Assignment 01 Psy

Name : N.K.C.
Sewwandi
Reg. No : 417132470
Address : 22/1 Deans Road / Maradana / Colombo 10
Assignment : NO 01
Module : EPD4530 Child Development Ⅱ
Level 04
Diploma in early childhood & Primary education.
Faculty of education
Open university Sri Lanka.
1. І. Name three types of neurons

1. Sensory neurons (Afferent Neurons )
2. Interneuron
3. Motor Neuron (Efferent Neurons )
Ⅱ. Explain the functions of two types of major neurons
Sensory Neurons
 Sensory neurons are the nerve cells that are activated by sensory input from the environment
for example, when touch a hot surface with fingertips, the sensory neurons will be the ones
firing and sending off signals to the rest of the nervous system about the information they have received.
 The inputs that activate sensory neurons can be physical or chemical, corresponding to all five of our senses.
Thus, a physical input can be things like sound, touch, heat, or light. A chemical input comes from taste or smell,
which neurons then send to the brain.
 Most sensory neurons are pseudo unipolar, which means they only have one axon which is split into two branches.
Motor Neurons
 Motor neurons of the spinal cord are part of the central nervous system (CNS) and connect to muscles, glands
and organs throughout the body.
 These neurons transmit impulses from the spinal cord to skeletal and smooth muscles (such as those in your
stomach), and so directly control all of our muscle movements.
Name : N.K.C. Sewwandi
Reg. No : 417132470
Assignment : NO 01
Level 04
 There are in fact two types of motor neurons:

1. Those that travel from spinal cord to muscle are called lower motor neurons
2. Those that travel between the brain and spinal cord are called upper motor neurons.
 Motor neurons have the most common type of ‘body plan’ for a nerve cell - they are multipolar, each with one
axon and several dendrite
2. Explain the term “Observational Learning”

Through modeling, observation and then imitation, children develop new behaviors. Modeling
can be as simple as having a child watch another child sharpen a pencil. By watching the model, a child can a learn a
new behavior, inhibit another behavior or strengthen previously learned behavior ( e.g. saying “ thank you” . To use
modeling effectively, it must determine whether a child has the capacity to observe and then imitate the model. In
classroom settings, a student’s response to modeling is influenced by three factors,
1. The characteristics of the model
e.g. : is this a student whom the other student like and respect
2. The characteristics of the observer
e.g. : is this child capable of observing and imitating the behaviors
3. The positive or negative consequences associated with the behavior

Reg. No : 417132470
Assignment : NO 01
Level 04
Children are more likely to respond to teacher modeling when they view their teachers as
competent, nurturing, supportive, fun and interesting. Children are also more likely to imitate behaviors that result in
a positive consequence.
Younger children have been reported as more frequently imitating others than older children.
Children consistently model someone whom they value or look up to. They also imitate the behavior of a same-sex
child more often than that of a different-sex child. They model someone whom they perceive as successful and socially
valued regardless of whether the teacher perceives that child as successful and socially valued. Finally if a child
observes a model being reinforced or punished for certain behavior, this influences the likelihood that the child will
then model that behavior.
Modeling is a powerful tool, usually underutilized by teachers. When the teachers are cheerful and
enthusiastic, their attitudes are contagious. When they are respectful of students, students respect each other. When
teachers are patient, fair, consistent and optimistic their students exhibit these traits as well. Teacher behavior sets the
tone for the classroom environment.
In 1970, Kaplan described a ripple effect in transactions between teachers and misbehaving students that
affected not only those students but also the entire classroom. Teachers who were firm reduced the problem behaviors
both from the first child who misbehaved and from those student who saw the initial problematic behavior. When
teachers enforced rules, the ripple effect worked in their favor. When they failed to follow through with rules, the ripple
effect worked against them. Furthermore, the misbehaving student’s social standing in the classroom was also issue.
When teachers successfully managed the behavior of high- status troublemakers, their control tended to benefit the
entire classroom. Likewise the ripple effect when high-status offenders were not managed increased negative behaviors
among others. Finally when managing a disruptive behavior, it is important to focus on tasks and behaviors rather than
on approval. In the later situation, teaches may focus on their relationship with the disruptive student when trying to
get that student to behave. This strategy, unfortunately is usually ineffective over the long term.
Reg. No : 417132470
Assignment : NO 01
Level 04
3. Explain the process of “perception” citing examples.
S
E Decision
N Making
I F Limited
S
channel
N S I Effecters
A capacity
P T L
T
U S T
I
T E
O
N R Long
term
store
The diagram tell that several input channels are opening at the same time (senses). The sensations get
registered for a very brief moment. The individual can attend at any one time to only some of the incoming
sensations for the purpose of processing in the brain, this filler which selects stimuli for processing is named as
“Limited channel capacity” in the diagram. Sensations that do not get selected may remain in short term memory
Reg. No : 417132470
Assignment : NO 01
Level 04
or short term storage (STS) for only a few seconds and get lost. It means that our capacity to remember events to
which we have not given attention is limited.
The things that have received our attention or what passes through the limited capacity channel is process
by the brain’s perceptual system which consists of the long-term memory store ( previous experience) and a
decision making system. These are responsible for the output or our responses
4. Explain briefly how learning takes place in relation to any learning theory you had learned.
Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning is a basic form of behavior adaptation in which one stimulus comes to serve as a signal
for the occurrence of a second stimulus. Stimulus is an external element that came into contact with the sense ( a physical
event) that is capable of affecting behavior.
 For example; mother make a delicious cup of coffee for you and others as home in the evening.
At the beginning you may have noticed the whistling of the kettle when water was boiling. After sometimes you may
experience the delightful aroma of the coffee and finally you were served with a cup of delicious coffee by your
mother. Later you may have experienced when you feel the aroma before getting the coffee you mouth waters and
waiting for the coffee.
 At the beginning that may have not noticed the whistling of the kettle, but no feeling about a
cup of coffee, but however, when realize it will get a delicious cup of coffee in a minutes, mouth waters even for the
whistle of the kettle.
 In this condition: whistling is conditioned stimulus (CS) as at the beginning it was not a
stimulus to change behavior.
Reg. No : 417132470
Assignment : NO 01
Level 04
 It is only the aroma of the coffee caused to water mouth and it is called unconditioned stimulus
(UCS). Mouthwatering for the aroma is called unconditioned response (UCR).
 Mouthwatering for the whistling of the kettle (CS) is called conditioned response (CR).
At the beginning –Before Conditioning
Whistle of Cause no
the kettle reaction
Unconditioned Unconditioned
Stimulus (UCS) response (UCR)
Aroma of the coffee Mouth waters
Later During Conditioning
Conditioned Unconditioned
Stimulus (CS) Stimulus (UCS)
- Whistling of the Aroma of the coffee
kettle
Unconditioned
Response (UCR)
Mouth waters
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Assignment : NO 01
Level 04
Conditioned
Conditioned Response
Stimulus (CS)
(CR)
- Whistling of the
Mouth waters
kettle
The learnt behavior in this incident was to response to the whistling of the kettle, (that is mouthwatering
to the whistling of the kettle). This behavior did not exist at the beginning. Also a conditioned stimulus may
couple with other conditioned stimulus and can get the same behavior.
For example: if a ringing of a bell introduce several times with the whistling off the kettle, and later
mouth will get watered even for the ring of the bell without whistling of the kettle.
However it is found that this type of conditioning is not at all successful in producing permanent
learning.
For example: if the whistling of the kettle is introduced at a stretch without introducing coffee,
after sometimes it will stop watering. This is called extinction of behavior. Also there is a possibility to reappear
the extinct behavior later without any effort.
Stimulus Generalization is another important feature of the classical conditioning. The tendency of
stimulus similar to a conditioned stimulus to elicit similar conditioned responses is called stimulus generalization.
Reg. No : 417132470
Assignment : NO 01
Level 04
Eg: If a child develop a fear on a certain dangerous insect, the child get fear and try to avoid whenever
he sees the similar type if insects whether they are harmless or not. Sometimes this may help the child to escape
from any kind of insect.
Instead of becoming fearful to every insect, if the child identify the dangerous insect exactly in the
above incident ( if the child able to discriminate) the child becomes fearful only when he comes across the species
of insect that he experience as dangerous. This is called stimulus discrimination.
One can see in classical conditioning only stimulus- response process occurred, but in human beings in
classical conditioning a cognitive process also takes a place.
5. What is cognition?
It is brain that carries out the function of integrating the input ( S) and output ( R ) system. The process of
perceiving, thinking and understanding which brings about the integration is referred to as cognition.
The manner or form of cognition is there for distinct from the content of cognition. Psychologists want to
know how learners construct the knowledge using different thought processes, they are interested in processes such
attention, memory and recall. Terms such as understanding, thinking, cognitive structure and cognitive processes
are used in discussing cognition.
To handle the variety and quantity of new stimuli that receives the individuals’ attention he/ she must search
for meaning and structure in the new information. The individual does this in return of what is already stored in
long term memory. In piagets’ terms this mean incorporating new perceptions into existing schema (Structures) or
forming new schema capable of assimilating the new experience.
Reg. No : 417132470
Assignment : NO 01
Level 04
6. І. In line with Carl Rogger’s ideas name the most important component in one’s personality.
Self Concept : Which consist of what he / she thinks about him/her self.
And
Ideal self: the self-concept an individual wishes to have.
Ⅱ. Explain how a distortion occurs in children’s personality as explained by Rogger’s theory.

As Carl Rogers’s explained every individual has a self-concept which consists of what he/
she thinks about him/ her self. At the same time the individual also has an ideal self. The ideal self is the self-concept
an individual wishes to have. People have a tendency to compare their self-concept with their ideal-self. However
when the real- self is in congruence with the ideal-self the personality of the individual develops into a well adjust
one. When differences between an individual’s self-concept and his ideal self is wide then he/she could become
unhappy and maladjusted.
According to Rogers, children are constantly influenced by the opinions and values of the adults around them.
Especially parents. These values contribute in forming conditions of worth, which means how they should to be
regarded as good. However when children grow up they may experience an incongruity between this ideal-self and
their real-self. This will lead to distortion since children will reinterpret their bad behavior with an excuse since they
like to think that they behave well although the behavior may not be acceptable to the others. At the same time they
could pretend that the bad behavior never happened. This denial will lead to anxiety in them and they may become
maladjusted individuals later.
Reg. No : 417132470
Assignment : NO 01
Level 04
Ⅲ. Citing with examples briefly explain five basic forms of behavior adaptations
1. Trial and error

Animals as well as human beings adapt behaviors and learn through trial and error. This could be
explained by the following experiment of Thorndike.
A cat was put inside a cage and some food was placed outside the cage within its sight. The cat has to
press a button to open the door of the cage. When cat saw the food it ran around inside the cage with the intention
of reaching the food. Accidently cat pressed the button and cage door opened and was able to reach the food.
When the cat was put back in the cage over and over again, each time cat find the way to came our earlier than
previous time. Here the consequences is the food that cat gets when it press the button. Behavior adaptation is cat
learned how to open the door.
At the end the cat leant to open the door and get to the food immediately whenever it was put into the
cage. In this incident according to Thorndike, the behavior adaptation occurred through trial and error.
Not only animals, but even human beings learn and adapt their behavior through trial and error.
For example; we sometimes find out the correct switch for a certain light from group of switches by
trying several switches.
2. Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning is a basic form of behavior adaptation in which one stimulus comes to serve as a signal
for the occurrence of a second stimulus. Stimulus is an external element that came into contact with the sense ( a physical
event) that is capable of affecting behavior.
 For example; mother make a delicious cup of coffee for you and others as home in the evening.
At the beginning you may have noticed the whistling of the kettle when water was boiling. After sometimes you may
experience the delightful aroma of the coffee and finally you were served with a cup of delicious coffee by your
mother. Later you may have experienced when you feel the aroma before getting the coffee you mouth waters and
waiting for the coffee.
Reg. No : 417132470
Assignment : NO 01
Level 04
 At the beginning that may have not noticed the whistling of the kettle, but no feeling about a
cup of coffee, but however, when realize it will get a delicious cup of coffee in a minutes, mouth waters even for the
whistle of the kettle.
 In this condition: whistling is conditioned stimulus (CS) as at the beginning it was not a
stimulus to change behavior.
 It is only the aroma of the coffee caused to water mouth and it is called unconditioned stimulus
(UCS). Mouthwatering for the aroma is called unconditioned response (UCR).
 Mouthwatering for the whistling of the kettle (CS) is called conditioned response (CR).
At the beginning –Before Conditioning
Whistle of Cause no
the kettle reaction
Unconditioned Unconditioned
Stimulus (UCS) response (UCR)
Aroma of the coffee Mouth waters

Reg. No : 417132470
Assignment : NO 01
Level 04
Later During Conditioning
Conditioned Unconditioned
Stimulus (CS) Stimulus (UCS)
- Whistling of the Aroma of the coffee
kettle
Unconditioned
Response (UCR)
Mouth waters
Conditioned
Conditioned Response
Stimulus (CS)
(CR)
- Whistling of the
Mouth waters
kettle
The learnt behavior in this incident was to response to the whistling of the kettle, (that is mouthwatering
to the whistling of the kettle). This behavior did not exist at the beginning. Also a conditioned stimulus may
couple with other conditioned stimulus and can get the same behavior.
Reg. No : 417132470
Assignment : NO 01
Level 04
For example: if a ringing of a bell introduce several times with the whistling off the kettle, and later
mouth will get watered even for the ring of the bell without whistling of the kettle.
However it is found that this type of conditioning is not at all successful in producing permanent
learning.
For example: if the whistling of the kettle is introduced at a stretch without introducing coffee,
after sometimes it will stop watering. This is called extinction of behavior. Also there is a possibility to reappear
the extinct behavior later without any effort.
Stimulus Generalization is another important feature of the classical conditioning. The tendency of
stimulus similar to a conditioned stimulus to elicit similar conditioned responses is called stimulus generalization.
Eg: If a child develop a fear on a certain dangerous insect, the child get fear and try to avoid whenever
he sees the similar type if insects whether they are harmless or not. Sometimes this may help the child to escape
from any kind of insect.
Instead of becoming fearful to every insect, if the child identify the dangerous insect exactly in the
above incident ( if the child able to discriminate) the child becomes fearful only when he comes across the species
of insect that he experience as dangerous. This is called stimulus discrimination.
One can see in classical conditioning only stimulus- response process occurred, but in human beings in
classical conditioning a cognitive process also takes a place.
Reg. No : 417132470
Assignment : NO 01
Level 04
3. Operant conditioning
This is a form of behavior adaptation in which organisms learn associations between behavior and their
consequences. According to this basic principle all behavior is maintained, changed or shaped by the consequences of
that behavior. Although there are certain limits, all children function more effectively under the right set of
consequences. Reinforcements are consequences that strengthen behavior. Punishments are consequences that weaken
behavior. Student’s behaviors are managed and changed by the consequences of classroom behavior. The following
multi-step process could be used to manage behavior through consequences.
1. The problem must be defined, usually by count or description.
2. Design a way to change the behavior.
3. Identify an effective reinforcement.
4. Apply the reinforcement consistently to shape or change behavior.
Consequences of behavior are directly related to the events that either come in immediately before or after
them.
The following example will give you a clear understanding on this.
Ravi is a boy who always shows misbehavior. He always demands for everything. His parents, even though
they knew he is wrong, always gave into his demands because he becomes aggressive when his demands are not
fulfilled. When he was admitted to the school to his surprised he found that his teacher did not react in manner the
parents react. Instead, whenever he is misbehaved the teacher asked him to go to the quiet corner of the classroom,
away from his classmate. As usual he kicked and screamed all the way to the corner. Even though Ravi’s behavior
initially worsened the teacher continue in the same manner. However Ravi noticed that on the days when he was well
behaved, the teacher smiled at him and rewarded with a cartoon sticker or special job such as collecting or distributing
the books of all the children in the class. After few weeks Ravi’s misbehaviors disappeared completely.
Reg. No : 417132470
Assignment : NO 01
Level 04
This example shows you how Ravi’s behavior changed consistent with the nature of consequences they
produced. Consequences for his misbehaving was to be in the quiet corner which he dislike and the consequences for
his well behavior is a sticker and special jobs which he likes ( Positive reinforcement)
4. Observational learning
Through modeling, observation and then imitation, children develop new behaviors. Modeling can be as simple
as having a child watch another child sharpen a pencil. By watching the model, a child can a learn a new behavior,
inhibit another behavior or strengthen previously learned behavior ( e.g. saying “ thank you” . To use modeling
effectively, it must determine whether a child has the capacity to observe and then imitate the model. In classroom
settings, a student’s response to modeling is influenced by three factors,
1. The characteristics of the model
e.g. : is this a student whom the other student like and respect
2. The characteristics of the observer
e.g. : is this child capable of observing and imitating the behaviors
3. The positive or negative consequences associated with the behavior
Children are more likely to respond to teacher modeling when they view their teachers as
competent, nurturing, supportive, fun and interesting. Children are also more likely to imitate behaviors that result in
a positive consequence.
Younger children have been reported as more frequently imitating others than older children.
Children consistently model someone whom they value or look up to. They also imitate the behavior of a same-sex
child more often than that of a different-sex child. They model someone whom they perceive as successful and socially
valued regardless of whether the teacher perceives that child as successful and socially valued. Finally if a child
Reg. No : 417132470
Assignment : NO 01
Level 04
observes a model being reinforced or punished for certain behavior, this influences the likelihood that the child will
then model that behavior.
Modeling is a powerful tool, usually underutilized by teachers. When the teachers are cheerful and
enthusiastic, their attitudes are contagious. When they are respectful of students, students respect each other. When
teachers are patient, fair, consistent and optimistic their students exhibit these traits as well. Teacher behavior sets the
tone for the classroom environment.
In 1970, Kaplan described a ripple effect in transactions between teachers and misbehaving students that
affected not only those students but also the entire classroom. Teachers who were firm reduced the problem
behaviors both from the first child who misbehaved and from those student who saw the initial problematic
behavior.
When teachers enforced rules, the ripple effect worked in their favor. When they failed to follow through
with rules, the ripple effect worked against them. Furthermore, the misbehaving student’s social standing in the
classroom was also issue. When teachers successfully managed the behavior of high- status troublemakers, their
control tended to benefit the entire classroom. Likewise the ripple effect when high-status offenders were not
managed increased negative behaviors among others. Finally when managing a disruptive behavior, it is important
to focus on tasks and behaviors rather than on approval. In the later situation, teaches may focus on their relationship
with the disruptive student when trying to get that student to behave. This strategy, unfortunately is usually
ineffective over the long term.
5. Cognitive processes
Cognitive theories explain that learning and behavior adaptations take place due to the changes occur
in the internal cognitive structures of the individuals.
Reg. No : 417132470
Assignment : NO 01
Level 04
For example, Piaget believed that what distinguishes human beings from other animal is their ability
to do “abstract symbolic reasoning”. Therefore, he believed that a behavior adaptation of human beings is a complex
cognitive process. As a biologist, Piaget was interested in how an organism adapts to it environment behavior is
controlled through mental organizations called schemas that the individual uses to represent the world and designate
action. This adaptation is driven by a biological drive to obtain balance between schemas and the environment
(equilibration).
Piaget hypothesized that infants are born with schemas operating at birth that he called “reflexes”. In other
animals, these reflexes control behavior throughout life. However, in human beings as the infant uses these reflexes
to adapt to the environment, these reflexes are quickly replaced with “constructed schemes”.
Piaget described two processes used by the individual in its attempt to adapt: assimilation and
accommodation. Both these process are used throughout the life s the person increasingly adapts to the environment
in a more complex manner.
Assimilation is the process of using or transforming the environment so that it can be placed in preexisting
cognitive structures. Accommodation is the process of changing cognitive structures in order to accept something
from the environment. Both process are used simultaneously and alternately throughout life. A child who has
developed a mental structure about bicycle will use that schema over and over again in thinking of bicycle until he
has a new experience regarding bicycles (assimilation). But when the child see a tricycle, he cannot accommodate
this new schema with his existing schema and he need to make changes in the existing schema. This is
accommodation. This will not happens at once or suddenly. For a short while, there will be in the child a vague
understanding or perception of bicycles and tricycles (disequilibrium). When his experiences regarding tricycle get
stabilized the state of disequilibrium will give place to a new and stable mental structure. Therefore assimilation
and accommodation rea two steps in the process of adaptation.

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Name : N.K.C.

1. І. Name three types of neurons

 There are in fact two types of motor neurons:

2. Explain the term “Observational Learning”

1. The characteristics of the model

2. The characteristics of the observer

e.g. : is this child capable of observing and imitating the behaviors

3. The positive or negative consequences associated with the behavior

3. Explain the process of “perception” citing examples.

At the beginning –Before Conditioning

Aroma of the coffee Mouth waters

Later During Conditioning

Ⅱ. Explain how a distortion occurs in children’s personality as explained by Rogger’s theory.

1. Trial and error

At the beginning –Before Conditioning

Aroma of the coffee Mouth waters

Later During Conditioning

1. The problem must be defined, usually by count or description.

2. Design a way to change the behavior.

3. Identify an effective reinforcement.

4. Apply the reinforcement consistently to shape or change behavior.

The following example will give you a clear understanding on this.

1. The characteristics of the model

2. The characteristics of the observer

e.g. : is this child capable of observing and imitating the behaviors

3. The positive or negative consequences associated with the behavior

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