Food Chemistry 278 (2019) 497–501

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Food Chemistry
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/foodchem

NMR-based systematic analysis of bioactive phytochemicals in red wine. T

First determination of xanthurenic and oleanic acids
⁎
Martino Forino , Angelita Gambuti, Luigi Moio
Department of Agricultural Sciences, University of Napoli “Federico II” – Oenology Sciences Section, Viale Italia, 83100 Avellino, Italy

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Experimental evidence suggests that moderate consumption of wine has health promoting properties that have
Vitis vinifera L. cv Aglianico been mainly attributed to the wine polyphenol content. However, a systematic analysis of the major healthy
Wine bioactive molecules molecules contained in wines has not been conducted yet. Our study explored the potential arsenal of beneficial
Xanthurenic acid molecules contained in wine from both a qualitative and quantitative perspective. The experimental approach
Oleanic acid
was based on chromatography and untargeted NMR spectroscopy. In addition to already known bioactive
NMR
molecules, for the first time, xanthurenic acid and oleanic acid were identified in wine in relatively high con-
centrations. On account of their many biological activities, these two molecules widen the range of potential
beneficial effects of wine and pave the way toward the evaluation of their still unexplored sensory properties.

1. Introduction platelet aggregation involved in atherosclerosis processes (Gresele

Over the past years, the scientific community has long argued as to
whether wine, and especially red wine, is to be regarded as beneficial or
detrimental to human health. The debate is still open, but there is a
growing body of experimental and clinical evidence that a moderate
consumption of wine can have healthy effects. Wine chemical compo-
sition includes a vast selection of compounds that, either as such or
synergistically with ethanol, are held responsible for red wine anti-
oxidant, anti-inflammatory cardio- and cyto-protective properties.
Accordingly, many clinicians, on the basis of in vitro, in vivo and epi-
demiological studies, contend that moderate wine assumption reduces
the cardiovascular risk (Haseeb, Alexander, & Baranchuk, 2017) and is
beneficial in important pathologies such diabetes, osteoporosis and
perhaps neurological diseases as well (Artero, Artero, Tarin, & Cano,
2015). These biological properties of red wine have been so far ascribed
to its high content of polyphenols, a large family of compounds com-
monly divided into two groups: flavonoids and non-flavonoids. Flavo-
noids constituting up to 85% of the red wine polyphenols include fla-
vones, anthocyanins and falvonols, among which quercetin is the most
abundant. The non-flavonoid family includes hydroxycinnamic acids,
hydroxybenzoic acids and stilbenes such as resveratrol. Scientific stu-
dies aimed at ascertaining the beneficial effects of red wine have been
focused essentially on quercetin and resveratrol. Quercetin is an effec-
tive free radical scavenger and prevents systemic inflammation (Chang,
Tsai, Sheu, Hsieh, & Chiang, 2013). Additionally, it seems to inhibit
et al., 2011). The bioactivity spectrum of resveratrol is quite wide
ranging from anti-inflammatory effects to cardio-, neuro- and chemo-
preventive properties (Brown et al., 2009). Nonetheless, the oral bioa-
vailability of resveratrol, like that of polyphenols in general, is quite
low, albeit it seems to be high enough to exert an efficient antioxidant
activity (Stockley, Teissedre, Boban, Di Lorenzo, & Restani, 2012). It is
reasonable hypothesizing that the entire profile of potential bioactive
compounds in wine extends far beyond polyphenols; but, this hypoth-
esis can be verified only by a systematic phytochemical analysis that
has not been conducted yet. Therefore, with the purpose of contributing
to fill the knowledge gap on such an issue relevant to both consumers
and wine producers, we analyzed samples of red wine obtained from
Vitis vinifera L. cv Aglianico grapes harvested in the autumn of 2017.
This is the most important black grape variety of Southern Italy used to
produce renowned red wines awarded the DOCG designation (De-
nominazione di Origine Controllata e Garantita), the national highest wine
classification. Our investigation was carried following an experimental
procedure based on chromatography and untargeted NMR spectro-
scopy. Chromatographic separations were instrumental for fractioning
the several classes of metabolites in a complex organic matrix like wine
and, if necessary, purifying them for their structural elucidation. To this
aim, the untargeted NMR analysis, unlike any other targeted approach
focused on the detection of specific compounds of interest, was selected
on account of its suitability to allow a comprehensive chemical iden-
tification of analytes from both a qualitative and quantitative point of

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: forino@unina.it (M. Forino).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2018.11.103
Received 25 July 2018; Accepted 20 November 2018
Available online 22 November 2018
0308-8146/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
M. Forino et al.
view. Additionally, with the purpose of identifying potential precursors
of the healthy molecules detected in wine, samples of grapes used to
produce the analyzed wine were also investigated.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. General experimental procedures
A linear ion trap LTQ Orbitrap XL hybrid Fourier Transform MS
(FTMS) instrument equipped with an ESI ION MAX source (Thermo-
Fisher, Waltham, MA, USA) and coupled to an Agilent 1100 LC binary
system was used for Mass Spectrometry analyses. All the solvents were
of laboratory grade.
NMR experiments were run on a Varian Unity Inova 700 spectro-
meter equipped with a 13C Enhanced HCN Cold Probe and by using a
Shigemi 5 mm NMR tubes. CD3OD (δH 3.31; δC 49.0) was selected as
deuterated solvent. Standard Varian pulse sequences were employed for
the respective classes of spectra. All NMR data reported in the text were
derived from 1D 1H and 13C NMR spectra and from 2D experiments
including COSY, TOCSY, ROESY, HMBC, and HSQC. For quantitation
purposes, 5 μL of pyridine as an internal standard was added to the
NMR tubes containing the analytes to be quantified and 1H NMR
spectra were acquired setting the d1 value at 7.0 s in order to allow a
complete relaxation of the pyridine standard to equilibrium. The T1
(0.70 s) of pyridine was evaluated through the inversion-recovery T1
experiment. Quantitation of each compound was conducted by se-
lecting representative NMR signals and their areas determined by in-
tegration.
2.2. Biological material, extraction and separation
2.2.1. Grapes
Vitis vinifera L. cv Aglianico grape was harvested from the vineyard
of Azienda Quintodecimo (Mirabella Eclano, Avellino, Italy) in late
September 2017. Berries were collected from different patches of the
vineyard to obtain a sample homogenous and representative of the
cultivar. A voucher specimen (Ag-1-2017) is deposited at the
Department of Agricultural Sciences of the University of Napoli
“Federico II” – Oenology Sciences Section.
A large-scale extraction (2 kg of fresh product) was carried out. Skin
and seeds from each berry were manually separated, ground in a la-
boratory blender and extracted twice at room temperature with 2,0 L of
H2O:EtOH 2:8 (v/v) overnight. The dry weight of the extracted skins
was 280 gr, and the dry weight of the extracted seeds was 173 gr. The
hydroethanolic extracts of both skins and seeds were concentrated and
partitioned first against EtOAc and then n-butanol. All of the obtained
extracts were fully evaporated. The final weight of the skin EtOAc ex-
tract was 5 gr; the skin butanol extract weighted 12 gr; the seed EtOAc
extract 8 gr, and the seed butanol extract 7 gr. Preliminary NMR in-
vestigations of the aqueous layers and of the pulp led to the identifi-
cation of carbohydrates (α-glucose, β-glucose and fructose) and organic
acids (mainly malic and tartaric acids) and were not further analyzed.
The skin butanol extract was separated through a 360-gr
CombiFlash C-18 column connected to a Teledyne Isco CombiFlash Rf
chromatography system and eluted with H2O:MeOH whose ratio
changed from 1:1 to MeOH 100% in 60 min (5,0 mL/min flow). Two
fractions (A and B) were collected on the basis of their increasing li-
pophilicity. Fraction A contained carbohydrates (α-glucose, β-glucose
and fructose) and organic acids (tartaric acid, malic acid and citric
acid). Fraction B contained a complex mixture of metabolites and was
further separated on a 40-gr CombiFlash Silica column eluted with a
gradient elution with changing ratio of EtOAc:MeOH, from 100:0 to
50:50 in 30 min (3 mL/min flow). From this chromatographic separa-
tion anthocyanins (mainly malvidin-3-O-glucoside), amino acids (ala-
nine, arginine, glutamic acid, leucine, isoleucine, phenylalanine, pro-
line, threonine, tryptophan and tyrosine) and flavonols (quercetin-3-O-
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Food Chemistry 278 (2019) 497–501
glucoside and quercetin-3-O-glucuronide, along with trace amounts of
kaempferol-3-O-glucoside) were isolated.
The skin EtOAc extract was loaded on a 40-gr CombiFlash Silica
column and eluted with a gradient elution with changing ratio of
EtOAc:MeOH, from 100:0 to 50:50 in 60 min (3 mL/min flow). From
this separation the triterpenoid oleanic acid, catechin and epicatechin
were isolated.
Both the seed butanol and EtOAc extracts were separated as re-
ported above for the skins. The butanol extract was found to contain the
same carbohydrates and amino acids as those identified in the skins.
From the seed EtOAc extract, catechin and epicatechin were isolated.
2.2.2. Wine
Red wine samples were kindly provided by Azienda Quintodecimo
(Mirabella Eclano, Avellino, Italy). The wine was obtained from grapes
of which a sample had been analyzed as reported in Section 2.2.1.
200 mL of wine were diluted in an equal volume of distilled water and
loaded onto a glass column (100 cm × 2 cm) packed with 70 cm of
Amberlite XAD-2. The resin had been washed with methanol, diethyl
ether and finally water. After loading the liquid sample, the column was
eluted with 300 mL of water (Fraction A′), followed, in the order, by
300 mL of EtOAc (Fraction B′), and 300 mL of MeOH (Fraction C′).
Fraction A′ contained amino acids (mainly, alanine, isoleucine, leucine,
proline and valine), glycerol, carbohydrates (α-glucose, β-glucose,
fructose) and polyols (sorbitol and mannitol), and organic acids (lactic
acid, pyruvic acid, succinic acid, acetic acid, citric acid and tartaric
acid). Fraction B′ was further purified through a 40-gr CombiFlash Silica
column eluted with a gradient elution with changing ratio of EtOAc:-
MeOH, from 100:0 to 50:50 in 30 min (3 mL/min flow). In fractions
collected from this column, gallic acid, syringic acid, catechin, epica-
techin, 2-phenylethanol, tyrosol, tryptophol, xanthurenic acid, oleanic
acid and caffeoyl tartaric acid were identified. Fraction C′ contained a
complex mixture of polyphenol pigments, including malvidin-3-O-glu-
coside and condensed tannins.
2.3. Identified bioactive compounds
2.3.1. Catechin
HRESIMS m/z 291.0866 [M+H]+ corresponding to C15H15O6. 1H
NMR data in CD3OD at 25 °C (700 MHz): H2 4.57 (doublet J 7.4 Hz); H3
3.97 (multiplet); H4a 2.50 (doublet of doublets J 16.5, 9.0 Hz); H4b
2.86 (doublet of doublets J 16.5, 1.7 Hz); H6 5.86 (doublet J 2.2 Hz);
H8 5.92 (doublet J 2.2 Hz); H2′ 6.84 (doublet J 1.6 Hz); H5′ 6.76
(doublet J 7.1 Hz); H6′ 6.71 (doublet of doublets J 7.1, 1.6 Hz).
2.3.2. Epicatechin
HRESIMS m/z 291.0862 [M+H] + corresponding to C15H15O6. 1H
NMR data in CD3OD at 25 °C (700 MHz): H3 4.18 (multiplet); H4a 2.74
(doublet of doublets J 16.6, 1.5 Hz); H4b 2.84 (doublet of doublets J
16.6, 2.4 Hz); H6 5.93 (doublet J 2.3 Hz); H8 5.95 (doublet J 2.3 Hz);
H2′ 6.97 (doublet J 1.6 Hz); H5′ 6.76 (doublet J 7.1 Hz); H6′ 6.80
(doublet of doublets J 7.1, 1.6 Hz).
2.3.3. Gallic acid
HRESIMS m/z 169.0147 [M−H]− corresponding to C7H5O5. 1H
NMR data in CD3OD at 25 °C (700 MHz): H2/H6 7.05 (singlet).
2.3.4. Olenic acid
HRESIMS m/z 457.3670 [M+H]+ corresponding to C30H49O3. 1H
NMR data in CD3OD at 25 °C (700 MHz): H1a 2.26 (triplet J 7.4 Hz);
H1b 2.32 (triplet J 7.4 Hz); H2a 1.56 (overlapped); H2b 1.62 (over-
lapped); H3 3.14 (triplet J 7.3 Hz); H5 0.74 (broad singlet); H6a 1.41
(overlapped); H6b 1.55 (overlapped); H27 1.30 (overlapped); H9 1.58
(overlapped); H211 1.89 (doublet of doublets J 8.9, 3.9 Hz); H12 5.23
(broad singlet); H15a 1.06 (overlapped); H15b 1.76 (overlapped); H16a
1.58 (overlapped); H16b 1.99 (overlapped); H18 2.84 (doublet of
M. Forino et al.
doublets J 12.8, 3.8 Hz); H19a 1.13 (overlapped); H19b 1.68 (over-
lapped); H21a 1.19 (overlapped); H21b 1.38 (overlapped); H22a 1.52
(overlapped); H22b 1.73 (overlapped); H323 0.97 (singlet); H324 0.77
(singlet); H325 0.93 (singlet); H326 0.81 (singlet); H327 1.15 (singlet);
H329 0.90 (singlet); H330 0.94 (singlet). 13C NMR data in CD3OD at
25 °C (700 MHz): C1 33.0; C2 26.4; C3 78.3; C4 38.3; C5 55.3; C6 18.0;
C7 32.7; C8 38.9; C9 47.7; C10 36.8; C11 23.1; C12 122.2; C13 143.8;
C14 41.3; C15 27.3; C16 22.8; C17 46.1; C18 41.4; C19 45.6; C20 30.1;
C21 33.5; C22 32.4; C23 27.2; C24 14.9; C25 14.5; C26 16.3; C27 25.0;
C28 180.7; C29 32.1; C30 22.6.
2.3.5. 2-phenylethanol
HRESIMS m/z 123.0810 [M+H]+ corresponding to C8H11O. 1H
NMR data in CD3OD at 25 °C (700 MHz): H21 3.74 (triplet J 7.1 Hz);
H22 2.81 (triplet J 7.1 Hz); aromatic ring constituted by H2′/6′, H3′/5′,
H4′: overlapped resonances ranging from 7.15 to 7.33.
2.3.6. Syringic acid
HRESIMS m/z 197.0461 [M−H]− corresponding to C9H9O5. 1H
NMR data in CD3OD at 25 °C (700 MHz): H22/6 7.33 (singlet); H6-OCH3
3.88 (singlet).
2.3.7. Tryptophol
HRESIMS m/z 162.0912 [M+H]+ corresponding to C10H12NO. 1H
NMR data in CD3OD at 25 °C (700 MHz): H2 7.06 (broad singlet); H4
7.53 (doublet J 8.0 Hz); H5 6.98 (triplet of doublets J 7.6, 0.9 Hz); H6
7.06 (triplet of doublets J 7.7, 0.8 Hz); H7 7.31 (doublet J 8.1 Hz); H28
2.97 (triplet J 7.3 Hz); H29 3.80 (triplet J 7.3 Hz).
2.3.8. Tyrosol
HRESIMS m/z 139.0757 [M+H]+ corresponding to C8H11O2. 1H
NMR data in CD3OD at 25 °C (700 MHz): H22/6 7.02 (doublet J 8.4 Hz);
H23/5 6.69 (doublet J 8.4 Hz); H27 2.71 (triplet J 7.2 Hz); H28 3.67
(triplet J 7.2 Hz).
2.3.9. Xanthurenic acid
HRESIMS m/z 206.0452 [M+H]+ corresponding to C10H8NO4. 1H
NMR data in CD3OD at 25 °C (700 MHz): H3 7.05 (singlet); H5 7.44
(doublet of doublets J 7.7, 0.6 Hz); H6 7.37 (triplet J 7.7 Hz); H7 7.30
(doublet J 8.0 Hz).
2.4. Statistical analysis
Statistical analyses were conducted by using GraphPad Prism 6.0.
All quantitative measurements were carried out in triplicates.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Analytical strategy
A sample of Aglianico red wine, obtained from grapes harvested
during the autumn of 2017, was passed through an Amberlite XAD-2
column and three fractions were collected on the basis of the eluents
that, in the order, were water (fraction A), EtOAc (fraction B) and
MeOH (fraction C). Preliminary NMR investigations led to the identi-
fication in fraction A of resonances attributed to aminoacids, carbo-
hydrates, polyols and organic acids, and in fraction B of signals typical
of anthocyanins, mainly malvidin-3-O-glucoside, and tannins. The
presence of a complex mixture of metabolites was detected in fraction
B. Thus, it was further separated by CombiFlash column chromato-
graphy on silica gel. The identity of the eluted specialized metabolites
(Table 1) was ascertained by High Resolution Mass Spectrometry ana-
lysis and by cross-interpreting their 1D (1H- and 13C NMR) and 2D
(COSY, TOCSY, ROESY, HSQC and HMBC) NMR spectra. Comparison of
the metabolites NMR spectroscopic properties with those available in
the metabolomics data repositories confirmed our structural
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Food Chemistry 278 (2019) 497–501
Table 1
Major bioactive metabolites identified in Aglianico
wine.
Compounds mg/L
Epicatechin 210
Catechin 180
2-phenylethanol 100
Tyrosol 100
Oleanic acid 30
Caffeoyl tartaric acid 30
Gallic acid 20
Tryptophol 20
Syringic acid 10
Xanthurenic acid 10
hypotheses. To quantitate the identified analytes, 100 mL of wine were
first concentrated to reduce the ethanol content and then partitioned
against EtOAc. The organic layer was evaporated and the extract totally
solubilized in CD3OD and added with 5 μL of pyridine as a standard. 1H
NMR spectrum of the obtained solution was run by setting the d1 value
at 7.0 sec to allow a complete relaxation of the observed nuclei to
equilibrium. Quantitation of the wine compounds was conducted by
selecting representative NMR signals on the basis of resolution. The
area of the chosen resonances was determined by integration, divided
by the number of the protons generating them, and finally converted
into the relative number of moles by comparing the obtained area with
that of the pyridine protons, for which the number of moles was known.
3.2. Bioactive compounds identified in wine
Our NMR-based quali-quantitative analysis defined a quite inter-
esting picture of bioactive molecules. Alongside typical wine specia-
lized metabolites, namely catechin (180 mg/L), epicatechin (210 mg/
L), gallic acid (20 mg/L), syringic acid (10 mg/L) and caffeoyl tartaric
acid (30 mg/L) and anthocyanins/condensed tannins (1600 mg/L),
some metabolites, namely tryptophol, tyrosol and 2-phenylethanol,
were found to be occurring in relatively high concentrations (Fig. 1).
The presence of these three compounds in wine is not unusual, as they
are likely produced during fermentation from the precursors tyrosine,
tryptophan and 2-phenylalanine, respectively, via yeast metabolism
through the Ehrlich pathway. However, if the estimated concentration
of 2-phenylethanol (100 mg/L) is just a little bit over the typical ranges
in red wines (Francis & Newton, 2005), concentrations of tyrosol
(100 mg/L) are two times higher than those detected by HPLC-MS by
Gris et al. (2011), even if a great variability of concentrations of such a
compound (1.00–60.00 mg/L wine) is reported in literature. Even
greater than that reported in literature is the calculated concentration
of tryptophol. Its concentration average range in red wines is between
0.51 and 2.2 mg/L (Bordiga et al., 2016), while in our wine samples
tryptophol turned out to be occurring at concentration approximately
10-fold higher (around 20 mg/L). The high concentration of tryptophol
is consistent with the unusual high amounts of tryptophan (0.07 mg/gr)
estimated in the grapes from which the analyzed wine had been ob-
tained. This datum can be explained by taking into account that the
summer of 2017, after which the analyzed grapes where harvested, was
a quite dry season. It has been reported that high amounts of trypto-
phan were detected in grapes and musts in exceptionally dry years as
opposed to relatively damp seasons when the concentration of free and
bound tryptophan is significantly lower (Hoenicke, Simat, Steinhart,
Kohler, & Schwab, 1999).
The presence of tryptophol and tyrosol in high concentrations is of
great pharmacological interest on account of their several health en-
hancing properties, including antioxidant, anticarcinogenic, cardio-
preventive and even antimicrobial bioactivities (Covas et al., 2003).
Moreover, our study led to the identification for the first time in red
wine of another intermediate of the yeast tryptophan metabolism:
M. Forino et al. Food Chemistry 278 (2019) 497–501

Fig. 1. 1H NMR spectra of fractions containing resonances assigned to the major secondary metabolites identified in wine.

Fig. 2. 1H NMR spectra of oleanic acid (top) and of xanthurenic acid (bottom).

xanthurenic acid (Fig. 2). Its concentration was in the range of 10 mg/L
and its occurrence widens the already large plethora of wine bioactive
phytochemicals. More specifically, recent evidence has shown that
xanthurenic acid can have impact on brain function and neuro-
transmission by interaction with metabotropic glutamate receptors,
even if it has been suggested that its bioactivity may be extending also
to several others molecular targets. As a consequence, xanthurenic acid
has been the focus of still in progress multidisciplinary researches
aimed at investigating its biological function, with the final purpose of
better understanding the sophisticated correlation between tryptophan
metabolism and brain physiology. The outcome of such studies may be
the discovery of new potential targets to cure nervous system diseases.
Another interesting bioactive molecule we isolated and for the first
time identified in wine was oleanic acid belonging to the terpenoid
class, natural compounds characterized by carbon skeletons consisting
of successive inclusions of C5 isoprene units successively subjected to
numerous chemical modifications, usually involving oxygen atom in-
clusions (Fig. 2). The occurrence of terpenoids in wines is not unusual,
given that several monoterpenoids and sesquiterpenoids, constituted by
2 or 3 isoprene units respectively, are well known odorous molecules
responsible for the typical wine aromas. However, never was a tri-
terpenoid reported in wines. Oleanic acid is a pentacyclic triterpenoid
deriving by successive inclusions of six isoprene units. It is widely
distributed in plants and in grape berries it is a key constituent of the
protective bloom covering the skin (Szakiel, Paczkowski, Pensec, &
Bertsch, 2012). Oleanic acid was detected in the berry skins we ana-
lyzed at concentration of about 0.85 mg/gr, while in wine it was esti-
mated to be occurring at the significant concentration of 30 mg/L.

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M. Forino et al.
Oleanic acid is an interesting bioactive compound displaying a wide
selection of beneficial effects that range from antitumor and anti-in-
flammatory to antiviral and antibiotic properties (Lin, Wen, & Sun,
2016). From an enological standpoint, it is important to underline that
oleanic acid determines an increase of the number of viable yeasts
during fermentation (Larue, Lafon-Lafourcade, & Ribereau-Gayon,
1980). As the lack of grape lipids can induce nutritional limitation of
yeast activities in musts with a concomitant deficiency in assimilable
nitrogen (Casalta, Cervi, Salmon, & Sablayrolles, 2013), it is possible
that the presence of oleanic acid in wine could be due to a regular
fermentation in a medium rich of nutrients.
The presence of xanthurenic acid and oleanic acid in wine increases
the number of health promoting molecules in red wines, while raising
questions about their possible sensorial implications for wine. In this
regards, further studies will be conducted considering that secondary
metabolites play a key role in defining the unique specificity of high
quality products.
4. Conclusions
For the first time a systematic quali-quantitative analysis of the
health promoting phytochemicals contained in wine was carried out.
The adopted analytical strategy was based on a combination of chro-
matography and untargeted NMR investigation. The profile of wine
bioactive molecules we defined turned out to be more complex and
diversified than previously reported. In addition to polyphenols that
constitute the typical wine beneficial molecules, unusual high con-
centrations of both tryptophol and tyrosol were detected. Even more
interesting, two bioactive molecules, namely xanthurenic acid and
oleanic acid, were discovered in wine for the first time. Xanthurenic
acid is a natural product of the tryptophan metabolism and has lately
been the focus of many scientific studies due to its interaction with the
brain function and in particular with the metabotropic glutamate re-
ceptors. Oleanic acid, a triterpenoid naturally present on the berry
skins, is endowed with many biological properties ranging from anti-
tumor and anti-inflammatory to antiviral and antibiotic activities.
In perspective, the adopted scientific approach will be applied to
wine samples obtained from other grape varieties to investigate their
chemical composition specifically in terms of specialized metabolites.
Such research line has the double goal of contributing to fill the
knowledge gap about the profile of the beneficial compounds contained
in wine, and of tracing back the possible viticultural variables that
determine the accumulation of the bioactive phytochemicals in grapes,
with the ultimate purpose of understanding how to modulate their
transfer into wines by appropriate vinification procedures.
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Food Chemistry 278 (2019) 497–501
Funding
This research did not receive any specific grant from funding
agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
Declaration of interest
None.
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