Chapter 9

Sinusoidal Steady–State
Analysis

9.1-9.2 The Sinusoidal Source and Response

9.3 The Phasor
9.4 Impedances of Passive Elements
9.5-9.9 Circuit Analysis Techniques in the
Frequency Domain
9.10-9.11 The Transformer
9.12 Phasor Diagrams

1
Overview

 We will generalize circuit analysis from

constant to time-varying sources (Ch7-14).
 Sinusoidal sources are particularly important
because: (1) Generation, transmission,
consumption of electric energy occur under
sinusoidal conditions. (2) It can be used to
predict the behaviors of circuits with non-
sinusoidal sources.
 Need to work in the realm of complex numbers.
2
Key points

 What is the phase of a sinusoidal function?

 What is the phasor of a sinusoidal function?
 What is the phase of an impedance? What are
in-phase and quadrature?
 How to solve the sinusoidal steady-state
response by using phasor and impedance?
 What is the reflected impedance of a circuit with
transformer?

3
Section 9.1, 9.2
The Sinusoidal Source and
Response

1. Definitions
2. Characteristics of sinusoidal
response

4
 Definition

 A source producing a voltage varying

sinusoidally with time: v(t) = Vm cos(t + ).

Vm: Amplitude.
: Phase angle,
determines the
value at t = 0.

: Angular frequency, related to period T via  = 2/T.

The argument t changes 2 radians (360) in one period.
5
More on phase angle
 Change of phase angle shifts the curve along
the time axis without changing the shape
(amplitude, angular frequency).
 Positive phase (>0),  the curve is shifted
to the left by   in time, and vice versa.

Vm cos(t+)

Vm cos(t)

6
Example: RL circuit (1)

 Consider an RL circuit with zero initial current

i (t  0  )  0 and driven by a sinusoidal voltage
source vs (t )  Vm cos(t   ) :

d
 By KVL: L i  Ri  Vm cos(t   ).
dt
7
Example: RL circuit (2)

 The complete solution to the ODE and initial

condition is (verified by substitution):
i (t )  itr (t )  iss (t ),

Vm cos(   ) ( R L ) t Transient response,

itr (t )   e vanishes as t  .
R  L
2 2 2

Vm
iss (t )  cos(t     ) Steady-state response,
R 2   2 L2 lasts even t  .

  tan 1 L R .

8
Characteristics of steady-state response

 iss(t) of this example exhibits the following

characteristics of steady-state response:
Vm
iss (t )  cos(t     )
R  L
2 2 2

1. It remains sinusoidal of the same frequency as

the driving source if the circuit is linear (with
constant R, L, C values).
2. The amplitude differs from that of the source.
3. The phase angle differs from that of the source.
9
Purpose of Chapter 9

 Directly finding the steady-state response

without solving the differential equation.
 According to the characteristics of steady-state
response, the task is reduced to finding two real
numbers, i.e. amplitude and phase angle, of the
response. The waveform and frequency of the
response are already known.
 Transient response matters in switching. It will
be dealt with in Chapters 7, 8, 12, 13.

10
Section 9.3
The Phasor

1. Definitions
2. Solve steady-state response by
phasor

11
Definition

 The phasor is a constant complex number

that carries the amplitude and phase angle
information of a sinusoidal function.
 The concept of phasor is rooted in Euler’s
identity, which relates the (complex)
exponential function to the trigonometric
functions: e  j  cos   j sin  .

   
 cos   Re e j , sin   Im e j .

12
Phasor representation

 A sinusoidal function can be represented by the

real part of a phasor times the “complex carrier”.
 
Vm cos(t   )  Vm Re e j (t  )

 Re Vm e j
e  Re V  e 
j t j t

phasor carrier
 A phasor can be represented in two forms:
1. Polar form (good for , ):
j Vm
V  Vm e  Vm ,
Imag.
2. Rectangular form (good for +, -): 
V  Vm cos   jVm sin  . real
13
Phasor transformation

 A phasor can be regarded as the “phasor

transform” of a sinusoidal function from the time
domain to the frequency domain:
  j
V  P Vm cos(t   )  Vm e .
time domain freq. domain

 The “inverse phasor transform” of a phasor is a

sinusoidal function in the time domain:

P -1V  Re Ve jt  Vm cos(t   ).

14
Time derivative  Multiplication of constant
d
Vm cos(t   )  Vm sin(t   )
Time dt
domain:  Vm cos(t    90 ),
d2
V
2 m
cos( t   )   2
Vm cos(t   ).
dt

d  j (  90 )
P  Vm cos(t   )   Vm e
Frequency  dt 
domain:   Vm e j
e j 90
 jV,
 d2 
P  2 Vm cos(t   )   ( j ) 2 V   2 V.
 dt 
15
How to calculate steady-state solution by phasor?

 Step 1: Assume that the solution is of the form:


Re Ae j
e 
j t

 Step 2: Substitute the proposed solution into the

differential equation. The common time-varying
factor e jt of all terms will cancel out, resulting in
two algebraic equations to solve for the two
unknown constants {A, }.

16
Example: RL circuit (1)

 Q: Given vs (t )  Vm cos(t   ), calculate iss(t).

Assume
iss (t )  I m cos(t   ).
d
 L iss (t )  Riss (t )
dt
 Vm cos(t   ),

 L I m cos(t   )  RI m cos(t   )  Vm cos(t   ),

d
dt
 LI m sin(t   )  RI m cos(t   )  Vm cos(t   ),
17
Example: RL circuit (2)

 By cosine convention:
 LI m cos(t    90 )  RI m cos(t   )  Vm cos(t   ),

 Re LI m e j (   90 )
    
e jt  Re RI m e j e jt  Re Vm e j e jt ,
    
 Re jLIe jt  Re RIe jt  Re Ve jt ,
 Re jL  R Ie   ReVe  .
j t j t

 A necessary condition is:

 j L  R  I e j t
 Ve j t
,   jL  R  I  V.

18
Example: RL circuit (3)

 A more convenient way is directly transforming

the ODE from time to frequency domain:
d
L iss (t )  Riss (t )  Vm cos(t   ),
dt
 L j I  RI  V ,  jL  R I  V.

 The solution can be obtained by one complex (i.e.

two real) algebraic equation:
j
V j V e
I , i.e. I m e  m .
jL  R jL  R
19
Section 9.4
Impedances of The Passive
Circuit Elements

1. Generalize resistance to impedance

2. Impedances of R, L, C
3. In phase & quadrature

20
What is the impedance?

 For a resistor, the ratio of voltage v(t) to the

current i(t) is a real constant R (Ohm’s law):
v (t )
R . …resistance
i (t )

 For two terminals of a linear circuit driven by

sinusoidal sources, the ratio of voltage phasor V
to the current phasor I is a complex constant Z:
V
Z  . …impedance
I
21
The i-v relation and impedance of a resistor

 i(t) and v(t) reach the peaks simultaneously (in

phase),  impedance Z = R is real.

22
The i-v relation and impedance of an inductor (1)

 Assume i (t )  I m cos(t  i )
d
 v (t )  L i (t )
dt
 L I m sin(t  i )
 LI m cos(t  i  90 ).
 By phasor transformation:
V  L  jI
V
 Z   jL.
I
23
The i-v relation and impedance of an inductor (2)

 v(t) leads i(t) by T/4 (+90 phase, i.e. quadrature)

 impedance Z = jL is purely positive imaginary.
d
v(t )  L i (t )
dt

24
The i-v relation and impedance of an capacitor (1)

d V 1
i (t )  C v(t ). I  C  j V ,  Z   .
dt I jC

25
The i-v relation and impedance of a capacitor (2)

 v(t) lags i(t) by T/4 (-90 phase, i.e. quadrature)

 impedance Z  1  jC  is purely negative
imaginary.

26
More on impedance

 Impedance Z is a complex number in units of

Ohms.
 Impedance of a “mutual” inductance M is jM.
 ReZ   R, ImZ   X are called resistance and
reactance, respectively.
 Although impedance is complex, it’s not a
phasor. In other words, it cannot be transformed
into a sinusoidal function in the time domain.

27
Section 9.5-9.9
Circuit Analysis Techniques
in the Frequency Domain

28
Summary

 All the DC circuit analysis techniques:

1. KVL, KCL;
2. Series, parallel, -Y simplifications;
3. Source transformations;
4. Thévenin, Norton equivalent circuits;
5. NVM, MCM;
are still applicable to sinusoidal steady-state
analysis if the voltages, currents, and passive
elements are replaced by the corresponding
phasors and impedances. 29
KVL, KCL
n
 KVL: v1 (t )  v2 (t )    vn (t )   vq (t )  0,
q 1

 
n n
 Vmq cos(t   q )   Re Vmq e
j ( t  q )

q 1 q 1

n

  Re Vmq e q
j
 jt
e  0,
 q 1 
V1  V2  ...  Vn  0.
 KCL: i1(t) + i2(t) +… + in(t) = 0, 
I1  I 2  ...  I n  0.
30
Equivalent impedance formulas

 Impedances in series

Z ab   Z j
j

 Impedances in parallel

1 1

Z ab j Z j

31
Example 9.6: Series RLC circuit (1)

 Q: Given vs(t)=750 cos(5000t+30),  i(t)=?

Z L  jL  j (5000)(32 10 3 )  j160 ,


 1 1
Z C  j   j 40 ,
 j C 6
(5000)(5 10 )
V  75030 V,
 s
32
Example 9.6: Series RLC circuit (2)

Z ab  90  j160  j 40  90  j120
 90 2  120 2  tan 1 (120 90)  15053.13 ,
Vs 75030 V
I   5  23 . 13
A,
Z ab 15053.13 


 i (t )  5 cos(5000t  23.13 ) A.
33
Thévenin equivalent circuit

 Terminal voltage phasor and current phasor are

the same by using either configuration.

34
Example 9.10 (1)

 Q: Find the Thévenin circuit for terminals a, b.

 Apply source transformation to {120V, 12, 60}

twice to get a simplified circuit.
35
 Example 9.10 (2)

100  (10  j 40  120)I  10Vx ,  (130  j 40)I  10Vx  100 (1)

Vx  100  10I  ( 2)
36
Example 9.10 (3)

 900
I  18  126.87 A,
30  j 40
VTh  10(100  10I)  120I  835.22  20.17 V.
37
Example 9.10 (4)
VT
Ia 
 j 40  (12 // 60)
VT
 ,
10  j 40
Vx  (12 // 60)I a  10I a ,
VT  10Vx
Ib  ,
120

VT  100I a I a VT 1 VT VT
IT  I a  I b  I a      ,
120 6 120 6 10  j 40 120
Z Th  VT IT  91.2  j 38.4 .
38
Section 9.10, 9.11
The Transformer

1. Linear transformer, reflected

impedance
2. Ideal transformer

39
Summary

 A device based on magnetic coupling.

 Linear transformer is used in communication
circuits to (1) match impedances, and (2)
eliminate dc signals.
 Ideal transformer is used in power circuits to
establish ac voltage levels.
 MCM is used in transformer analysis, for the
currents in various coils cannot be written by
inspection as functions of the node voltages.

40
Analysis of linear transformer (1)

 Consider two coils wound around a single core

(magnetic coupling):

 +
+ 

Z11
Mesh current  Vs  ( Z s  R1  jL1 )I1  jMI 2 ,

equations: 0   jMI1  ( R2  jL2  Z L )I 2 .
Z22 41
Analysis of linear transformer (2)

Z 22 jM jM
 I1  Vs , I 2  I1  Vs .
Z11Z 22   M
2 2
Z 22 Z11Z 22   M
2 2

Zint Z11 Z22

Vs Z11Z 22   2 M 2 2M 2
 Z int    Z11  .
I1 Z 22 Z 22
42
 Input impedance of the primary coil

Zint

Zab

2M 2 2M 2
Z ab  Z int  Z s  R1  jL1   Z r , Z r   .
Z 22 R2  jL2  Z L
 Zr is the equivalent impedance of the secondary
coil and load due to the mutual inductance.
 Zab = ZS is needed to prevent power reflection.
43
Reflected impedance
2
 M
2 2
 M
2 2
 M  *
Zr   *
Z    Z 22 .
Z 22 *
Z 22 Z 22
22 Z 
 22 

Z22

 Linear transformer reflects (Z22)* into the

primary coil by a scalar multiplier (M/|Z22|)2.
44
Example 9.13 (1)
 Q: Find the Thévenin circuit for terminals c, d.
I2
c

VTh = Vcd. Since I2 = 0,  Vcd = I1jM, where

Vs 3000
I1    79.67  79.29 A.
Z11 (500  j100)  ( 200  j 3600)

 VTh  (79.67  79.29 )  ( j1200)  95.610.71 V.

45
Example 9.13 (2)

c
Short ZTh
Z11
d

 ZTh = (100+j1600) + Zr, where Zr is the reflected

impedance of Z11 due to the transformer:
Z11  (500  j100)  ( 200  j 3600)  700  j 3700  .
2 2
 M  *  1200 
Z r    Z11  

 (700  j 3700),
 700  j 3700 
 Z 11   
Z Th  (100  j1600)  Z r  171.09  j1224.26  .
46
Characteristics of ideal transformer

 An ideal transformer consists of two

magnetically coupled coils with N1 and N2 turns,
respectively. It exhibits three properties:
1. Magnetic field is perfectly confined within the
magnetic core,  magnetic coupling coefficient
is k = 1,  M  L1 L2 .
2. The self-inductance of each coil Li  N i2  is
large, i.e. L1 = L2  .
3. The coil loss is negligible: R1 = R2  .
47
Current ratio
L1L2

 By solving the two mesh equations of a general

linear transformer: if L2 >> |ZL|
I1 Z 22 jL2  Z L L2 N 2
     .
I 2 jM j L1L2 L1 N1
48
Voltage ratio
L1L2

+ +
V1 V2
 

jM  V1  jL1I1  jMI 2 ,

 Substitute I 2  I1 into 
Z 22  V2  Z L I 2 .
jL2 + ZL
V1 Z 22  jL1    2 M 2 L1 L1 N1
     .
V2 jMZ L M L2 N 2
49
Input impedance
L1L2

+ +
V1 V2
Zin
 

 By the current and voltage ratios, in-phase

2 2
Z ab V1 I1 V1 I 2  N1   N1 
     ,  Z in  Z ab    Z L .
Z L V2 I 2 V2 I1  N 2   N2 
2
 N1 
 For lossy transformer,  Z ab  R1    R2  Z L .
 N2  50
Polarity of the voltage and current ratios

51
 Example 9.14 (1)
 Q: Find v1, i1, v2, i2.
Zs
ZL

2500
cos(400t)

52
Example 9.14 (2)

25000  (0.25  j 2)I1  V1  (1)

V2  (0.2375  j 0.05)I 2 ,
   V1  (23.75  j 5)I1  (2)
V1  10V2 , I 2  10I1 , 
25000
( 2)  (1) : I1   100  16.26 , i1  100 cos( 400t  16.26 ).
24  j 7
By (2) : V1  ( 23.75  j5)(100  16.26 )  2427  4.37 , v1  
53
Section 9.12
Phasor Diagrams

54
Definition

 Graphical representation of -7-j3 = 7.62-156.8

on the complex-number plane.

 Without calculation, we can anticipate a

magnitude >7, and a phase in the 3rd quadrant.
55
 Example 9.15 (1)

 Q: Use a phasor diagram to find the value of R

that will cause iR to lag the source current is by
45° when  = 5 krad/s.

j1 -j0.25

Vm Vm Vm
IL   Vm  90 , IC 

 4Vm90 , I R 

 Vm0.
j1  j 0.25 R
56
Example 9.15 (2)

 By KCL, Is = IL + IC + IR. Addition of the 3 current

phasors can be visualized by vector summation
on a phase diagram:

To make Is = 45,

j3Vm IR = 3Vm,
 R = 1/3 .

57
Key points

 What is the phase of a sinusoidal function?

 What is the phasor of a sinusoidal function?
 What is the phase of an impedance? What are
in-phase and quadrature?
 How to solve the sinusoidal steady-state
response by using phasor and impedance?
 What is the reflected impedance of a circuit with
transformer?

58