Chapter IV

COMBINATORICS

Problem nr. 135

Consider a 1 × n rectangle and some tiles of size 1 × 1 of four different colours. The rectangle is
tiled in such a way that no two neighboring square tiles have the same colour.
a) Find the number of distinct symmetrical tilings.
b) Find the number of tilings such that any consecutive square tiles have distinct colours.
Dan Brânzei, 2002
Problem nr. 136
1
A square of side 1 is decomposed into 9 equal squares of sides and the one in the center is
3
painted black. The remaining eight squares are analogously divided into nine squares each, and
squares in the centres are painted in black.
Prove that after 1000 steps the total area of the black region exceeds 0.999.
Cristinel Mortici, Costel Chiteş, 2002

Problem nr. 137

A given equilateral triangle of side 10 is divided into 100 equilateral triangles of side 1 by drawing
parallel lines to the sides of the original triangle.
Find the number of equilateral triangles, having vertices in the intersection points of parallel lines
whose sides he on the parallel lines.
Dinu Şerbănescu, 2002
Problem nr. 138
Show that one can color all the points of a plane using only two colors such that no line segment
has all points of the same color.
Valentin Vorniciu, 2003
Problem nr. 139
Consider a cube and let M, N be two of its vertices. Assign the number 1 to these vertices and 0 to
the other six vertices. We are allowed to select a vertex and to increase with a unit the numbers
assigned to the 3 adjacent vertices – call this a movement.
Prove that there is a sequence of movements after which all the numbers assigned to the vertices of
the cube became equal if and only if MN is not a diagonal of a face of the cube.
Marius Ghergu, Dinu Şerbănescu, 2004

75
 Problem nr. 140
An array 8 × 8 consists of 64 unit squares. Inside each square are written the numbers 1 or –1 so
that in any 2 × 2 subarray the sum of the four numbers equals 2 or –2. Prove that there exist two rows
of the array which are equal.
Marius Ghergu, 2004
Problem nr. 141
In a chess tournament each of the players have played with all the others two games, one time with
the white pieces and then with the black pieces. In each game the winners sets one point and both
players receive 0.5 points if the game ends with draw. At the end of the tournament, all the players end
with the same number of points.
a) Prove that there are two players with the same number of draws.
b) Prove that there are two players with the same number of losses when playing the white.
Marius Ghergu, 2004
Problem nr. 142
A regular polygon with 1000 sides has the vertices colored in red, yellow or blue. A move consists
in choosing to adjacent vertices colored differently and coloring them in the third color. Prove that
there is a sequence of moves after which all the vertices of the polygon will have the same color.
Marius Ghergu, 2004
Problem nr. 143
A country has six cities with airports and two rival flight companies. Any two cities are connected by
flights so that on each route between two cities one may travel with exactly one of the two flight com-
panies. Prove that you can visit 4 cities in a cycle flying with the same air company (that is, there exist
four cities A, B, C, D and a company which operates on the routes A ↔ B, B ↔ C, C ↔ D and D ↔ A).
Dan Schwarz, 2005
Problem nr. 144
A phone company starts a new type of customer service. A new client can choose k phone numbers
in this network which are call-free – regardless if is called or if calling. A group of n students decide to
take advantage of this promotion.
• Show that if n ≥ 2k + 2 then there will exist 2 students which will be charged when speaking.
• Show that if n = 2k + 1 then there exists a way of arranging the free calls so that in this group
everybody speaks free to anyone else.
Valentin Vornicu, 2005
Problem nr. 145
The positive integers from 1 to n2 are placed arbitrarily on squares of an n × n chessboard. Two
squares are called adjacent if they have a common side. Show that two opposite corner squares can be
joined by a path of 2n – 1 adjacent squares so that the sum of the numbers places on them is at least
 n3  2
  + n − n +1 .
2
Radu Gologan, 2005

76
 Problem nr. 146
An 7 × 7 array is divided in 49 unit squares. Find all integers n ∈ N* for which n checkers can be
placed on the unit squares so that each row and each line have an even number of checkers.
(0 is an even number, so there may exist empty rows or columns. A square may be occupied by at
most 1 checker.)
Dinu Şerbănescu, 2006
Problem nr. 147
A rectangular cardboard is divided successively into smaller pieces by a straight cut; at each step,
only one single piece is divided in two. Find the smallest number of cuts required in order to obtain –
among others – 251 polygons with 11 sides.
Marian Andronache, 2007

Problem nr. 148

Consider a n × n array divided into unit squares which are randomly colored in black or white.
Three of the four comer squares are colored in white and the fourth is colored in black. Prove that
there exists a 2 × 2 square which contains an odd number of white squares.
Lidia Ilie, 2007
Problem nr. 149
Consider the numbers from 1 to 16. A solitaire game is played in the following manner: the
numbers are paired and each pair is replaced by the greatest prime divisor of the sum of the numbers
in that pair – for example, (1, 2); (3, 4); (5, 6); …; (15, 16) produces the sequence 3, 7, 11, 5, 19, 23, 3,
31. The game continues similarly until one single number is left. Find the greatest possible value of
the number which ends the game.
Adrian Stoica, 2007
Problem nr. 150
Eight persons attend a party, and each participant has at most three others to whom he/she cannot
speak. Show that the persons can be grouped in 4 pairs so that each pair can converse.
Mihai Bălună, 2007
Problem nr. 151
A set of points is called free if there is no equilateral triangle whose vertices are among the points
in the set. Show that any set of n points in the plane contains a free subset of at least n points.
Călin Popescu, 2007

Problem nr. 152

A 8 × 8 square board is divided into 64 unit squares. A “skew-diagonal” of the board is a set of 8
unit squares with the property that each row or column of the board contains only one unit square of
the set. Checkers are placed in some of the unit squares so that each “skew-diagonal” has exactly 2
squares occupied by checkers. Prove that there exist two rows or two columns which contain all the
checkers.
Dinu Serbănescu, 2007

77
 Problem nr. 153
To obtain a square P of side length 2 cm divided into 4 unit squares it is sufficient to draw 3
squares: P and another 2 unit squares with a common vertex, as shown below:

Find the minimum number of squares sufficient to obtain a square of side length n cm divided into
n unit squares (n ≥ 3 is an integer).
2

* * *, 2009
Problem nr. 154
The plane is divided into a net of equilateral triangles of side length 1, with disjoint interiors. A
checker is placed initially inside a triangle. The checker can be moved into another triangle sharing a
common vertex (with the triangle hosting the checker) and having the opposite sides (with respect to
this vertex) parallel. A path consists in a finite sequence of moves. Prove that there is no path between
two triangles sharing a common side.
Vasile Pop, 2009
Problem nr. 155
Show that there exist (at least) a rearrangement a0, a1, a2, …, a63 of the numbers 0, 1, 2, …, 63,
such that ai – aj ≠ aj – ak, for any i < j < k ∈ {0, 1, 2, …, 63}.
* * *, 2009

78
 Chapter IV

COMBINATORICS

Solution to problem nr. 135

a) If n = 2k, there are no such symmetrical tilings (otherwise the k and k + 1 tiles must have the
same colour).
⋅ 3
If n = 2k + 1, the problem is to count the possible tilings for k + 1 squares. There are 4 ⋅ 3

⋅ ...

 ⋅3 =
= 4 ⋅ 3k such tilings.
b) There are 4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2

⋅ 2
⋅ ...

⋅ 2 = 4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2n–2 tilings.

Solution to problem nr. 136

2
1 1
The first step give rise to one black square of area   = . After the second step we obtain eight
3 9
1 8
more squares of side , the black region increasing thus by 2 . In the same manner, the third step
9 9
1
increases the black area by 82 = 64 black squares, each of area , that is at this stage the black area
27
becomes
1 8 82
+ + .
9 9 2 93
We conclude that after 1000 steps, the area of the black region is
8999 1  8  8   8  
2 999
1 8 82
+ + + ... + 1000 = 1 + +   + ... +   =
9 9 2 93 9 9  9  9   9  
1000
8
1−   1000
8
= ⋅  
1 9
=1−   .
9 8 9
1−
9
It is left to prove that the last number is greater than 0.001. This easy follows by using a binomial
expansion evaluation, that is
1000 1000
9  1 1000  1 1000 ⋅ 999
  = 1 +  >   ⋅ 2 = > 1000 ,
8  8  2  8 2 ⋅ 64
the proof being complete.

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 Solution to problem nr. 137
Let us consider the general case, that is to consider the number an of equilateral triangles formed by
division in n segments. We shall find a recurrence relation.
Consider an equilateral triangle with sides partitioned into n + 1 equal segments and draw the n
parallels to each side of the given triangle. We will count all triangles with at least one vertex on BC;
the remaining ones are triangles counted in an.
Consider first the triangles that have two vertices on BC. When choosing two division points on
BC, one counts exactly one triangle, namely that one obtained by drawing parallels from Mi, Ni to AB,
(n + 2)(n + 1)
AC respectively. Hence we add new triangles.
2
Considering triangles with only one vertex on BC, observe that for any point of division, inside the
side BC, we count one triangle of side 1, one triangle of side 2, and so on. Hence we add n + (n – 2) +
+ (n – 4) + … triangles with one side on BC. It follows that we have
( n + 2)(n + 1)
an+1 = an + + n + ( n − 2) + ( n − 4) + …
2
Changing n with n + 1, we get
(n + 3)(n + 2)
an+2 = an+1 + + (n + 1) + (n − 1) + (n − 3) = …
2
Adding up, we obtain
( n + 2)(n + 1) (n + 3)(n + 2) (n + 1)(n + 2) (n + 2)(3n + 5)
an + 2 = an + + + = an + .
2 2 2 5
It follows that
10(3 ⋅ 8 + 5)
a10 = a8 + = a8 + 145 = a6 + 237 = ... = a0 + 315 = 315 .
2
Therefore, the number of triangles is 315.

Solution to problem nr. 138

Choose an arbitrary point A in the plane. Points located in the plane at a rational distance from A
are colored in red, while the others are colored in blue. Consider an arbitrary segment PQ. We may
assume that AP < AQ; if not, take instead of P another point of the line segment (PQ).
Recall that between two real numbers one can find a rational number q and an irrational number r.
The circles centered at A and having the radii q and r intersect the segment PQ at the points M and N
respectively. It is obvious that M is colored in red and N in blue, so the claim is proved.

Solution to problem nr. 139

Color the 8 vertices of the cube in black or white so that the 4 vertices of the 2 regular tetrahedrons
have the same color; notice that the 3 vertices adjacent to a vertex have its opposite color. Therefore,
each movement increases the sum of the numbers assigned to the vertices sharing the same color by 3.
Consider the cases:
1) MN is a diagonal of a face of the cube. Then M and N have the same color, say black. Assume
by contradiction that there is a sequence of movements after which the same number n is assigned to
all vertices. Let k1 and k2 be the number of white, respectively black vertices that were selected to
perform the movements. Then
80
 4n = 3k1 + 2 = 3k2,
a contradiction.
2) MN is a diagonal of the cube. Selecting the vertices M, then N, and performing these 2
movements, to all the vertices the number 1 will be assigned, as needed.
3) MN is a side of the cube. The same outcome as in the previous case will occur after 2 movements
when selecting the diagonally opposite vertices of M and N.
This provides us with a full solution.

Solution to problem nr. 140

The main idea is to observe that two consecutive rows have exactly 4 equal elements, namely those
lying on the columns 1, 3, 5, 7 or 2, 4, 6, 8. Moreover, on the other 4 columns the elements are
different. Wlog, assume that rows 1 and 2 are equal with respect to the columns 1, 3, 5, 7 and different
on the column 2, 4, 6, 8; we call these rows odd equal. If rows 2 and 3 are also odd equal, then rows 1
and 3 are equal, as needed. If not, then rows 2 and 3 are even equal. Now consider the rows 3 and 4;
we are done if the rows are even equal, so assume that they are odd equal. Finally, if rows 4 and 5 are
odd equal, then rows 3 and 5 are equal, and if rows 4 and 5 are even equal, then rows 1 and 5 are
equal. This concludes the proof.

Solution to problem nr. 141

Let n be the number of players in the tournament. The total numbers of matches is n(n – 1), hence
each player end up with n – 1 points.
a) Assume by contradiction that each player has a different number of draws. As a draw gives 0.5
points, it follows that each player has an odd number of draws. Since the possible cases are: 0, 2, 4, …,
2(n – 1), we infer that each of these numbers is assigned to each of the players. Consider A the player
with 0 draws and B the player with 2(n – 1) draws. Each player has played 2(n – 1) matches, hence B
obtained a draw in each match played. The match A – B thus ended with a draw, a contradiction, since
A has no draws.
b) Suppose the contrary. Then each of the n players has 0, 1, …, n – 1 losses when playing the
white. Let X and Y be the players with 0 and n – 1 losses, respectively. The player Y has no points
when playing the white and n – 1 points, so he won all the matches with the black pieces. This implies
that the match X – Y is won by Y, so is lost by X, a contradiction, since X has 0 losses with the white
pieces.

Solution to problem
problem nr. 142
Let A1, A2, …, A1000 be the vertices of the polygon. We start with two lemmas.
Lemma 1. Three of four consecutive vertices have the same color. Then after a sequence of moves
all vertices will have the color of the fourth vertex.
Proof. Let the colors be 0, 1 and 2. We have two cases:
a) 1110 → 1122 → 1002 → 2202 → 2112 → 0000.
b) 1011 → 1221 → 0000.
Lemma 2. Any 4 consecutive vertices will turn after several moves in the same color.
Proof. Form two pairs of consecutive vertices and change them in the same color – if they do not
already have it. Then follow the sequence 1122 → 1002 → 2202 → 2112 → 0000.
By the second lemma, after several moves the vertices A1, A2, A3, A4 will have the same color, say

81
red. Likewise, A5, A6, A7, A8 will have the same color. Consider now the vertices A4, A5, A6, A7; the first
is red and the other three have the same color. By the first lemma they all will turn red – of course, we
do nothing if they were already red. We move on with this procedure until A1, A2, …, A997 turn red
(note that 997 = 4 + 3 ⋅ 332, so this requires 332 steps). Now consider the vertices A998, A999, A1000, A1;
by the second lemma they all will share the same color. If this is red, we are done. If not, say that they
are blue, and taking the vertices A997, A998, A999, A1000 we obtain – using the first lemma – all vertices to
be red, except for A1, which is blue. Now A1, A2, A3, A4 turn blue, then A5, A6, A7, A8 and so on. This
time, after 333 steps, all the 1000 vertices (1000 = 1 + 3 ⋅ 333) will be colored in blue.
Comment. Substituting colors with digits, notice that all moves: 01 → 22, 02 → 11 and 12 → 00
preserve the sum (mod 3). This means that the final color is unique and, of course, is given by the sum
of the digits assigned to the vertices of the initial configuration.

Solution to problem nr. 143

6
The number of routes between 2 cities is   = 15. By the pigeonhole principle one can find that a
 2
company – say M – operates at least 8 routes.
6  4
There are   = 15 subsets of 4 cities and each pair of cities occurs in   = 6 such subsets. Using
 4  2
again the pigeonhole principle follows that there exists a subset of 4 cities among which at least 4
routes are operated by the company M (3 ⋅ 15 < 6 ⋅ 8).
If those routes form a cycle, we are done. If else, then one can easy observe that among these 4
cities X, Y, Z, T, the routes X ↔ Y, Y ↔ Z, Z ↔ X and X ↔ T are operated by the company M (set the
notation accordingly).
The other 2 cities, say P and Q, are connected by at least 4 routes operated by M. Even if P ↔ Q is
one of them, from P or Q – say P – at least 2 routes to X, Y, Z, T are operated by M. If both
destinations are from X, Y, Z, a cycle is obtained, so assume that one of the routes is P ↔ T. In this
case we are done if the second route is P ↔ Y or P ↔ Z, hence we are left with the case P ↔ X.
From those above, the existence of a third route from P to X, Y, Z or T will provide a cycle. If not,
from Q exist 2 routes to X, Y, Z, T. The same line of reasoning shows that we have to consider that on
the route Q ↔ T is operated by M.
Any of the routes Q ↔ X, Q ↔ Y, Q ↔ Z will close a cycle. To conclude, if the route P ↔ Q is
operated by M, then any route from Q to X, Y, Z or T will provide us with the desired cycle.

Solution to problem nr. 144 144

1) A person can speak free of charge with at most 2k persons – k that he chooses and other k – at
most – that choose his numbers among their free calls. Since n ≥ 2k + 2, each person will be charged
when speaking to (at least) another one.
2) Assume that all 2k + 1 persons are arranged in a circle. Each person will choose to speak free of
charge when calling any of the k persons located – consecutively – at his right. Then any person will
speak free of charge with the k persons located at his left, as all of them will choose him among their
“favorite numbers”.

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 Solution to problem nr. 145
145
n 2 (n 2 + 1)
The sum of all integers is 1 + 2 + … + n2 = , so there is a row r having the sum of the
2
n 2 (n 2 + 1)
numbers assigned to its squares at least equal to . Consider the 2n – 2 numbers written on
2
the first and last column – except for the two numbers which belong to the row r – and observe that
their sum is at least 1 + 2 + … + (2n – 2) = (n – 1)(2n – 1).
Now we can select two “complementary parts” of these columns – in order to complete the row r to
(n − 1)(2n − 1)
a path – so that the sum of the numbers placed on these n – 1 squares is at least . Since
2
n(n 2 + 1) (n − 1)(2n − 1) n3 1  n3 
+ = + n 2 − n + , to conclude we only have to notice that   + 1 =
2 2 2 2 2
n3 1  n3  n3 1
= + – if n odd – and that   + n2
– n +1 is the smallest integer greater than + n2 − n + –
2 2 2 2 2
when n is even.

Solution to problem nr. 146 146

One can place 4, 6, …, 40, 42 checkers in the given conditions.
We start by noticing that n is the sum of 7 even numbers, hence n is also even. On a row one can
place at most 6 checkers, hence n ≤ 6 ⋅ 7 = 42.
The key step is to use 2k × 2k squares filled completely with checkers and 2k + 1 × 2k + 1 squares
having checkers on each unit square except for one diagonal. Notice that these types of squares
satisfies the conditions, and moreover, we can glue together several such squares within the problem
conditions.
Below we describe the disposal of n checkers for any even n between 4 and 42.
For 4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24, 28, 32 or 36 checkers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 or 9 2 × 2 squares; notice that all
fit inside the 7 × 7 array!
For 6 checkers consider a 3 × 3 square – except for one diagonal; then adding 2 × 2 squares we get
the disposal of 10, 14, 18, 22, …, 38 checkers.
For 40 checkers we use a 5 × 5 and five 2 × 2 squares.

Solution to problem nr. 147 147

Let n be the required number. We claim that n = 2007.
With 7 cuts, from the given rectangular piece one can obtain an 11-sided polygon and some
triangles. From a triangle, with 8 cuts one can get an 11-sided polygon and some extra pieces,
sufficiently enough to continue the same procedure. Hence, using 7 + 8 ⋅ 250 = 2007 cuts one can
obtain the 251 requested 11-sided polygons.
Denote by k the number of pieces left at the end which are not 11-sided polygons and notice that
each has at least 3 sides. Now, observe that with each cut the number of pieces increases by 1 and total
the number of vertices increases with at most 4 – actually, with 2, 3 or 4, according to the number of
existent vertices through which the cutting line passes.

83
 Then n = k + 250 and 4n + 4 ≥ v ≥ 11 ⋅ 251 + 3k, where v is the total number of vertices of all
polygons at the end. Hence 4n + 4 ≥ 11 ⋅ 251 + 3(n – 250) = 2011 + 3n, so n ≥ 2007, as claimed.

Solution to problem nr. 148 148

Assign the number 0 to each white square and the number 1 to each black square. The claim is
achieved if we prove the existence of a 2 × 2 square with an odd sum of the 4 numbers inside.
Assume the contrary, so each sum of the 4 numbers inside a 2 × 2 square is even. Summing over all
squares we get an even number S. Notice that each square not sharing a common side with the given
array occurs 4 times in 5, the squares with only a common side occurs twice, while the 4 squares in the
corners only once. But in the four corners there are three 0’s and one 1, so the sum S is even, a
contradiction.
Remark. The given array may have a rectangular form, and the above solution requires no
alteration. However, this remark can easily lead to alternative solutions using induction. Here is a
sketch: choose a row with 0 and 1 at endpoints and call it the first row. Suppose that the number below
0 is also 0; arguing by contradiction, we notice that all “doubletons” formed vertically from the first
two rows have equal numbers inside, so the second row – which starts with 0 – ends with 1. Deleting
the first row of the given rectangular array, the claim is reached by induction. The same line of
reasoning is applied to the case when below 0 the number is 1.

Solution to problem nr. 149 149

Let a ♥ b be the greatest prime divisor of a + b.
At first, notice that from the initial 16 numbers we obtain 8 primes. The largest prime that can be
obtained is 31 = 15 ♥ 16; if this number occurs, the second largest can be 23 = 11 ♥ 12. Otherwise, 29
may occurs twice, from 16 ♥ 13 and 15 ♥ 14, followed by 19 – or lower.
From the stage when we are left with 8 primes, and after pairing them we get 4 primes. If a prime is
a+b
obtained from two odd primes a and b, then a ♥ b ≤ .
2
If else, at least one is 2 and let p be the other. The number p + 2 is prime only if p ∈ {3, 11, 17,
29}. Therefore, if p and q are prime with p ≤ q, then p ♥ g ≤ q + 2.
We will prove that the largest number which can end the game is 19. One example to obtain it is
exhibit below:
(1, 8); (2, 7); (9, 16); (10, 15); (3, 14); (4, 13); (5, 12); (6, 11) → 3, 3, 5, 5, 17, 17, 17, 17
(3, 3); (5, 5); (17, 17); (17, 17) → 3, 5, 17, 17
(3, 5); (17, 17) → 2, 17
(2, 17) → 19.
Now, we have to show that the game cannot end with a number strictly greater than 19. Since from
the second stage the number cannot increase with more than 2, and since 31 ♥ 2 = 11, we derive that
the game will end with a prime p ≤ 31. Suppose by contradiction that p ∈ {23, 29, 31}.
If p = 29, as 29 is not sum of two primes, then p is obtained from two of 29. In the previous stage
four 29’s are needed, then in the second stage eight 29’s are required, in contradiction with an initial
observation. Moreover, we have obtained a stronger result: 29 cannot end the game and cannot occur
even in the last pair, since after 2 steps at most one 29 may occur.
Suppose that p = 31. Two cases are possible: 31 = 2 ♥ 29 or 31 = 31 ♥ 31. The latter result forbids

84
the first case, while the second case requires that the last four numbers are 31, 31, 31, 31 or 31, 31, 29,
2. But among the 8 primes obtained after the first step we have at most two 29’s or one 31, not enough
to produce three 31’s or two 31’s and one 29.
Assume that p = 23. Again two cases are possible: 23 = 29 ♥ 17 or 23 = 23 ♥ 23. The first case is
impossible as shown above, while the second case is allowed if the last four primes are 23, 23, 23, 23
or 29, 17, 23, 23. If all primes are 23, the previous step has eight numbers with the average of 23,
which is a contradiction with
8 ⋅ 23 < 1 + 2 + 3 + … + 16 = 8 ⋅ 17.
The second case lead similarly to contradiction, since 29 requires two 29’s and the pair of 23’s are
given by four numbers with the sum 4 ⋅ 23:
2 ⋅ 29 + 4 ⋅ 23 = 150 < 1 + 2 + … + 16 = 136.
The solution is now complete.

Solution to problem nr. 15 150

Consider an arbitrary grouping in pairs. A pair in which the persons cannot speak will be called
“bad”. If there are bad pairs, we prove that some changes can be made to decrease to number of bad
pairs. Applying this at most 4 times exhibit a grouping with no bad pairs, and we are done.
Label the pairs A, B, C, D and the persons in pair X by X1 and X2. Two persons that cannot converse
are called “enemies”, otherwise “friends”. Assume that A is a bad pair. Beside A1, the person A2 has at
most two other enemies. Two cases arise:
a) If the other enemies of A2 belong to the same pair – call it B, then A1 has at least a friend among
C1, C2, D1, D2.
Choose C1 as a friend of A1 and swap A1 with C2. The new pairs A and C are good, and the claim is
satisfied.
b) If not, in at least one of the pairs B, C, D there are only friends of A1. Wlog, say that this pair is
B. One of the persons in this pair must be a friend of A2; call this person B1. Now swap A1 with B1 and
the new pairs A and B are good, as desired.
Remark. Consider the graph with vertices in the eight persons and edges corresponding to each pair
of friends. The degree of each vertex is at least 4, so, according to Dirac’s theorem there exists a
hamiltonian cycle. Taking 4 edges with ho common endpoint from this cycle, we get 4 good pairs, as
needed.

Solution to problem nr. 15 151

Given a set X of n points in the plane, consider a maximal free subset Y made of m elements, hence
such that any point in X \ Y completes an equilateral triangle with (at least) a pair of points from Y.
(Any X contains free subsets, since any subset with 1 or 2 elements is obviously free.) But for any pair
of points from Y there exist only two points in the plane which complete an equilateral triangle, so
 m
n – m ≤ 2  , that is n ≤ m2, or m ≥ n .
2
One checks the validity of this result for small values (1, 2, 3) of n, too (while the coplanarity
restriction is obvious).

85
 Solution to problem nr. 15 152
Label the rows from 1 to 8 and the columns from 1 to 8. The unit square which lies on the row i
and the column j will be referred as (i, j).
On the skew-diagonal {(i, i) | i = 1, 2, …, 8} there are exactly 2 squares in which checkers were
placed; wlog, assume that the squares are (1, 1), (2, 2). Looking at the 6 × 6 sub-array Q determined by
the rows 3-8 and the columns 3-8, we see that any “skew-diagonal” of Q, togheter with (1, 1), (2, 2), is
a skew-diagonal of the initial array. In view of the given conditions, no checkers are placed in the
squares of Q. Now take any skew-diagonal of Q with the squares (2, 1), (1, 2); this is a skew-diagonal
of the initial array, and the two checkers are placed inside (2, 1), (1, 2).
Up to the point, we know that checkers are placed in the squares on the rows 1-2 or on the columns
1-2. Suppose by way of contradiction that there exist a square located on the first two rows – say
(i, m), i = 1, 2, m ≥ 3 – and a square on the first two columns – say (s, j), j = 1, 2, s ≥ 3 – that hold
checkers. Then squares (i, m), (s, j), (3 – i, 3 – j) belongs to a skew-diagonal, contradiction.

Solution to problem nr. 15 153

For n ≥ 3, it suffices to draw 2n – 2 squares, as below:
n −1 n + −1
• if n is odd, from each vertex V of P draw squares of sides squares n – 1, n – 2, …, ,
2 2
with V as vertex in each square.
n n
• if n is even, from each vertex V of P draw – 1 squares of sides n – 1, n – 2, + 1, with V as
2 2
n
vertex in each square and add 2 more squares of side with vertices in 2 opposite vertices of P.
2
To show that 2n – 2 square are needed, divide all four sides in unit segments with 4n – 4 points –
other than the vertices of the square – and consider for each point the unit segments perpendicular to
the border of the square. This 4n – 4 segments can be covered by no less than 2n – 2 squares, since a
square cannot cover 3 such segments, so we are done.

Solution to problem nr. 15 154

Two types of triangles arise after such a partition: “<” and “=”. Suppose that the initial triangle
ABC is of type < and notice that all three adjacent triangles – the ones sharing a common side – are of
type =. Call A-stripe the portion of plane containing the triangle ABC and bounded by the line BC and
the parallel from A to BC. (It is easy to observe that the plane is divided in stripes parallel to this
A-stripe.) Two =-triangles adjacent to ABC lie in this A-stripe. We claim that no path from ABC to
one of these triangles exists.
Indeed, observe that a move changes the type of the triangle hosting the checker, implying that if a
path must exists, then it has an odd number of moves. On the other hand, a move changes the position
of the checker from a stripe to an adjacent stripe located upwards or downwards. To reach in the end
the same A-stripe, such a path must consists in an even number of moves, a contradiction.
To conclude the proof, consider the B-stripe and the two =-triangles adjacent to ABC. Repeating
the argument, we are done.
Alternative Solution. Use four colors – one for ABC and the three adjacent triangles – to indicate
the triangles that can be visited starting from any of these triangles. Justify.

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 Solution to problem nr. 15 155
Suppose A = a0, a1, …, a2 n −1 is a rearrangement of the numbers 0, 1, 2, …, 2n – 1 which satisfies
the required condition. Then (2A), (2A + 1) is a rearrangement of the numbers 0, 1, 2, …, 2n+1 – 1,
where (2A) = 2a0, 2a1, …, 2 a2 n −1 and (2A + 1) = 2a0 + 1, 2a1 +1, …, 2 a2 n −1 + 1. It is obvious that the
rearrangement (2A), (2A + 1) satisfies the claim. Indeed, no triples bi, bj, bk, with bi – bj = bj – bk,
b bj b b − 1 b j − 1 bk − 1
i < j < k may occur in (2A) nor in (2A + 1), since either i , , k or i , , belongs to A,
2 2 2 2 2 2
contrary to the fact that A is “free” of triples in arithmetic progressions.
Starting with the arrangement 2, 0, 3, 1 for the numbers 0, 1, 2, 3 and applying the above
procedure, in 5 steps one has the required rearrangement.

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