Bone tissue is continously growing, remodeling, and repairing itself.

It contributes to
homeostatis of the body by proving support and protection, producing blood cells, and
storing minerals and triglycerides.
A bone is composed of several different tissues working together: bone or osseous tissue,
cartilage, dense connective tissues, epithelium, adipose tissue, and nervous tissue.
Bone tissue, a complex and dynamic living tissue, continually engages in a process called
remodeling – the construction of new bone tissue and breaking down of old bone tissue.
The entire framework of bones and their cartilages, along, with ligaments and tendons,
constitutes the skeletal system.
Bone tissue makes up about 18% of the weight of the human body.
The skeletal system performs several basic function :
1. Support. The skeleton serves as the structural framework for thr body bu supporting
soft tissues and providing attachment points for the tendons of most skeletal
muscles.
2. Protection. The skeleton protecs the most important internal organs from injury. For
example, cranial bones protect the brain, vertebrae (backbones) protect the spinal
cord, and the rib cage protect the heart and lungs.
3. Assistance in movement. Most skeletal muscles attach to bones ; when they contact,
they pull on bones to produce movement.
4. Mineral homeostatis ( storage and release). Bone tissue stores several mineral,
especially calcium and phosphorus, which contribute to the strenght of bone. Bone
tissue stores about 99% of the body’s calcium. On demand, bonw releases minerals
into the blood to maintain critical mineral balances(homeostatis) and to distribute
the minerals to othee part of the body.
5. Blood cells production. Within certain bones, a connective tissue called red bone
marrow produce red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets, a process called
hemopoiesis. Red bone marrow consist of developing blood cells, adi pocytes,
fibroblasts, and macrophages within a network of reticular fibers. It’s present in
developing bones of the fetus and in some adult bones, such as the hip(pelvic)
bones, ribs, stenum (breastbone), vertebrae (backbones), skull, and ends of the
bones of the humerus(arm bone) and femur (thigh bone). In new born, all bone
marrow is red and is involved in hemopoiesis. With inceasing age, much of the bone
marrow change from red to yellow.
6. Triagslycerides storage. Yellow bone marrow consist mainly of adipose cells, which
store triglycerides. The stored triglycerides are a potential chemical energy reserve.

Functions of Bone Tissue

1. Supports soft tissue and provides attachment for skeletal muscles.
2. Protect internal organs.
3. Assist in movement, along with skeletal muscles.
4. Stores and releases minerals.
 5. Contains red bone marrow, which produces blood cells.
6. Contains yellow bone marrow, which stores triglycerides (fats).
Four types of cells are present in bone tissue :
1. Osteogenic cells are unspecialized.

Gross Anatomy
Gross anatomy, or macroscopic anatomy, imvolves the examination of relatively large
structures and features usually visible with the unaidee eye. There are many different forms
of gross anatomy :
 Surface anatomy is the study of general form and superficial markings.
 Regional anatomy focuses on the anatomical organization of specific areas of the
body, such as the head, neck, or trunk. Many advanced courses in anatomy stress a
regional approach, because it emphasizes the spatial relationships among structures
already familiar to students.
 Systemic anatomy is the study of the structure of organ system, which are groups of
organs that function together in a coordinated manner. Examples include the skeletal
system, composed of bones; the muscular system, made up of muscles ; and the
cardiovascular system, consisting of the heart, blood, and vessels which distribute
oxygen and nutrients throughout the body. Introductory texts such us this take a
systemic anatomy approach because that approach clarifies functional relationships
among the component organs.
 Developmental anatomy describes the changes in form that occur between conception
and physical maturity. Because developmental anatomy considers anatomical
structures over such a broad range of sizes ( form a single cell to an adult human), the
techniques of developmental anatomists are similar to those used in gross anatomy
and in microscopic anatomy. The most extensive structural changes occur during the
first two months of developmental.
 Clinical anatomy includes a number of subspecialities important in clinical practice.
Examples include medical anatomy (anatomycal features that change during illness),
radiographic anatomy ( anatomical structures seen using specialized imaging
techniques, discussed in the Applications Manual, and surgical anatomy (anatomical
landmarks important in surgery).

The Classification of Joints

Two classification methods are used to categorize joints.

Each functional group is further subdivided primarily on the basis of the anatomical
structures of the joint.

1. An immovable joints is a synarthrosis. A synarthrosis can be fibrous or

cartilaginous,depending on the nature of the connection. Over time, the two bones
may fuse.
 2. A slightly movable joint is an amphiarthrosis. An amphiarthrosis is either fibrous
or cartilaginous, depending on the nature of the connection between the opposing
bones.
3. A freely movable joint is a diarthrosis or synovial joint. Diarthrosis are subdivided
according to the nature of the movement permitted.

The second classification scheme relies solely on the anatomical organization of

the joint, without regard to the degree of movement permitted. In this framework,
joints are classified as bony, fibrous, cartilaginous, or synovial.

The two classification are loosely correlated. Many anatomical patterns are seen
among immovable or slightly moveable joints, but there is only one type of freely
movable joint synovial joints and all synovial joints are diarthroses.

Synarthrosis (Immovable Joints)

At a synarthrosis, the bony edges are quite close together and may even interlock.
These extremely strong joints are located where movement between the bones
must be prevented.

There are four major types of synarthrotic joints :

1. Suture. A suture is a synarthrotic joint located only between the bones of the
skull. The edges of the bones are interlocked and bound together at tge suture
by dense fibrous connective tissue.
2. Gomphoses. A gomphosis is synatmrthrosis that binds the teeth to bony
sockets in the maxillary bone and mandible. The fibrous connection between a
tooth and its socket is a periodontak ligament.
3. Synchondroses. A synchondrosis is a rigid, cartilaginous bridge between two
articulating bones. The cartilaginous connection between the ends of the first
pair of vertebrosternal ribs and the sternum is a synchondrosis. An other
example is the epiphyseal cartilage, which on a growing ling bone connects
the diaphysis tonthe epiphysis.
4. Synostoses. Is totally rigid, immovable joint created when two bones fuse and
the boundary between them disappears. The metopic suture of the frontal bone
and the epiphyseal lines of mature long bones are synostoses
Amphiarthroses (Slightly Movable Joints)
An ampiarthrosis permits more movement than a synarthrosis, but is much stronger than a
freely movable joint. The articulating bones are connected by collagen fibers or cartilage.
There are two major types of amphiarthrotic joints :
1. At a syndesmosis, a band or ligament), bones are connected by a ligament. One
example is the distal articulation between the tibia and fibula.
2. At a symphysis, or symphyseal joints, the articulating bones are separated by a wedge
or pad of fibrocartilage. The articulation between the bodies of vertebrae ( at the
 intervertebral disc) and the connection between the two pubic bones (the pubic
symphysis) are examples of symphyses.
Diarthroses ( Freely Movable Joints)
Diarthroses, or synovial joints, permit a wider range of motion than do other types of joints.
They are typically located at the ends of long bones, such as those of the upper and lower
limbs. A synovial joint is surrounded by a fibrous articular capsule and a synovial
membrane lines the walls of the articular cavity. This membrane does not cover the
articulating surfaces within the joint. Recall that a synovial membrane consists of areolar
tissue covered by an incomplete epithelial layer. The synovial fluid that fills the joint cavity
originates in the areolar tissue of the synovial membrane.

Types of Movements at Synovial Joints

1. Linear Motion ( Gliding)

In gliding, two opposing surfaces slide past one another, as in possible movement.
Gliding occurs between the surfaces of articulating carpal bones, between tarsal bones
, and between the clavicles and the sternum. The movement can occur in almost any
direction, but the amount of movement is slight, and rotation is generally prevented
by the capsule and associated ligaments.

2. Angular Motion
Examples of angular motion include flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, and
circumduction.
3. Rotation
Rotational movemente are also described with reference to a figure in tghe anatomical
position. Rotation of the head may involve left rotation or right rotation.