fracture ( tempora l) the temple is located on the side of the head

back. This bone totaled 2 pieces.

e. Bone wedge ( sphenoid) located on the side of the head depang. this bone

numbered 1 piece.

f. Bone tapis ( ethmoid) located inside the cavity of the head. this bone

numbered 1 piece.

Human skull when viewed from the bottom will be visible bulge

mastoid and foramen magnum (a bone marrow cavity

related to the brain). The bones of the head (cranial) can not be moved

because it is a joint die (not shifted). In infants, the cranial bones

not yet fully united and have a soft region (soft spot) or fontanelle.

These soft areas are composed of fibrous connective tissue. In a normal birth,

baby's skull can be overlapped so as to menelusup exit

small hole. Along with the growth, the baby's skull will be united and

fontanelle will disappear slowly over hardening of connective tissue

fibrous.

8
The bones of the face (facial) consists of:

a. Maxillary bone ( maxilla) the areas where the gums and teeth

top. This bone totaled 2 pieces.

b. Lower jawbone ( mandible) numbered 1 piece. With the muscle

jaw, the bone can move so we can open your mouth and

closed.

c. Nasal bone ( nasal) found in the nasal cavity and amounted to 2 pieces.

d. Cheek bone ( zygomatic) establish a person's cheek. This bone totaled 2

fruit.

e. Bone tears ( lacrimal) contained in this mata.Tulang cavity

amounted to 2 pieces.

f. bones ( vomer) numbered 1 piece.

g. Bone palate oral cavity (Palatin) amounted to 2 pieces.

h. Bone inferior turbinate (Inferior nasal cocha) located in the

cavity nose. This bone totaled 2 pieces.

The bones of the face that can be moved only lower jawbone

against the upper jaw bone, for example, when we speak or eat. Some
skull bones contained in the inside and in touch with the senses

hearing, namely:

a. Malleus (malleus) attaches to the eardrum and bones

base. In each ear is 1 Malleus.

b. Incus (incus) located between the hammer and stirrup bones.

There is one in each ear incus.

c. Stirrup (stapes) is shaped like a tuning fork and serve

connects the middle ear to the inner ear (cochlea). There are 1

stirrup on each ear.

The third bone is included in part of the middle ear.

2. The spine (vertebrae)

 As a member of vertebrates, humans have backbones (vertebrae).

The spine is located in the center of the human body. Bone serves an important

to support the body, as the place of attachment of the ribs and protect

organ in the body. Spine very vital role because in addition to being

cantilever body, bone is also the areas where the main nerve of the body.

The spine consists of 33 vertebrae and is divided into five sections, among others:

a. Neck vertebrae ( cervical vertebra).

There are seven vertebrae of the neck with the first segment is the atlas bone. Bone

atlas serves to support the skull. The second segment is the bone player

(Axis). Their bones atlas and axis allow the head to rotate. segment

the third to the seventh vertebra has a similar shape and not bersendian with

rib.

b. Vertebra ( thoracic vertebra).

The backbone amounted to 12 segments with a similar shape.

Each vertebra has a body bone with bone spurs to the left and

to the right as a joint with ribs (ribs). bone Agency

This attaches to the curved vertebrae that protect the spinal cord.

Between the vertebrae there is cartilage (cartilage).

c. Lumbar vertebrae ( lumbar vertebrae).

Totaled 5 vertebrae. The lumbar spine vertebrae

The most powerful and larger than other vertebrae. shape

almost similar to the segment of the spine, but not with the bone bersendian

lateral.

d. Segment sacrum ( sacrum).

The sacrum is a combination of five vertebrae united. this bone

bersendian with the bones of the pelvic girdle, the last lumbar vertebra and the bone

tail.

e. Tail vertebrae ( coccyx).

 The coccyx is the last vertebra. Tail bone or coccyx is

The combined four vertebrae are united. This bone with bone bersendian

crotch.

Among the bones of the vertebrae are discs invertebra. Disc

invertebra a tough cartilage on the outside but soft on the inside.

This bone serves as a vibration damper and a protective vertebrae.

3. The ribs (ribs)

The rib-shaped flat and curved long. Back

ribs directly related to the segment of the spine (vertebrae piston).

The ribs were 12 pairs of bones, consisting of seven pairs of true ribs, 3 pairs

false ribs, and two pairs of floating ribs.

The front of the true ribs attach to the breastbone (sternum). Bone

false ribs on the back attached to the backbone (thoracic vertebrae),

while on the front attached to the ribs thereon. The ribs were

most curved is the ninth rib. The ribs arranged regularly

in accordance with its attachments to the spine. Space between the ribs

called intercostal spaces.

The ribs were hovering just bersendian with backbone and not

bersendian to the sternum, therefore, as seemed to float. Size

floating rib is shorter than the other ribs.

4. chest bone (sternum)

Breastbone is located at the front of the body and numbered 1 vertebra.

Breastbone consisting of upstream, body and Taju sword. This bone is

attachment of the front part of the 7 pairs of true ribs. Sternum,

back and ribs form the chest cavity (ribs cage) and function

protect the organs in it and helps in breathing.

B. order appendicular

Appendicular order an order constituting locomotor, consisting of

upper limbs, lower limbs, the shoulder and the hip bone. Upper limbs

comprises upper arm bone, ulna, a bone lever, wrist bones, bones

palms and finger bones. Base of the arm associated with bone

shoulder. The shoulder blade consists of collarbone and shoulder blade. lower leg

femur bone associated with pelvic girdle. The pelvis is made up

sitting bones, bone, intestine, and the pubic bone. Appendicular order consists of 126

vertebra.
 appendicular

Table Description and amount of bones, including the Framework appendicular.

Bone-Bone Frame appendicular

Bone Name of the constituent bone amount

Top Collarbone (clavicle) 2

The shoulder blade (scapula) 2

Base of the arm bone (humerus) 2

Ulna (ulna) 2

Bone lever (Radius) 2

14 Picture
 Carpus (Karpal): 16 (8 on each hand)

scaphoid 2

Lunate 2

triquetrum 2

Pisiform 2

trapezoid 2

Trapesoid 2

Kapitatum 2

Hamate 2

Palms bone (metacarpal) 10

Fingers (Falanges) 28

Low part Koksa bone or inomiat 2 (each is a combinatio n

of three bones in the left
ileal
and

Ischium
right)

pubis 1

The thigh bone (femur) 1

Knee bone (patella) 1

Calf bone (fibula) 2

Shinbone (tibia) 2

Ankle bones (tarsal): 2

calcaneus 2

talus 14 (7 on each leg)

2
kuboid

Navikular 2

Kuneformis 2

15
 Foot bone (metatarsal) 6

Toes (Falanges) 10

28

Appendicular framework is composed of:

1. Upper limbs.

Constituent bones are:

a. Shoulder girdle bones

Consists of scapula ( scapula) and collarbone (k lavikul a). Bone

scapula shaped like a triangle flat and bersendian the upper arm bone

( humeru s). Collarbone at the front end is attached to the sternum

( sternum). Shoulder girdle bone totaled 4 bone.

b. The upper arm bone ( humerus).

Shaped like a pipe with a hump on each end. In section

downstairs has two hump bersendian with the bones of the forearm (hasta

and ulna). At the top of bersendian with the scapula (scapula). There are 2

upper arm bone in the human body.

c. The bones of the forearm.

Consisting of ulna ( ulna) and bone lever ( radius). The end

ulna an elbow while the underside is a place

the presence of the little finger. The end of the bone lever bersendian with

humerus bone while the bottom is where the presence of bone

thumb (thumb). Both the lower end of the forearm bones bersendian with

wrist bones (carpal). The total amount of the forearm bone segment totaled

4 vertebrae.

d. Carpus ( carpal).
 Short wrist bone size and is the liaison

between the bones of the forearm with the palm of the hand bone ( metacarpal). Bone

wrist in each hand totaling 8 vertebrae.

e. Bone palms ( metacarpal).

Short palm sized bone and is the liaison between the

wrist bones with the bones of the fingers ( phālanges). Bone

palms on each hand totaling 5 vertebrae.

f. The bones of the fingers ( phālanges).

The bones of a short-sized fingers and gnarled. In each

each hand totaling 14 vertebrae.

2. Members of the lower limbs.

Constituent bones are:

a. The bones of the pelvic girdle ( pelvis)

The bones of the pelvic girdle is a combination of 6 is 2 bone bone intestine

(Ilium), two sitting bones (ischium) and 2 of the pubic bone (pubis). bone bracelet

shaped flat pelvis. In women hole formed between the ilium,

ischium, and pubis wider and deeper than the male. That matter

acts as a baby and give birth.

b. Femur ( femur).

The thigh bone is shaped like a long pipe gnarled in each

ends. The upper end bersendian with pelvic girdle bones, while the end

bersendian the bottom of the shinbone (tibia) and the kneecap bone

(Patella). Femur is the longest bone, strongest, and heaviest among

the bones of the body. Femur bone totaled 2.

c. Shinbone ( tibia) and fibula ( fibula).

 Dry bones larger than the fibula. Location of bone

Dry there are more on the front of the fibula. The top edge of the bone

Dry bersendian the thigh bone and the bottom end with a bone bersendian

ankle (tarsal). On each leg there is one shin and 1

fibula.

d. Anklebone ( tarsal).

Short-sized ankle bone. These bones are among

tibia and foot bones. The amount of bone On each leg

amounted to 7 bones.

e. Bone foot ( metatarsal)

Foot bone located between the ankle bone and finger bone

ft. This bone totaled 5 of bones in each foot.

f. The bones of the toes ( phālanges)

The bones of the toes short and gnarled size. In each

each leg total of 14 bones.

2.1.4 Relationship between bones (Joints)

The area between the bones is called the joint meeting. the meeting

generally united by ligaments or files network

liaison ( connective tissue). The shortest connecting fibers called

Fibrous joints. Examples like that are between teeth with bone

jaw.

Generally there are three kinds of joints, namely:

a. Joints dead ( sinartrosis).

Joints are joints that death could not be moved because of bone

bones were locked together. For example in the skull and bones

the pelvic girdle. Joints die composed of fibrous connective tissue.

This network will harden with age. The easiest example

is the soft areas (fontanelle) on baby. These areas become hard

so that the skull bones together.

b. Stiff joints (amfiartrosis) / sliding joints.

Joints that allow little movement, for instance on the bone -

wrist and ankle bones.

c. Joint motion (diartrosis).

Joint motion allows for freer movement.

Various joint motion is as follows:

1. Joints bullet.

Bullet joints occurs between bone stump that one with grooves bone

other. Bullet joints allow movement in all directions.

Examples include the femur with the pelvic girdle or between the arm bone

top with shoulder girdle

2. The hinge joints.

A hinge joint that occurs between bone stump one another with the ends of bones

resembling a groove. These joints allow movement in one direction

such as door hinges. For example the thighbone (femur) to the shinbone

(Tibia) or referred to the knee joint; the upper arm bone (humerus) to the ulna

(Ulna) or called the elbow joint.

3. The rotary joint.

Occurred between bone ends a bulge into the hole at

The other bones. The movement that occurs in the form of rotation / rotation.

For example, bone player (axis) with the atlas bone.

4. Joints saddle.

Saddle joint allows for movement in both directions. His movements were like

man on a horse on a saddle for example bone of the thumb to the palm of the hand.

5. Joints rolls / ellipsoid.

Roll joints occur between the surface of the bone oval with a notch

Another bone oval. For example in the wrist bones (carpal) premises

bone lever ( radius).

2.2 Histology Bone In Humans

2.2.1 Bone Matrix

Matrix is a combination of protein and carbohydrate that binds cells

together or split one network from another. The matrix is composed of

serabu fibers and base material. Matrix is one of the bonding network

that works synergistically with bone cells in the formation and adhesions between

bone tissue. The matrix is composed of 25% water, contains inorganic compounds

(67%) of calcium, phosphate, Na, Mg, bicarbonate and citric acid, as well as organic compounds

in the form of collagen (protein) type 1, elastin fibers, reticular fibers (the future

Fibroblasts also called reticular cells), and contains glycosaminoglycans.

2.2.2 Bone Cells

1. osteoprogenitor

Osteoprogenitor located outside the membrane (prosteum). These cells are derived from

mesenchymal embryo, there will be a lifelong postpartum and may experience

mitotic division and have the potential to differentiate into osteoblasts.

Osteoprogenitor cells of spindle-shaped and has a pale oval nucleus,

cytoplasm contains few ER and Golgi bodies are developing a

poorly, but contain ribosomes that very much. These cells are most active

during the period of bone growth. During the growth of bone, these cells will

divide and produce osteoblast cells which will then form

bone. In contrast to the inner surface of the bone tissue, osteogenic cells

generate osteoclasts to erode bone cavity to form a cavity (sponge).

2. osteoblasts

Osteoblasts derived from osteoprogenitor cells and growing under the influence

Bone morphogenic protein (BMP). Osteoblasts have a diameter between 20-30 μm

and are visible at approximately osteoid layer where new bone is formed.

The plasma membrane of osteoblasts has distinctive properties that is rich in the enzyme alkaline

fostatase, whose concentration in the serum is used as an index of their

bone formation. Mature osteoblast cells have a lot of apparatus

well-developed Golgi apparatus which functions as a secretory cell, the cytoplasm

the basophilic (containing granules), and a lot reticulum

endoplasmic.

Osteoblasts responsible for synthesizing organic protein component of

bone matrix, including collagen type I, proteoglikans, and glycoproteins, osteocalcin

(For bone mineralization), collagen protein not include osteonectin

(Related to bone mineralization), osteopontin, bone sialoprotein, factor

bone growth, cytokines, and of course receptors of hormones.

Fairway cytoplasm of osteoblasts have contact with osteoblasts

adjacent. Panhandle is this more evident when the cells start surrounded by the matrix.

Once confined entirely by the newly formed matrix is then osteoblasts it

referred to as osteosit.Lakunan and kenalikuli looks, because the matrix has

formed around the cell and the cytoplasm panhandle.

3. osteocytes

Osteocytes are mature bone cells and cells that have been primarily on bone

which plays a role in regulating the metabolism such as the exchange of nutrients and dirt

with blood. Osteocytes derived from osteoblasts differentiated and contained in

the lacuna which is located between the lamella-lamella matrix at the time of formation

bone surface layer takes place. The numbers 20000-30000 per mm3 and cell-

These cells are actively involved in maintaining bone matrix and death

followed by resorption of the matrix so that the osteocytes more important when repairs

bone rather than new bone formation. Canaliculi is a canal where

there are blood vessels that acts as a conduit of nutrients and gas exchange

which will be used by osteocytes.

Osteocytes smaller than osteoblasts and osteocytes had lost much

organelles in the cytoplasm. Young osteocytes more like osteoblasts but

is an adult cell that has the Golgi apparatus and rough endoplasmic reticulum

a little more clear but has a number of lysosomal more.

4. osteoclasts
 Osteoclasts are giant cell fusion results monocytes (types of white blood cell)

concentrated in endosteum and lysosomes release enzymes to break down

proteins and minerals in the extracellular matrix. Osteoclasts have progenitor

is different from other bone cells because it is not derived from mesenchymal cells,

but from myeloid tissue that monocytes or macrophages in the bone marrow.

osteoclasts is similar to other phagocytic cells and play an active role in the process

of resorption

bone.

Osteoclasts are the cells so that the fusion of several monocytes are

multinukleus (10-20 nuclei) with great size and is located in the cortical bone

or trabecular bone osteoclastogenesis Osteoclasts function in the mechanism, the

activation

calcium resorption of bone and cartilage, and respond to hormonal

lowering the structure and function of bone. Osteoclasts in bone resorption process

secrete the enzyme collagenase and other proteinase, lactic acid, and citric acid

which can dissolve bone matrix. These enzymes break down or dissolve

the organic matrix of bone, while acid salts will dissolve the bone.

Through the process of bone resorption, osteoclasts influence a number of processes

ie the body in maintaining blood calcium balance, growth and

bone development and bone repair after a fracture. activity

osteoclasts are influenced by hormone cytokinin.

Osteoclasts have receptors for kalsitokinin, which is a thyroid hormone.

However, osteoblasts have receptors for parathyroid hormone and so

activated by this hormone, osteoblasts will memperoduksi a cytokine called

osteoclast stimulating factor. Osteoclasts together parathyroid hormone plays a role in

regulation of blood calcium levels that are targeted treatment of osteoporosis ..

2.2.3 Compact Bone and Bone Hollow

Images of macroscopic Bone Structure

1. Cartilage (Hollow / Sponge / trabecular / cancelous / cartilage)

Spongy bone is the center of the hollow bones and there

red bone marrow and yellow bone marrow. Red bone Sumsun

produce red blood cells, while the yellow bone marrow fat stores.

In English, the spongy bone (spongy) called cancellous bone. Bone

sponge is one of two types of bone tissue that form bone.

Cartilage consists of cartilage cells (chondrocytes), collagen fibers, and

matrix. Cartilage cells will be formed by the cells of cartilage, namely

chondroblasts. While the cartilage cells called chondrocytes.

Chondrocytes have a distinctive circular core with a

nucleus or two nucleoli. Chondrocytes located within the lacuna (gap)

spherical. He also called cartilage cells (which if a group called cell

isogen). Chondrocyt layout in cartilage tissue more into than

chondroblast layout.

Cartilage tissue matrix consists of kondrin, ie substances such clear

kanji made of mucopolysaccharides and phosphate. Therefore, bone cells

cartilage called chondrocytes. Synthesize and maintain chondrocyte function

matrix containing collagen fibers, elastic fibers, fibers and fibrous.

Kondrin kondroblast produced by cells located in the lacuna. Cartilage

always surrounded by a membrane perikondrium because they are soft.

Cartilage tissue in children is derived from the embryonic connective tissue

(Mesenchymal), whereas in adults is formed by cartilage or fibrous membrane

thin named perikondrium. In stage embryos, order mammals

consists of cartilage (cartilage). In further developments, the majority

ossify (harden) into hard bone and only a small portion

remaining at the adult stage. For example, on the ears, nose, and antarruas

spine and sternum.

Compared to compact bone, spongy bone has a surface area

wider and densities less because it is less dense. Such structure

make the spongy bone is softer, weaker, and more flexible. Large

a larger surface than make the spongy bone compact bone

suitable to serve as a place of calcium metabolism. Many spongy bone

containing blood vessels and bone marrow are often found in red.

Spongy bone can be found throughout the body. Usually spongy bone

found at the ends of long bones, joints, and the inside of the spine.

The function of the spongy bone is as shock absorbers such as when jumping, as

place produce red blood cells, and as the site of metabolism

calcium, and serves to reduce the weight of the bones to become lighter.

Cartilage also serves as a skeleton in the early embryo, support

soft tissue and internal organs, as well as smooth out the surface of the bones and joints.

Cartilage does not have the nerves and vessels are not prone

darah.Tulang haversian.Jaringan system containing bones arranged in a

dish called

trabecular ( separated by a space irregular, or hole) and make a sighting

hollow bones like "Swiss cheese".

 Based on the arrangement of fibers, cartilage can be classified into

three types, as follows.

1) hyaline cartilage, has woven fibers dispersed in a smooth and

meeting. Hyaline cartilage located at the ends of the ribs attached to

sternum

2) elastic cartilage, the arrangement of cells and matrix-like hyaline cartilage, but

not as smooth and as thick hyaline cartilage. Elastic cartilage found in the leaves

ear, larynx, and epigloti

3) The fibrous cartilage, the matrix is composed of a rough and irregular.

Bone fibrous cartilage discs antartulang contained in the back and the pubic symphysis

(linkage pubic bone)

The following table Difference hyaline cartilage, fibrous, and Elastic

Characteristic - hyaline cartilage fibrous cartilage Elastic cartilage

characteristic

Collagen fibers are smooth fibers fiber the collagen fiber elastic and

dense and coarse collagen fibers

Color Bluish-white and translucent Daan dark cloudy cloudy yellowish

Matrix light brass

location The tip of the hard bone, disc segment spine, Epiglottis. Earlobe

epiphyseal, joint, and symphysis pubis, and and bronchioles

respiratory tract joint

Member functions power, Support and Providing flexibility and

support framework protect part as an advocate

embryonic, support inside it

part framework adult

certain, and help

the movement of the joints

 1. Hard bone (Compact / osteon)

Bone is formed from cartilage undergo ossification (ossification).

When the cartilage (cartilage) are formed, the cavities of the matrix is filled by cell

osteoblasts. Osteoblast is a cell layer cartilage. osteoblasts will

Intercellular secretes substances like collagen that will bind to calcium.

Osteoblast surrounded by lime would harden and become osteocytes (cell

hard bone). Osteocytes lie in the lacunae. Between the osteocytes with osteocytes

more inside lacuna connected by a smooth channel called kanalikul i.

lacuna and osteositnya arranged in concentric (circular) is called lamella.

In the middle lamella are microscopic central channel called Channel Havers

containing blood vessels (veins, arteries, capillaries), nerves, and lymphatic vessels

lymph (lymph). Havers channel between interconnected by Volkman channels.

Volkman channel is a channel that connects the two channels Havers.

Composed of compact bone periosteum (Outer) and endosteum (In) which

bordered by the bone marrow. Periosteum in the form of dense connective tissue is not

regular. Endosteum has components similar to the periosteum

only thinner. Bordered by the periosteum are bone lamella

outer circumferential (lamella periosteum) consisting of lamella bone

arranged parallel to the outer surface of the bone, while bordering

endosteum contained in the circumferential bone lamella (lamella endosteum) which

consists of a lamella bones parallel to the surface of the bone.

 Among the artifacts Havers System lamella irregular bone structure

called interstitial lamella. Also lacuna exists between interstitial lamella, lamella

outer circumferential lamella bone and circumferentially inside.

Compact bone has a solid matrix and meetings, while bone

sponge having a hollow cavity matrix. Actually, both types of bone

they are located in a same place. Naming taken only with

see which parts are the most dominant.

Compact Bone image

2.2.4 Bone Network

Histologically bone is divided into two main components, namely:

• Cartilage / bone primer

• Adult bone / bone secondary

Both types have the same components, but the primary bone

has the collagen fibers are arranged randomly, while bone

Secondary arranged regularly.

1. Primary bone tissue

In bone formation or also in the process of healing the damage

bones, the bones are growing the young or primary bone

temporary, because later will be replaced with secondary bone.

 This form of woven bone tissue, so-called Woven bone.

Young component is composed of collagen fibers irregularly at

osteoid. woven bone formed when osteoblasts forming osteoid rapidly

such as bone formation infants and in adults when the formation

new bone formation due to a pathological condition.

Besides irregular collagen fibers, there are other features to

Primary bone tissue, which is at least a mineral salt content so easy

penetrated by X-rays and more number of osteocytes when compared to

secondary bone tissue.

Primary bone tissue will eventually undergo remodeling into bone

Secondary (lamellar bone).

2. Secondary bone tissue

This species commonly found in the adult skeleton. Also known as

lamellar bone as secondary bone tissue consists of collagen parallel bond

arranged in sheets lamella. His trademark: fibers

collagen arranged in lamellae (layers) thick 3-7μm which are parallel to each

another and concentric circle in the center channel, called Canalis Haversi.

In this Haversi Canalis runs blood vessels, nerve fibers and filled by

loose connective tissue. Overall concentric structure is named Systema

Haversi or osteon.

Bone cells called osteocytes were among lamellae or

sometimes in the lamella. In each lamella, collagen fibers

running parallel helically coiled around osteon axis, but the collagen fibers

which is in a nearby lamellae crosswise direction.

2.3 Development and Bone Growth

In early human fetal development, frame made entirely of

cartilage. Relatively soft cartilage gradually transformed into

hard bone through ossification.

2.3.1 ossification

The process of bone ossification of cartilage into hard bone is called

ossification. The process is divided into two, namely ossification intramembranosa and

ossification endocondral Ossification intramembranosa also called direct reinforcement

(Primary ossification). This process occurs in flat bones such as the skull.

This reinforcement occurs directly and will not be repeated forever.

Example ossification endocondral is a pipe bone formation.

Adult bones are classified according to form into long bones

(Such as the femur), the flat bones or flat ( such as the pelvis), and short bones (such as

hand and foot bones). Long bones (and some short bones like bones

metacarpal) is divided into three topographical regions: the diaphysis, epiphyseal and metaphyseal.

Diaphysis of a bone shaft portion. Epiphyseal looked at both ends

bone and partially covered by articular cartilage. a metaphysical

linkage between the diaphysis and epiphysis. In bone development,

own development process starting from the epiphyseal plate ( epiphyseal disk). In

It was here where the process endochondral ossification occurs, a process

where growth occurs longitudinally, cartilage column was replaced with

bone mass. When the bone has reached adult length, this process ends, and

epiphyseal closure part occurs, so that bones become really stiff.

a. ossification Intramembranousa

Is the process of bone formation from mesenchymal tissue into

bone tissue, for example in the formation of lamellar bone. , Network

mesenchyme differentiate into osteoblasts and osteoblasts secrete matrix

osteoid and calcified organic form. Osteoid bone forming spongeus

and condense into the periosteum. The mesenchyme is part of a layer

mesoderm, which then develop into connective tissue and blood. Bone
skull originated directly from mesenchymal cells through the process ossification

intrammebrane.

Bone formation mechanism image through ossification Intramembranosa

Intramembranosa ossification, the source of most bones pipih.Osifikasi

intramembranosa also assist short of bone growth and bone thickening

long. Inside the connector jatringan coating layer, the starting point

ossification called the primary ossification centers. This process began when kelompok-

groups of cells that resemble young fibroblasts differentiate into osteoblasts.

Then came the synthesis of osteoid and calcified, leading cloaking

some osteoblasts which then become osteocytes. Parts of the network layer

the connector does not ossify produces endosteum and

intramembranosa bone periosteum. ossification intramembranosa much going on

skull.

The process that only occurs in specific flat bones, summed up in two

basic steps:
 • Spongy bone began to flourish in places inside the membrane

called ossification centers.

• Red bone marrow formed in the spongy bone tissue, followed by

the formation of solid bone on the outside.

b. endochondral ossification

The process of bone formation occurs in which the cells of the mesenchyme

first differentiate into cartilage (cartilage tissue) and then transformed into

bone tissue, such as bone formation process is long, vertebrae, and

pelvis. This ossification process responsible for bone lengthening and

most of the human bone formation. In this process of bone cells

(Osteoblasts) actively divide and appears in the center of the cartilage

disbeut center of ossification. The next osteoblasts turn into osteocytes, cells

These adult bone mtariks deeply embedded in the bone.

endochondral ossification occur in a piece of hyaline cartilage

that looks like the small size of the bone to be formed. This ossification type

mainly responsible for bone formation short- and long bones.

Long bone is formed from cartilage models by widening the tips

ends (epiphysis) a cylindrical rod (diaphysis). In this kind of growth, the order

events that can be considered are:

(1). Chondrocytes contained in the hyaline cartilage undergo hypertrophic

and initiate synthesis of collagen X and vascular endothelial cell growth factor

(VEGF); (2). Perikondrium enters the blood vessels in the central part of the

cartilage, which will become calcified matrix, a primary ossification;

(3). The cells perikondrium part in shaping a thin periosteal part in

the midpoint of the shaft or diaphysis bone, periosteal (periosteum form

wall from the outside) will form bone woven, with bone growth

intramembranosa who will become the periosteum;

(4). The blood vessels invade the previously cavity formed by the

chondrocytes the hypertrophic and osteoprogenitor cells, and cells of the

hematopoietic perivascular tissue penetration; and

(5). Osteoprogenitor cells that differentiate into osteoblasts grow

parallel to the calcification of cartilage and will occupy osteoid

Or the translation of the following mechanisms:

1) In the early stages of the process of ossification, osteoblasts will form a layer

compact so perikondrium turned into the periosteum (membrane bone

hard), after osteoblasts fill the surrounding tissue will form

osteocytes (bone cells). Along with the process, on the bone

diaphysis prone area or central stem (primary ossification centers), cells

enlarged chondrocytes finally broke.

2) Bone cells gradually formed from the inside to the outside so that

concentric formation. Each of these bone cells encircling a vessel

blood and nerves form a system called Havers system. other than that

around these bone cells form a matrix-forming protein compound

bone and would harden for their calcium and phosphate salts. This matter

disrupt the nutritional components for chondrocyte cells eventually die.

3) Perikondrium surrounding the diaphysis in ossification centers turned into

periosteum. Osteogenic layer in forming a collar bone (clavicle),

and then around the cartilage that has calcified.

4) Chondrocytes (cartilage cells) which nutrients are decided by a collar will

degenerates and loses its ability to maintain the matrix

cartilage.

5) Periosteal bud contains blood vessels and osteoblasts into the

the calcified cartilage spicules through space in the form of osteoclasts

the collar bone.

6) If the buds periosteal reached peak growth will spread in both directions

toward the epiphysis.

7) Then growing secondary ossification center within the epiphyseal cartilage on both

ends of long bones.

8) All bone elongation happens next is the result of cleavage cell-

cartilage cells in the epiphyseal plate.

9) When someone full growth around the cartilage in the epiphyseal plate

into the bone and it will stop.

Image Zone Endrokondral bone growth. Looks growth zone

starting from cartilage break zone, proliferative zone of cartilage, hypertrophy zone

cartilage, calcification zone, and the zone of ossification

Figure Mechanism In Endokondral

2.3.2 Blood Supply and persyarafan

1) Blood supply

• Long bones

a. Arteries nutrisia: single artery winding entrance foramen

nutrisia obliquely upwards or downwards towards the berlawwanan

for bone growth, one artery accompanied with 1-2 pieces of vein

during the cortex artery gives branches to the canal

Havers.

b. Arteries periosteale: the small arteries that supply perousteum walk

adhesions along the muscle.

c. Arterial metapisiale: circuit anastomoses around

joints called the circle of vaskulosus, branches coming through

foramina vaskularis the exit veins epifise.

• The bones sprawl. Arterial artery nutrisia epifisiale a single and

branches, number of branches supplying the substantia spongeosa

kompakta substantia bone.

• Ribs. Nutrisia artery enters the distal bone of the tubercle

ribs and divide themselves into branches of the anterior and posterior longus

brevis which supplies all parts of the ribs.

• The bones of the vertebrae. There are 2 major arteries into the surface

posterior vertebral body. Neural arch is supplied by blood vessels

enter transverse process, branching towards spinous processes

foramina to vertebral veins on the surface posterior vertebral body

2) Lymph flow

In the bone marrow there are no lymph flow, but the periosteum

and Havers system have lymph vessels that run along

blood vessels and distribute it to the regional lymph nodes

(Certain areas).

3) Persyararfan
 In Humans, especially in the spinal cord is the link

between the brain and the body. In the spinal cord there are 31 nerves in

call the spinal cord. In addition to the spinal cord, the nerves are also available at:

a. Innervation in the facial bones

• supraorbital foramen disarafi by nerve Supraorbitalis

• infraorbital foramen disarafi by infra-orbital nerve

• os mentalist disarafi by nerve mentalist

• Incisor fossa foramina disarafi by nerve Nasopalatimus

• os maxilla disarafi by nerve maxilaris

• mandibular foramen disarafi by the inferior alveolar nerve

• os zygomatikum disarafi by infra-orbital nerve

• The external auditory meatus disarafi by nerve vestibulokoklearis

Image Layout Neural On Face

b. Innervation in bone ekstermitas top

• scapula disarafi by the dorsal scapular nerve, nerve

supraskapularis and subscapular nerve

• thoracic disarafi by thoracic longus nerve, nerve pectoralis

the medial nerve Torakodorsalis and lateral pectoral nerves.

 • clavicle disarafi by nerve supraclavicularis

• humerus disarafi by the axillary nerve and musculocutaneous nerve

• Radius disarafi by the radial nerve

• ulna disarafi by the ulnar nerve

• Karpal disarafi by the posterior interosseous nerve

c. Innervation in bone below ekstermitas

• Illium disarafi by ilioinguinal nerve.

• The obturator foramen disarafi by the obturator nerve

• F emur disarafi by nerve femoral nerve and sciatic nerve

• tibia disarafi by the tibial nerve

• fibula disarafi by nerve fibularis

• tarsal disarafi by fibularis deep nerve and nerve fibularis

superficial

• phālanges disarafi by plantar nerve and the medial plantar nerve

lateralis

2.4 Nature of Dynamic Bone

2.4.1 Exercise Effects On Bone

While it may seem hard as stone, bone actually is a network

vibrant and dynamic, constantly undergoing a process of regeneration is known

as remodeling. Bone is composed of a protein matrix, which is embedded in

the minerals such as calcium and phosphorus make hard bone. The process of

remodeling followed a cycle. In the first stage of the cycle, a process of

resorption where

bone cells break down and undergo demineralization. After that, other cells in

the bone will experience remineralization and rebuild bone in the process

which is called formation. All of this does not happen overnight. remodeling cycle

it usually takes many months, and at any given time, there are areas

in the same particular bone is being resorbed, while other areas

in its formative stage.

 The pressure to sustain the weight and burden of mechanical traction

occurs when muscle contraction during exercise, stimulates bone remodeling process.

Around the period of puberty (for about 2 years), bone mineral density

reached more than a quarter of the total bone mineral density, and

approximately 95% of bone mass is reached at the end of adolescence. Therefore, this

constitute windows of opportunity to increase bone mass. Studies

shows that high-intensity exercise, exercise endurance and

sports activities before and during puberty is the most effective time

to build strong bones. Activities that involve jumping will

very useful. Thus, an important key to help ensure

their strong bones for life, is to maximize density

bone mineral during puberty during adolescence and early adulthood. The

trick, by encouraging the participation of young people to participate in various

activities regular physical exercise.

Peak bone mass, usually occurs in the third decade of life. After

period, the rate of bone resorption and formation are relatively stable. But when in his 40s

years, resorption began to outpace the rate of formation and began to decline

bone mass. The average age of menopause is around 50 years, and this marks the moment

when women lose bone mass very quickly.

Level speed bone loss associated with hormone decline

circulating estrogen. Estrogen inhibits the activity of cells that break down /

bone resorption. However, with decreasing menopause when estrogen levels,

the activity of the cells that break down bone is not impeded. As a result, the rate of resorption

increased bone while the rate of bone formation can not keep pace

bone resorption. It often ends with a sharp drop in the mass

bone during menopause.

Fortunately, the sport seems to have a positive effect on bone mass during

adulthood. Most research on the relationship between sport and density

bone mineral, performed on women because women have a greater risk for

suffered a fracture with age, compared to men. Studies

showed that endurance exercise you do, whether walking, jogging,

or running, tend to have a positive impact on bone mass. And this seems to be

true for women before and after menopause.

 Progressive resistance training using the lift load

hips and back, may be more effective to build mineral density

bone in premenopausal and postmenopausal women. In young women, training

progressively and running endurance increases in bone mineral density

the lower back. And although it has not been much research on men regard

This, predicted a similar effect was also experienced by men.

The main message from this study is that weight training and endurance training

progressively, can help protect the health and strength of your bones,

irrespective of age and gender. For adults, American College of

Sports Medicine recommends a combination of weight training almost every day, and

Progressive resistance exercise 2-3 times per week. By applying a workout on

Bone, increased enzyme activity in bone and density, strength, and

the amount of bone is also increasing, in addition to preventing bone loss. Surface

Bone will grow stronger with the pull of the muscles continuously.

2.4.2 Effects Nutrition and Hormones

Nutrients and hormones is associated with bone remodeling process.

Relating to nutrition, Turns caloric intake is an important factor in

strengthen bones. Some athletes, particularly women involved in sport

endurance such as running, or sports where leanness is considered ideal as

dancing and gymnastics, restricting calorie intake while still training and competing

with a high intensity.

Body adjust to the lack of calories, and these athletes

may have a very stable body weight, despite consuming intake

low in calories. But the physiological burden to the state, it is very high. calorie

precious consumed, used to meet energy needs for

practice and compete. Unfortunately, this means there is not enough calories left to

support other normal physiological function. Reproductive functions often become

victims of calorie intake is too low. Often, these athletes stop

stop ovulating and menstruating. Maybe first it seemed

sebgai something fun, but very bad effect on bone.

Menstruation stops, because the hormones involved in the reproductive function,

such as estrogen, their numbers are declining because the body is deprived of calories for
forming estrogen. However, just as in those of menopause, when

taking estrogen effects as a barrier to the cells that break down bone, suddenly

far exceeding the rate of bone resorption rate of bone formation. While

exceeded the number of menstrual cycles increasing, mineral density

bone continued to decline which causes bones to become weak. In fact, women

who are physically active but have irregular menstrual cycles, have

the risk of stress fractures 2-4 times greater than women with cycles

regular menstruation.

Fortunately, menstrual cycles and normal reproductive function, can

restored by increasing the calories available, and this can normalize

bone remodeling process. So, the first order is to increase the availability of

calories. Do this by either increasing caloric intake, reduced exercise,

or a combination of both. Whatever approach is taken to improve

availability of calories to support normal physiological function, maintain

until the menstrual cycle becomes normal again and continue to continue the current practice

and compete.

In addition to increase the intake of calories, make sure that provide essential nutrients

More needed to support optimal bone remodeling,

including calcium, vitamin D, and protein. According to American College of Sports

Medicine, the daily amount needed to build bone is 1,000-

1,300 mg of calcium and 400-800 IU of vitamin D. Dairy products are a good source of calcium

and vitamin D is good. For example, a glass of milk provides about 300 mg

calcium and 100 IU of vitamin D. A serving of yogurt provides about 300 mg of calcium

and 80 IU of vitamin D. Other products are rich in calcium are cheese, frozen yogurt, ice

cream and tofu (provides about 150 mg of calcium per serving). If there are restrictions

intake of dairy products, calcium supplements and vitamin D may be needed for

consistently achieves optimal intake for bone health.

Daily recommendation for protein to support strong bones is

0.5-0.7 grams per lb (1.2 to 1.6 grams per kg) body weight. This is equivalent to approximately 63-88

grams of protein per day for an athlete weighing 125 - pound (57 kg). intake

protein most athletes is approximately the amount, although vegetarian athletes

may need extra attention to ensure adequate intake of protein

 they. Finally, another nutrient important in the process of bone remodeling is

vitamin C, vitamin K, zinc, copper, and manganese. Thus, taking

a wide variety of foods will help ensure the adequacy of various kinds

nutrients needed for bone health.

The following translation Genetic factors and hormones that affect

Bone Growth:

a. Hereditary (genetic)

Child's height in general depend on the parents, children

from a high of parents usually have a high body too.

b. endocrine factor

• Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) opposite one another in

maintain blood calcium levels. PTH secretion occurs by means of:

o Stimulate osteoclasts, bone and release calcium reapsobsi

into the blood.

o Stimulates the absorption of calcium and phosphate from the intestines.

• Tirokalsitonin, a hormone produced by cells parafolikuler

of the thyroid gland, the way it works inhibiting bone resorption.

• The growth hormone in the anterior pituitary produces important

for proliferation (multiply) normally from vulnerable

epifisealis to maintain the normal height of

someone.

• Tiroksi responsible for proper bone growth,

bone remodeling and bone maturity.

• HGH (Human Growth Hormone), issued by the gland

pituitary. The more mature the amount of this hormone on the wane

• Estrogen: prevent the reform process of bone by osteoclasts.

 • progesterone: Estrogen hormone therapy is not recommended

separated from the hormone progesterone therapy. Indeed estrogen

reduces bone turnover, but not increase

the formation of new bone. As a result, the muscles that are old and

damaged due to physical labor, not refurbished. That's necessary

progesterone, a hormone that plays an important role in the formation of

new bone. A penilitian known that progesterone

bound in osteoblasts, the cells that make new bone, and

help osteoblasts counteract the negative effects of drugs

containing steroids.

Skeleton As Backup 2.4.3 Calcium

Framework is composed of bones. Inside there are different bone mineral

such as calcium, potassium, and sodium. Calcium (lime) is the major mineral

forming bone. As mineral reserves, skeletal keep a backup

energy in the form of fat stored in the yellow bone marrow.

Calcium is the most abundant mineral in the body

human. Approximately 99% of calcium contained in the hard tissue that is on the bone

and teeth. 1% calcium present in the blood and soft tissues. Without calcium

1% of this, will be impaired muscle contraction, blood will be difficult to freeze,

nerve transmission is interrupted, and so on.

1% To meet this need, the body takes from food

edible or off the bone. When food is eaten yanag can not meet

needs, then the body will take it from the bones. So the bone can

said to be the body's calcium reserves. If this is the case in the time

long, then the bone will experience bone loss.

2.4.4 Fracture Healing Process

Fracture Healing in outline consists of two processes, namely the combination of

intermembranous and endochondral. Endochondral process begins when the periosteum

torn when a fracture occurs, while in the process of intramembranous begins

form soft callus to hard callus.

 Here's Healing Process Fracture / Fracture, based Apley &

Solomon (1995: 240), is as follows:

- hematoma formation

This phase begins after the fracture until day 5 of bleeding, the

The first 24 hours of blood and fibrin which is formed into the fracture area after 24

The first hour, increased blood supply to the area of the fracture and

formed a hematoma. Hematoma developed into granulation tissue.

- Cell proliferation

Stage / process was not until day 12. In the area of the fracture, periosteum

endosteum and bone marrow that supply the cells, transformed into fibro cartilage,

hialan cartilage and supporting tissue, fibrous occurrence of osteogenesis by

fast.

- Callus Formation Stage

Six to ten days after the fracture / injury, granulation tissue change

to form prakalus, prakalus be the highlight of a maximum size at 14-21

days after the injury.

- Phase ossification Callus

This callus ossification stages occur until week twelve. shape

ossification and callus intermediate in week 3 to 10 cover the bone callus.

- Consolidation phase

With the activity of osteoblasts and osteoclasts, the bone callus formation experience

according to the original form

- phase Remodeling

When the union was complete, the new bone will form

that resemble bulbous portion which covers the bone. In this remodeling phase

slowly - land resorption occurs. Callus intermediates turn into bone

compact and contains system haversian and callus inside will experience

peronggaan to form susmsum. In this last phase, beginning of week

to 8-12 and ended up a couple of years of the occurrence of fractures.

 Pictures of Fracture Healing Process

2.4.5 Aging Bone System

Aging is unavoidable consequences. Age (being

old) is a process of gradual disappearance of network capabilities

Due to improved self / replace and maintain normal function

so it can not withstand the infection and repair damage

suffered.

The process of aging is not a disease, but rather a period or

stage of human life, namely; infant, child, adult, elderly, and elderly. Process

aging can lead to reduced endurance in the face

stimuli from both inside and outside the body. Nevertheless, it should be

recognized that there are various diseases that often plague the elderly.

Actually there is no clear boundary, at what age a person's appearance began

decreased. In each person, the physiological function of the body is very different tool, well

in terms of achievement of peak and decline.

Many factors lead to everyone becoming parents through the process

aging. Basically, these factors can be grouped into

internal factors and external factors. Some of the internal factors are free radicals,

declining hormone levels, immune system decline and also

genetic factors. While external factors are unhealthy lifestyle, diet

unhealthy, wrong habits, exposure to environmental pollutants and rays

ultraviolet, stress and other social causes such as poverty. Both of these factors

interrelated and play a major role in the cause of the aging process.
 In bone characteristic physical change is a change in the structure and function

varies among individuals during the aging process. Significant changes

occurred from middle age. Generally run private physiological changes are:

- Decrease height of about 6-10 cm.

- Shoulder width decreases.

- Flexion of the knee and hip.

- Compression fractures of vertebrae.

- Road faltering because of changes in muscle and motor functions.

- Reduced muscle as well and diameter.

- The amount of mineral in the bone is reduced.

- Reduced bone formation

- Increased bone resorption.

- Tendons and connective tissue to grow stiff

- Joint cartilage thinner

The changes are clinically manifested by the presence of:

- Strength reduced.

- Tend to fracture (osteoporosis)

- Stiff joints and tend inflammation

- Bone resorption occurs

Bone resorption is a process of degradation of bone matrix by

osteoclasts. Inidapat bone resorption said also a process of destruction

bone by osteoclasts that impact on pengeluaranisi or materials

forming a bone matrix. The osteoclasts are similar to macrophages

Special're ditulang. The process of bone resorption is intended to regulate

levels of calcium in the body and stages in bone remodeling or

renewal of damaged bone matrix. Interestingly, this process is set

by berbagaimacam supporting components (initiator) and a resistor

(Inhibitors). Both of these components's interest so that bone resorption may occur

under normal circumstances so as not to cause problems in our body.

As a result of resorption also cause a decrease in bone mass.

- Hormone Function Decline

Estrogen is a hormone that is produced steroid class in

woman. This hormone berperandalam regulate a woman's menstrual cycle.

apart role in the field of reproduction, estrogen berperandalam set the

bone, ie to inhibit bone resorption. Therefore the

woman who has experienced the menopause, when hormone levels

rapid decrease of production, so it will happen quickly degradasitulang

causing loss in bone is usually called osteoporosis.Dilihat

of the causes of this disease, we can not assume with increasing

levels of calcium intake is a bone-forming structure can

treat this disease. The problem of this disease adalahmeningkatnya

activity of osteoclasts in bone calcium levels is not a lack of self

Osteoporosis can lead to easily broken bones, usually occurs

in the spine which causes the body pembungkukkan

as well as back pain due to nerve depressed, and pelvis

cause abnormalities in the regulation of body weight that occurs

difficulty in walking

In addition, decreased levels of HGH, also affected. Because

only the remaining 25% is left on the HGH hormone person aged

65 years. While the hormone bones need to process

physiological lifetime.

2.5 Disruption of Bones

1. Frame Bone Diseases Damaging

a. osteoporosis

Osteoporosis is a disorder of bone health

kurangannya caused by calcium (calcium) in the body. this disease

lead to easily broken bones or cracked. Usually this disease attacks

lanjut.Untuk-old women to prevent osteoporosis, it is recommended

to eat foods that are good for bones as foods containing

vitamin D and calcium. Raw foods contain vitamin D and

calcium present in milk and fish.

b. Polio

Patients on polio have paralysis that causes bones

shrink, the disease can be prevented by giving the polio vaccine at the time

under the age of five years.

c. rheumatism

Rheumatic disease is a disease that causes pain in the joints.

This disease usually affects the wrists, feet, and elbows.

d. Bone tuberculosis

Germs of tuberculosis (TB) can affect any bone, so the bone

will be weak until pus causing tremendous pain.

2. Posture

Wrong posture resulted in bad impact on form

skeletons. There is a simple framework that spinal disorders

or backbone. This follows the existing problems in the spine:

a. Lordosis, the backbone of which are bent forward.

b. Kyphosis, the backbone of which are bent backwards.

c. Scoliosis, the spine is too twisted to the right or to the left.

3. Abnormalities or disturbances in bone resulting from accident

a. Fractures (broken bones), continuity bone dissolution were determined according to the type of

and a wide crack or break in the bone intact.

b. Dislocation, detachment ends of the bones of the joints

4. Infection

Disorders of the bone caused by an infection, namely:

a. Exudative arthritis. As a result of inflammation of the lining of the joints.

b. Arthritis sika. As a result of oil shortage synovial (lubricating joints)

 CHAPTER III CONCLUSIONS

AND RECOMMENDATIONS

3.1 Conclusion

Bone is a connective tissue composed of cells, fibers and matrix

Extracellular. The main function of bone as a rigid body frame, and

provide attachment for muscles and organs contained in the body

someone. There are five types of measures of bone in the human body: long, short,

flat, irregular, and sesamoid. Bone structure is divided into two, namely order

axial (axis of the body) and order appendicular (limb). Bone Matrix on

man consists of hard bone and cartilage.

3.2 advice

The contents of the paper and some discussion over tiadak perfect fully included,

to the authors ask the reader to be able to criticize and

Good advice. Please understand if there is a presence of some irregularities and

the imperfections of the paper. On the attention of readers, authors say

thanks.
 REFERENCES

Anonymous.----------------. Http: //uraiansehat.com/jenis-penyakit-kelainan-pada-tulang/

on October 4, 2016 at 14:56 pm.

Hairy J, 1989; Sport Physiology Volume I; Department of Education, Director General of Higher Education, Jakarta.

Shih AT. Zainalabidin Z. Bone Healing. Downloaded from http: //www.headtotoehe.mmh

althcare.org/library/Bone_Healing.pdf on October 4, 2016 at

14:56 pm.

Sridianti .----------------. Http: //www.sridianti.com/pengertian-dan-penanganan-patah-

fraktur.html bones. on October 4, 2016 at 14:56 pm.