A Study on Plant Biodiversity Management in the Homegardens of Arba

Minch Zuria (Ochollo and Channo) and Chencha (Dorze and Dookko)
Woredas of Gamo Gofa Zone, SNNPR, Ethiopia
Temesgen Dingamo E-mail-temesgendingamo@yahoo.com,
Feleke Woldeyes (PhD) and Tizazu Gebre (PhD),Arba minch University, Ethiopia.pobox 21

Abstract

This study that focused on A Study on Plant Biodiversity Management in the Homegardens of
Arba Minch Zuria (Ochollo and Channo) and Chencha (Dorze and Dookko) Woredas of Gamo
Gofa Zone, SNNPR, Ethiopia. The study aimed at documenting information concerning plant
biodiversity, local resource use norm and management and also the associated knowledge. Data
were collected using semi-structured interviews, free listing methods etc. Totally, 109 plant
species under 97 genera and 54 families were collected and identified from eighty homegardens
from the Arba Minch Zuria and Chencha Woredas. Out of the plant species recorded from the
homegardens, 52% were found to be herbaceous, 27% trees, 18% shrubs and 3% lianas.
Fabaceae and Poaceae were the most represented families with 7 (6.4%) species each and other
families the rest position .Of the 109 plant species recorded, 40 (36.7%) species are cultivated
whereas the rest 69(63.3%) species are non-cultivated or semi-cultivated useful plants managed
in and around homegardens. Ensete ventricosum, Zea mays and Brassica carinata were found
important food crops while Malus sylvestris, Mangifera indica, and Musa paradisiacal were
important cash crops of the Woreda. Arba minch Zuria and Chencha Woredas practice
agroforestry development, homegardening or field cropping to conserve and sustainably use
agrobiodiversty of the area. This research work ends in concluding about the important findings
and forwarding important recommendations on conservation and sustainable use of homegarden
components and ethnobotanical knowledge in the area.

Key words: Homegardens, Biodiversity, Ethnobotany, Indigenous knowledge

Introduction
Homegardens are frequently identified as traditional agroforestry systems with complex structure
and multiple functions (Das and Das, 2005). Besides their food production and economic rolled,
they also help to conserve plants, both cultivated and semi- or non-cultivated, in view of their
uses to the households (Abdullah et al.,2006). Thus, homegardens have gathered much research
attention during the past few decades. As authors like Fernandes and Nair (1986) and Christanty
(1990) indicate, homegardens are an eye-catching model for research and the design of
sustainable agroecosystem.The realization that the homegarden system is a vital reservoir of
unique genetic diversity has recently lead to more careful study of the food production units in
order to obtain a better understanding of their role in the management and conservation of
genetic diversity in situ (IPGRI, 2002).

According to Das and Das (2005), the uses of homegardens vary, as some are used for
subsistence agriculture and others for the commercial production of food crops. The high
diversity of plant species in homegardens, which combines crops, trees and animals having
different uses and production cycles, is considered as an essential component of sustainable
agriculture because of the wide socioeconomic and ecological roles it plays in these systems.
Villagers plant trees mainly for household consumption and income. In many countries, plant
trees are mainly planted by farmers to generate income and for the purpose of household
consumption in the form of fruits, firewood, and etc. Tree species usually incorporated in the
homegardens include those supplying food, cash, fuel wood, timber, shade, fencing and
medicine, among which majority are indigenous and some others are exotic tree species (Tesfaye
Abebe,2005).

According to Fernandes and Nair (1986) and Ninez (1987), an important feature of homegardens
is that they have multilayered structure and tropical homegardens are characterized by vegetation
layers (stories), imitating the tropical forest structure. The top storey consists of a canopy of tall
trees which reduces radiation and mechanical impact of rainfall, creates a relatively constant
micro-climate in the lower layers and through leaf fall contributes to the maintenance of soil
fertility. The lower layer features staple food and fruit production (e.g. banana, mango, papaya,
etc) followed by bush level growth (e.g. cassava, maize, peppers, etc) in the third layer. In-

2
ground and ground-covering species (roots and tubers and others) form the last layer, while
climbing species transverse the lower stories (Smith et al., 2006).

Homegardens occur in different parts of Ethiopia and particularly common in the Southern
Nations, Nationalities and Peoples Region (SNPPR) (Zemede Asfaw and Zerihun Woldu, 1997).
Gamo Gofa zone is one of the 16 zones in the SNNPR and it has a total area of 12,581.4 km 2
subdivided into 16 woredas. The zone can be characterized by its diversified and undulating
topography, ecosystems and vegetation types that favors the existence of different climatic zones
in the area (Belachew Wassihun et al., 2003). The elevation of the zone ranges from 1208
(channo) to 4200 (Gogh) masl. Homegardening is a major agricultural practice, and one can
easily notice variation in the nature of homegardens of the area depending on the local climate
and land-use practices.

Homegardens are variable with regard to plants biodiversity (species composition), management
practices as well as the prevailing biophysical, socioeconomic environment, and agroecological
zones. A detailed analysis of their plants biodiversity and useful plant in the homegarden is still
missing. There is a wide gap in our knowledge about ethnobotanical data and information from
various parts of Ethiopia although there are rich and diverse ethnic groups throughout the
country. Moreover, complete collection, identification and documentation of plants biodiversity
and useful plants have not yet been studied in the study area. And also the nature of traditional
homegardens conservation and management of useful plant species by indigenous people is not
sufficiently studied and documented in the selected research sites. When information is gathered
on constraints and options, it can be used to ensure sustainability of the homegarden systems and
even improve them. This, in turn, is of greater significance to local communities of the study
area who largely depend on the homegarden products for their subsistence. Hence, it is with this
view that this study of homegardens that involves analysis of diverse aspects of homegardens is
designed. Therefore, this research to fill this gap and to present the information concerning plant
biodiversity and resource management in the homegardens and their surroundings in the study
areas.

3
Description of the study area
The study was conducted in the Arba Minch Zuria (Ochollo and Channo) and Chencha (Dorze
and Dookko) Woredas of Gamo Gofa Zone. Chencha is located 37 Kilometers north of Arba
minch, 06014:57’N and 037034’35E and at an elevation of 2716 masl. Chencha is bordered with
Arba minch zuria in the south and southeast, and Dita woreda in the north and in the west.
Ochollo is a village located 25 km north of Arba minch, 06 011:41’N and 037034:17”E and at an
elevation of 2458 masl. The area is adjacent to Channo in the South, Dorze in the north, Lante in
the East and Shara in the west. Channo is situated at a geographic position of 06 006:38N and
037035:46E and at an elevation of 1208 masl. The topography of the area is characterized by an
undulating feature that favors existence of different climatic zones with massifs, plateaus and
plains, and a number of permanent rivers.

Figure 1 Map of the Arba Minch Zuria (Ochollo and Channo) and Chencha (Dorze and Dookko) Woredas
(Source: Ethio-GIS)

4
Vegetation
As described by Belachew Wassihun et al.,(2003) the types of natural vegetation in the Arba
Minch Zuria (Ochollo and Channo) and Chencha (Dorze and Dookko) Woredas are Montane
evergreen thickets and scrubs, Montane dry evergreen forests, Montane moist evergreen
forests and various types of savanna. In the High Potential Perennial areas where the Enset-
based homegardens are dominant, remnant trees of these evergreen forests are observed
among which Cordia africana; Podocarpus falcatus, Milletia feruginea and Bersama
abyssinica are very common and also the natural forest (vegetation) of the study area is quite
diverse and can be divided into Acacia-commiphora woodland (lower portion) and
Combretum-Terminalia woodland (upper portion). The Region includes some basaltic
highlands in the north and to the west of Lakes Abaya and Chamo and some crystalline
highlands to southern extremes (Murphy, 1968).

Gamo Gofa Zone is divided into three agro-ecological zones, namely Qolla, Weina Dega and
Dega. The study area experiences alternating wet and dry seasons. A large portion of
Chencha, Ochollo and Channo receives rainfall for most of the year (about 8 months)
(AMA2003 to 2013 and1974-2013). Chencha Woreda and Arba minch zuiar woredas receive
high rainfall in April and May with mean monthly rainfall being 202mm and 152mm
respectively. The recorded temperature data were obtained from AMA at the elevation range
from 1208m to 2764 masl and the maximum and minimum mean temperature within ten (10)
years (2003 to 2013)) varies between 23.8-31.60c and 11.8-13.60c respectively in the Figure 2
and 3. The annual mean maximum and the minimum temperature were recorded in Fab and
July, respectively (AMA and NMSA from 2003 to 2013).

5
 Chano climate diagram
Month
T
R 152 e
31.6 m
a
i 29.6 132 p
e
n 27.6 r
25.6 112
f a
a 23.6 92 t
l u
21.6 r
l 72
19.6 e
( 17.6 52 (
m 15.6 o
m 13.6 32 C
) )
Jan Feb Ma Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Figure 2: Climate diagram of Chano (Data source: Arba minch station for 1974-2013)

Chencha, Dorze and Ochollo Climate diagram

Month
P 23.8 202 T
r e
e 182 m
c 21.8
i 162 p
p 19.8 142 r
i a
t 122 t
a 17.8
t 102 u
i 15.8 82 r
o e
n 62
13.8
(
42 (
m 11.8 22 o
m C
) Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec )

Figure 3: Climate diagram of Chencha, Dorze and Ochollo (Data source: Dorze station for 2003 to
2013)

Materials and Methods

Different field equipment and materials were used during the investigation. Same are
Geographical Positioning System (GPS), digital camera, and different categories of
questionnaires were used to collect information from respondents. Furthermore, Ethiopian
Flora Volumes were used for identification of plant specimens collected from the study sites.

The study was began by selecting Kebeles and household levels (homegardens) in order to
have a fair representation of the homegardens of the Arba Minch Zuria (Ochollo and Channo)
and Chencha (Dorze and Dookko) Woredas. Systematic sampling procedures were followed
in selecting kebels. The studied kebeles include Dookko Shaye, Dookko Losha, Dookko
Dalo, Hayzo, Amaranne Boodo, Laka, Ochollo, and Channo. A total of eighty homegarden

6
(households) were sampled (i.e. 10 from each site).A combination of purposive and stratified
sampling methods was used to select the homegardens or at household level .During the
study, all selected homegardens were visited twice with during the reconnaissance and the
supplementary fieldwork.

Data were collected from Nov1 up to 30 ,2012 E.C in the study area. Taking each
homegarden as a sampling unit, every species was inventoried and the number of each
species specimens was counted. Local names of plant species, uses and growth habits were
also recorded by asking the owners and through repeated observations. Plant species were
identified on the spot and voucher specimens were collected for both identified and
unidentified specimen and taken to the National Herbarium (ETH), of Addis Ababa
University, Science Faculty, Ethiopia. The specimens were dried, and further identification
and reconfirmation were made by using the volumes of the Flora of Ethiopia and Eritrea
(Edwards et al., 1995) comparing with authenticated specimens deposited in the Herbarium
and providing final checking by taxonomic experts. Ethnobotanical information was collected
by guided garden tour, administration of individual semi- structured interviews with owners
of the gardens as well as informal discussion with indigenous people in the study sites. Semi-
structured interviews were conducted using pre-prepared interview guide that consisted of
questions on plant names, planting practices and management, plant uses and parts
consumed.

A descriptive statistical method was employed to analyze and summarize the data .The
analytical methods used include preference and direct matrix rankings, paired comparisons.
Species diversity analysis (Shannon, 1949) including (Shannon- Wiener Index, H’), species
richness and evenness (E =H’/H’max) of the most useful homegarden plant species of each
study area were analyzed. The vegetation data was analyzed with the help of computer
package (R-software or R3.0.1-version) and Microsoft Excel. The species analysis by using
the following formula.

Number of homegardens in which a species occurs

Frequency =———————————————
Total number of sampled homegardens

7
 Frequency of individual species in the homegarden
Relative Frequency =_________________________________________________X 100
Total Frequency of all species in the sampled homegardens

by using the Lamprecht (1989).

Number of tree species individuals in the sample

Density = _____________________________
Total area of the sample (m2)

Richness = S/√n
H
Evenness index = LogS ,

Where H= Shannon Wiener diversity index; S = Total number of species

8
 RESULTS
Size and Archtecture of Chencha, Ochollo, and Channo Homegardens

The survey of homegardens in the study area indicated that 95% of the households in Arba
Minch Zuria (Ochollo and Channo) and Chencha (Dorze and Dookko) Woredas practice
homegardening with 14% having their homegardens as front-yards only, 25% as a
combination of front and side-yards, and back yards as well as others being of a higher
proportion (61%). The frequency of homegardens surveyed in the study area is given in Table
1. The sizes of homegardens in the study sites ranged from 0.016 ha to 3 ha and the average
being 0.25ha. Homegarden of the area have different shapes: some encircle the house; others
are square, rectangular or irregular.

Table 1: Frequency of homegardens surveyed in the study area (DorzeAmroBoodo =DABHG, Dorze
Hyzo =DHHG, Dorze Laka =DLHG, Dookko Losha ==CLHG, DookkoShaya ==CSHG, Dookko
Dalo =CDHG, Ochollo =OHG,andChanno =CHG)

______________________________________________________________________
Kebele No. of Front yard Front yard and Backyard gardens
Houses surveyed gardens only side yard garden and others
_________________________________________________________________________
DABHG-----------------------10-----------------2--------------------2------------------------6
DHHG--------------------------10----------------2--------------------5------------------------3
DLHG--------------------------10----------------2--------------------3------------------------5
CLHG--------------------------10----------------1--------------------2------------------------7
CSHG--------------------------10----------------2---------------------3-----------------------5
CDHG-------------------------10-----------------_--------------------1------------------------9
OHG---------------------------10-----------------5 -------------------_------------------------5
CHG----------------------------10--------------- _------------------4---------------------------6

Homegardens of the study areas have complex vertical and horizontal structures. However; it
is not homogeneous in all sites. Homegardens of the study areas are homes for a collection of
multi-purpose trees, shrubs, annual and perennial crops that are under the care and
management of family members. These gardens are multi-layered as they contain plants of
different heights, which gave them a complex vertical structure.

9
In the study areas, plants are arranged horizontally following a particular pattern.
Accordingly, vegetables and herbs are planted close to the house; tuber crops, grain crops,
and fruit trees/shrubs are planted, in mixture, in mid-garden areas; and shrubs and trees are
planted at the garden margin formig the live fence. The diversity of plant species decline as
one goes from homegardens to the outfields. Crop plants like Enset (Ensete ventricosum),
Appel (Malus sylvestris), Plum (Prunus x domestica) and ornamental flowering plants were
grown on the depression close to house and live fences. Perennial trees like Olea europaea,
Vernonia amygdalina, and shrubs like Dovyalis caffra, Phytolacca dodecandraand Rubus
apepetals used as live fences.

Plant Diversity in the Homegardens of the study area

A total of 109 plant species were recorded from eight homegardens samples in the three study
areas. These plant species belonged to 97 genara and 54 families. In terms of the number of
plant species, Fabaceae and Poaceae stood first with 7 (6.4%) species each,
Euphorbiaceae,Lamiaceae,Solanaceae and Rosaceae came next with 6 (5.5%) species each,
wheras Asteraceae with 5 (4.6 %) and Rutaceae and Araceae with 4 (3.7 %) each assumed
third and fourth ranks respectively. While Apocynaceae is represented by 3 (2.8 %) and
ranked fifth, the remaining families are represents by one or two species.

The proportional contribution of plant species of different habits (trees, shrubs, herbs and
lianas) is presented in Figure 4.

Frequence
Liana
Tree 3%
24%
Herb
Shrub 49%
24%

Figure 4 Proportion of species belonging to the different habit categories

The plant species recorde from the homegardens showed different species frequencies
rangeing form 91.25 % relative frequenct to 10 %. Ensete ventricosum,Brassica carinata, and
Malus sylvestrisare the the species that ranked first to third in the respective order by
exhibiting high frequency of occurrence.
10
Analysis of proportional contribution of functional groups to the total species recorded
revealed that food and fruit crops are represented by 40 (36.7 %) species, medicinal plants by
20 (18.4%) species and shade trees by 19 (17.4%) ranking first to third in the given ordered.
The mean species number forming functional groups at the study area level, where as the x-
axis (functional groups) and the y-axis (mean number of species) are given in Figure 5.
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
... lit
y ts es e d al e ce an
t it ft
nd an spci ad oo nt cin fen ru ra
ta Uti ul Sh w e
ed
i
e en
nd
f ,C
m Fir
e
na
m
Liv ag on
oo Sti r M Fr da cuti
,r n d O o
Fo stra
b el sa
ta lse n
ege Pu Co
V
Figure 5 Mean species number of functional groups

Tree species occurred in varying densities in the three study sites and at the total study area
level. Eucalyptus globulesis found to be the most abundant (with 650 individuals per ha) and
achieved the highest relative density (0.00137). Erythrina brucei, Juniperus procera,Croton
macrostachyus, Hagenia abyssinicaand Coridia africana which are represented by 368,
340,175,164,and 105 individuals and achieved relative frequency values of 0.00077,
0.00073,0.00038,0.00035,and 0.00023 respectively second ,third ,fourth and fifth.

Analysis of of Shannon Wiener diversity index for the homegardens vegetation in kebeles of
Chenecha, Ochollo, and Channo revealed that the nine sites of the study area attained
diversity indices greater than 2.944439. While sites OHG10 and CHG5 exhibited the highest
Shannon Wiener diversity index values (H'=3.178054 and 3.135494 respectively), site
CSHG3 exhibited the least value (H'= 2.079442).

Similar diversity indices were calculated forOHG10 with H'= 3.18, CHG5 with 3.14, and
CHG4 with H'= 3.04.Equal evenness values (J= 1.000) were obtained for the nine research
sites. In addition, highest floristic similarity index (0.9545455) was observed in the clustered
homegardens at sites CSHG3 and DHHG8. However, relatively the weakest similarity
coefficient (0.25) obtained for sites CSHG8 and CSHG7.Thirty-five landraces (farmers’

11
varieties) of Ensete ventricosum recognized by the households interviewed in Chencha,
Ochollo, and Channo.

Useful Homegarden Tree Species of the Study Area

People of the study area have the tradition of using various tree species found in their
homegardens for different purposes viz., building materials, and etc. The results of 10 key
informants direct matrix ranking for five homegardens tree species were chosen depending on
the key informants' consensus Mangifera indica with a total score of 220 ranked first.
Hagenia abyssinica and Moringa stenopetala with189 and 186 assumed second and third
positions respectively. Cordia africana was given the highest score for house furniture
(Equipment/tools), Mangifera indica, Moringa stenopetala and Persea Americana were
given the highest score for shad and income generation respectively. While Hagenia
abyssinica was given the highest score for medicine, Moringa stenopetala assumed first rank
for its food and medicinal use.

Food Plants of Homegardens of the Study Area

Several cultivated food crops were found in the studied homegardens. The food crops are
generally grown as a monoculture orintercropped in the homegardens and separated from tree
canopies in most cases. Forty (40) species that are distributed among 36 and 21 families were
documented as food plants in the present study and these accounted for 36.7% of the total
species recorded. Among these, 35% of the species are fruit crops and 22.5% are vegetables.
Pulses together with spices constituted 32.5% and root, tuber and sugar crops comprised
20%. Family Poaceae is represented by 6 species, Fabaceae and Rosaceae by 4 species, and
Rutaceae and Solanaceae by 3 species each. Araceae, Anonaceae, Alliaceae, Brassicaceae
and Musaceae by 2 species each and all the rest are represented by only 1 species each.

Medicinal Plants of the Homegardens of the Study Area

A number of indigenous medicinal plants grew in the study area, including trees, shrubs and
herbs. From the total plant species, recorded in this study about 20 (18.35%) species that
belong to 17 genera and 16 families serve the community as traditional medicinal plants.
Species of the family of Asteraceae were the most used accounting for 15% of the total
medicinal plants. Herbs were the major medicinal plants (75%) succeeded by shrub species
(10%). On the other hand, leaves are the most frequently used (70%) plant parts.

12
Comparison of Most Desirable Food Crops of Homegardens

Pair wise comparisons, using ten key informants of five most desirable food crops of
homegardens that have high value for food security and other utilities were carried out.
Accordingly, Triticum spp (weheat) ranked first achieving a total score 28 whereas Malus
sylvestris (appel) and Pisum sativam (pea) that attained a total score21 and 14 respectively
stood second and third.

Management Practices in Homegardens of the Study Areas

Various management practices were carried out in the homegardens of the study area, which
manifested local people’s indigenous knowledge. These activities helped to grow high
diversity of plant species in their traditional gardens. Out of 109 plant species identified in the
present study, the maximum number of species per garden is 26 while the minimum is 2. The
fertility of soil was maintained by incorporating organic fertilizers such as house refuses,
animal manures (where ever there are barnyards) and crop residues. Garden pests like
termites that damage tuber crops such as Solanum tuberosum, Ensete ventricosum were
controlled by spreading ash on the soil and planting some plants which prevent spraying of
disease. Some gardeners forwarded that plant species like Sesbania sesban, Erythrina brucei
are also used to enrich the fertility of soil. Homegarden owners of the study area do have
accumulated indigenous knowledge on seed selection methods. There was good collaboration
among the households with regards to homegarden management.

Factors that affect plant diversity in the Homegardens of study area

As the present investigation revealed, various factors affect the diversity of plant species in
the study area. Each of the eighteen homegarden owners involved in the study identified, on
the average, two or more factors which they considered to affect plant composition in their
homegardens. Factors that are frequently mentioned to affect the diversity of the
homegardens include garden size, water availability, agricultural support system, land-
holding system management system, socio-economic condition, biological determinants and
lack of awareness.

13
DISCUSSIONS
Organization of Chencha, Ochollo, and Channo Homegardens
There are different types of homegardens in the study area as indicated in Table 1 in the
result section. This result is in line with previous studies such as Zemede Asfaw (1997),
Abedin et al. (1988) and Zemede Asfaw and Zerihun Woldu (1997) that reported that all
kinds of gardens (front-yard, side-yard, back-yard and all round) exist in Ethiopian. In
Chencha, Ochollo and Channo, the most frequent types are back-yard gardens. In Chencha,
some households, particularly those situated near the road, have front-yard and side-yard type
gardens. Identical orientation of gardens was reported from a study on Sebeta area by
Habtamu Hailu (2008).

As indicated in the result section, homegardens of the study area have different sizes and
shapes. Variability in shape and size of gardens in a study area was also reported from the
studies on homegardens of 58 sites in central, eastern, western and southern Ethiopia
(Zemede Asfaw and Ayele Nigatu ,1995), HomeGardens in Ethiopia (Zemede Asfaw 1997a),
and Wolyaita (Talemos Seta ,2007). Lack of standard size and shape of homegardens is
attributed to variation in households’ landholding size and also due to the fact that each
farmer designs his own garden and develops it through time.

Homegardens of Chencha and Channo displayed a multilayered vegetation structure with

upper, middle, lower and a groundstrata. This is in line with the argument of Fernandes et al.,
(1986), Christanty (1990), and Okigbo (1990) that the vertical canopy arrangement of tropical
homegardens approaches the four layered structure of the tropical rain forest. Decline in
composition and species diversity of homegardens plants towards the edge is comparable to
the result of Okigbo (1990), Eyzagurrie and Watson (2002), Tesfay Abebe (2005) in Coffee-
Enset based Sidama homegardens and Talemos Seta (2007) Enset-based homegardens in
Wolayita.

In the study sites, the spatial arrangement of crops and other plant species differ from one
garden to the other. The front part of the garden has two parts: an open area and a planted
part. The open area is an important place for socializing, where children learn cultural and
social values from their elders where religious rituals and cultural ceremonies take place.
Similar functions of this part of the garden were noted by Kumar and Nair (2004).

14
Ornamental plants are placed on the covered entrance of the house as potted plants or the
space closer to it. The spices are grown near the kitchen, vegetables are planted on plots, fruit
and shade trees occupied the inner edge next to the live fence, enset (Ensete ventricosum) are
cultivated on the back-yard to close the live fences, and shrubs intermingled with perennial
trees are utilized as live fences. A closely similar spatial arrangement was reported by
Zemede Asfaw and Ayele Nigatu (1995) with regard to variation in the spatial and temporal
arrangements of plant species from their study on 58 sites in central, eastern, western and
southern Ethiopia homegardens. The observed spatial arrangement of crops in homegardens
of the study sites may be connected to the functions of the crop, habit of the crop, and other
incidental or accidental factors as suggested by Okigbo (1990).

Agrobiodiversity of Chencha, Ochollo, and Channo Homegardens

The species richness of homegardens of the study area was found to be 24.This value is
higher comparable to the 22 species per garden richness of Wolayita as reported by Talemos
Seta (2007), but less than the 26 species per garden richness of traditional Gedeo
homegardens at Kochere Wereda of Gedeo Zone in South Ethiopia as reported by Solomon
Tamrat (2011) and 47 species per garden richness homegardens of Holeta Town as reported
by Mekonnen Amberber (2011) while less than 22 species per garden richness of San Juan de
Oriente as reported by Mendez (2000). The possible reason for this could be the sociocultural
similarities, especially feeding practices of ENSET as a major staple food by the Gamo Gafo
people that guides cultivation and management of other associated garden plants with respect
to it. This might had contributed to more similarity in species composition of gardens of the
two areas (Chencha and Ochollo).
Furthermore, the value of Shannon-Wiener diversity index of sites ranges from 3.09 to 3.26
(Table 5), which naturally varies from 1.5 to 3.5 and rarely exceeds 4.5 (Kent and Coker,
1992). Accordingly, Channo gardens achieved 3.14 diversity index value, Ochollo gardens
achieved 3.18 diversity index value where as Chancha gardens achieved 3.05 diversity index
value wheras. The relatively high Shannon-Wiener’s diversity index in gardens of Ochollo,
Channo, and Chancha appears to be related to 3.18, 3.14, and 3.05 while the least value
exhibited by gardens of DABHG-6 could be due to Garden size, Management system, and
Lack of awareness.
Jaccard similarity index of the study area ranged from 0.206 - 0.905. The maximum
similarity in species composition (0.8421) was observed between homegardens of Channo
and Dorze villages while the least similarity (0.7647) was observed between homegardens of

15
Ochollo and Dorze. The greater similarity between Channo and Dorze gardens could be due
to Garden size, altitude and agroecological zone while the least similarity between could be
due to Lack of awareness, Biological determinants and Water availability. Generally, the
results indicated that there are dissimilarities in homegarden species composition among the
study sites. It may be related to the existence of diversified ethnic society in the study area,
dissimilar habits for growing plants and preference of food crops as illustrated.

Analysis of frequency of occurrence of species in gardens of the three sites of the study area
revealed that Coffea arabica, Coridia africana, and Mangifera indica occurred in all of the
sampled gardens of Channo while only Ensete ventricosum occurred in all sampled gardens
of Ochollo and Chencha. Dominance of tree species in the low altitude gardens of Channo
and that of Ensete ventricosum in midland and highland gardens is principally is related to
altitudinal difference of the study sites. Out of the 10 most frequently occurring plants at the
overall study area level (Table 6), Ensete ventricosum and Brassica carinata ranked first and
second occurring in 91.25% and 72.5%of gardens in the respective order whereas the
remaining eight positions are held by shrub and tree species. This indicates that the two
herbaceous species constitute the basic food source to the households of the studied
communities while shrub and tree species form an important component of the homegardens
of the areas for the house building, shade, fire wood and other purposes.

From a total of plant species identified in the present study, 18.34% are used as traditional
medicinal plants. The findings obtained were fairly similar to that of Belachew Wassihun et
al., (2003) that reported 133 plant species grown in the ”Gamo homegardens of which 18
were medicinal plants. Among the recorded medicinal plants, 36.7% were nutraceutical
plants (i.e.food plants which also have medicinal uses. Such medicinal plants homegardens
were reported from earlier studies (Amare Getahun, 1976; Zemede Asfaw and Ayele Nigatu,
1995; Feleke Woldyes, 2000 and Tigist Wondimu et al.,2006) and are alleged recognized to
be good remedies for various ailments such as dermatological, gastro-intestinal, neurotic,
respiratory impairments of the body functions, spiritual displeasure and veterinary diseases.
The traditions of planting nutraceutical plants and tolerating non-cultivated plant species in
homegardens for medicinal purpose have a vital role to in-situ conservation of
agrobiodiversity.

16
Role of Homegardens in Local Subsistence and Conservation in the Study
Areas

The homegardens of the study area like other tropical homegardens were found to be food-
producing subsistence- farming systems. The study area homegardens used self-sufficiency
farming in which the farmers focus on growing enough food to feed themselves and their
families. The result section showed the study area that farmers cultivated several food crops
were found in the studied homegardens, including cereal crops, vegetables, spices, stimulants,
medicinal plants, ornamentals,live fences,shade trees and implements and utility plants. The
cultivated homegarden plants were composed of both food and non-food species. Forty (40)
species that accounted for 36.7% of the total species recorded as food crops. Among 13
functional groups, fruits and cereals occurred in the first rank followed by vegetables and
medicinal plants. It agree with the results of Christanity (1990); Okigbo (1990), but fruits and
vegetables are the most predominant as income generating than others groups. Enset is an
indigenous root crop cultivated and processed for human food as a main source of
carbohydrate only in Ethiopia (Brandt, 1996).Its key position in the country’s homegardens
as a dominant species is reported by Zemede Asfaw (2002).Zemede Asfaw and Ayele Nigatu
(1995) also commented that the Ethiopian homegardens house many indigenous taxa of crops
as Ensete ventricosum. The need of maintaining high plant diversity in the homegarden stems
from objectives such as self-sufficiency in producing almost all products required for
subsistence (Cromwell et al., 1999), minimizing crop loss from hazards, producing diverse
food products that meet the nutritional.

In the study area highly effort on the conservation of plants and others species, these effort
show by the species richness of homegardens of the study area was found to be 24.This value
is comparable to others homegardens higher than the per garden richness of Wolayita as
reported by Talemos Seta (2007). Because of their richness in plant species, homegardens are
regarded as an ideal production system for in situ conservation of plant species. The species
composition of homegardens varies according to climatic and edaphic factors of the place and
socio-economic condition of the people. The biodiversity maintenance by farmers in
homegardens is a type of in situ conservation of plant genetic resources, which has the
advantages of preserving the evolution processes and adaptation of crops in their
microenvironments, and to conserve the diversity at all levels (ecosystem, species and genes)

17
(Jarvis 2000; Eyzaguirre and Linares 2001).Conservation of species and its diversity in
homegardens is crucial for long-term sustainability of agrobiodiversity. They are micro-
environments within a larger farming system containing high level of species and varietal
diversity (NHGW, 2004). Das and Das (2005) further advocated that homegardens are the
sites of conservation of a large diversity of plants both wild and cultivated. Due to this, it is
widely used to the households.

The Current Trend of Change in Homegardens of the Study Areas

Homegardens of Channo, Chencha and Ochollo supply the households primarily with food
crops as well as cash crops which are important sources for satisfying subsistence need of
families. Similar roles of homegardens were reported from earlier works (Christanity, 1990;
Okigbo, 1990; and Hoogerbuugge and Fresco 1993). However, the present study revealed
that there is a trend of focusing in production of few income generating fruit (such as banana,
mango, apple, gishta) and vegetables (such as tomato, cabage, xiqelgoomen) particularly in
the Channo and Chencha sites. Identical results were reported from studies on homegardens
of War Khasi community of Meghalaya (Tynsong and Tiwari,2010) and homegardens of San
Rafael Coxcatl!an, a rural village in the semi-arid valley of Tehuac!an- Cuicatl!an, Mexico
(Blanckaer et al.,2003).The reasons for incorporation and expansion of new fruit trees and
vegetables are the tendency to give more attention to crops with fast economic return,
development oriented modern agricultural interventions, easier access to planting material.
Although the growing new income generating crops can contribute towards improvements in
locale livelihood, uncontrolled expansion of the new species may lead to reasonable
alternation of the homegarden components which may result in unexpected ecological
impact.

As the results of the present study indicated, high yielding commercial homegarden products
are derived from fruit and vegetables plants which provide 90% of the total income. This
result is not similar with the finding by Zemede Asfaw and Zerihun Woldu (1997) in
Wolayita and Gurage zones and Tesfaye Abebe (2005) in Sidama Zone, who arrived at the
conclusion that the main income derived from fruit (Mangifera indica ,Persea americana,
Prunus domestica and Malus sylvestris) and also in Java from fruit trees and coconuts, which
provide 16 - 54% of the total income recorded by Marten and Abdoellah et al., (2006).

The number of species (richness) in Chencha and ochollo sites is higher than the other sites,
but the economic productivity is less than the others. It could be related to the factors or the

18
gardeners need and interests for instance they are cultivating for subsistence use, shade, and
ornamental purpose as informants listed. It corresponds well with the result found by
Christanty (1990); the urban area income is from selling ornamental plants rather than cash
crop products.

The results of paired comparison and simple preference ranking confirmed that these plants
were neglected and the market was dominated by income generating species of plants.
However; these and others neglected species have crucial role in cultural and religious
ceremonies. According to Altieri (1995), in agricultural systems, beyond the production of
food, fiber, fuel and income, biodiversity performs ecosystem services as recycling of
nutrients, control of local microclimate, regulation of local hydrological processes, and
detoxification of noxious chemicals.

Local knowledge and Resource Management in Homegardens of Chencha,

Ochollo, and Channo
Farmers of Chencha, Ochollo, and Channo under take various indigenous management
activities that aid to maintain the diversity of homegarden species. Rich diversity of plant
species in the homegardens was obtained by cultivating and protecting a mixture of annual
and perennial herbs, and woody perennials based on the need and decision of the family
members. Similar observation was made by Belachew Wassihun et al., (2003) based on a
related study in the region.

Farmers of the study areas maintain soil fertility by using local inputs animal manure, kitchen
wastes, and crop residue. This is a common practice incidentical crop production system as
similar finding were reported by Zemede Asfaw (1997), Belachew Wassihun et al. (2003)
and Talemos Seta (2007) on Ethiopian homegardens.

Investigations made during the study made clear that farmers of Chencha and Ochollo sites
developed indigenous knowledge with respect to cultivation, preparation, and classification
of Ensete ventricosum. Ensete ventricosum is a multipurpose crop that is used for food,
fodder, medicinal and other uses; and farmers recognize 35 varieties of the species. Earlier
studies (Zemede Asfaw and Zerihun Woldu, 1997 and Habtamu Hailu ,2008) also showed
that the crop plant is used for such diverse functions in Wolayita and Gurage Zone and Sebeta
Tow Concerning varietal diversity of the crop plant, the enset population was found to be
much diverse in the study sites (35 farmers’ varieties) than that of Sebeta Town (18 farmers’

19
varieties) (Habtamu Hailu,2008). This can be interpreted in terms of long standing traditions
of enset and also more reliance on the crop plant as a major staple by the population of the
study area.

In the study area, farmers obtain seeds, seedlings and other planting materials from friends,
families, local market and the agricultural department (mainly seedlings of some plant
species such as Malus sylvestris, Sesamum indicum and Prunus domestica that are assumed to
be of better economic return or useful in environmental protection). Existence of such seed
source system is important for maintenance of the existing agrobiodiversity and its further
enhancement. The present study showed that gardener store up seeds for the next season by
selecting from products based on color, size, disease resistance, qualities, and this activity is
mainly done by females. Similar observations were reported from the study on Tropical
Homegardens (Landauer and Brazil, 1990) and the study on the Indigenous Food Plants,
Food Preparations from Indigenous Crop and HomeGardens in Ethiopia (Zemede Asfaw,
1997).
People of the study area use their indigenous knowledge for selecting, adapting of different
multi-purposes plant species to cultivate in their homegardens and utilizing for various
purposes. The result of direct matrix ranking showed that Mangifera indica is the most
widely used multipurpose tree in the area followed by Cordia africana and Hagenia
abyessinica. Juniperus procera was given the highest score for construction, crafts, and
shade, Eucalyptus globulus for construction, shade, firewood and therapy whereas Cordia
africana for construction, crafts, shade. It was indicated that diverse taxa of wild, indigenous
and cultivated multipurpose plant species were used for their unique values such as
medicinal, food, non- food and market potential. These diversified homegarden were
managed by family members.

In the present study, there are traditions of using wild and cultivated plants for treatments of
different human and domestic animals disease. It was confirmed by UNICEF (1982) that
homegardens are useful for the maintenance of good health in developing countries. This
indigenous knowledge is also important in the development of modern medicines as reported
by Dawit Abebe et al.,(2003) and Fisseha Mesfin (2007).

20
Distributional Pattern of basic garden components vis-à-vis Altitude in the
study area
The Chencha sites (with 2710-3976 m above sea level) are cool and humid most of the time
in a year. Moreover, the local people were known to plant Enset as staple food in wide than
the midlands in their homegardens. Cereals such as Hordreum vulgare, and Brassica species
were found important food crops in highlands. However, fruit crops are not prominent parts
of gardens in the highlands. For instance, the informants reported that only these days they
were trying to adapt Malus sylvestris and Prunus x domestica Lin to their gardens. SLUF
(2006) also reported that many of the lower or middle altitude crops especially fruits were
incorporated only eight decades ago.
The Ochollo site, from midland (1685-2078 m above sea level) areas, is known for coffee,
Enset, fruits and vegetable mixtures in their homegardens. This sites share plant germplasm
from both the bordering lowlands and the highlands of the Woredas. Based on data gathered
through discussions with the local people, Enset being the major staple food, root and tuber
crops were more important than cereals in this area. Brassica species were also found
important additive to the food products of Enset.

In the case of Channo sites (1201-1214 m above sea level), Musa paradisiaca , Persea
americana,and Mangifera indica still being a significant cash crop, the site was found
important for Mangifera indica plants in gardens. Enset planting was found rare as farm
component in Channo site as compared to gardens of Chencha and Ochollo sites and the local
people use cereals and root tuber crops for food other than Enset and Moringa stenopetala as
complements.

Sites around Chencha that was sampled to represent highlands of the Woreda, harbors 72
useful plant species from gardens, while those around Ochollo and Channo contain 50 and
47 respectively; representing the midlands and lowland respectively. The number of species
common to the three sites is 109; while 118, 114 and 104 plant species were recorded
common to Chencha and Ochollo, Chencha and Channo as well as Ochollo and Channo
respectively. Considering species collected exclusively in one of the three sites; tewlve for
Chencha, eight for Ochollo and five for Channo were recorded. Based on these results, the
midlands are found to possess more number of homegarden useful plant species than the
highlands and the traditional ethnobotanical knowledge were found proportionally diverse on
plant use. The higher number of common species between Ochollo and Chencha sites results

21
from the similarity in agroecological conditions, both being midlands and highlands.
Moreover, the possible reason why the study sites around Chencha get more number of
species exclusive to the site might be the high geographical distance to the other sites as well
as agroecological and slight cultural deviations that favours more number of species to be
restricted in the area.

Conclusion
From the studyon Biodiversity Management in the Homegardenof Chencha, Ochollo and
Channo, it can be concluded that the locality is rich in plant diversity. The results of the study
indicated that the homegarden had moderately high species diversity. A total of 109 species
of plants belonging to 97 genera and 54 families grouped into 13 functional groups were
recorded, but the species diversity is not consistent among sites. Fabaceae and Poaceae were
found to be the most dominant family followed by Rutaceae, Euphorbiacea and Solanaceae.
The variation in species composition and diversity among sites of the study area was affected
by lack of agricultural support, water availability, disease and pest occurrence, lack of
awareness, shifting of polycultural farming to few income generating food crops due to
market drives. If these challenges are given due attention by concerned institutions
(organization or administration body), the area will maintain its present agrobiodiversity and
will become sustainable in the future.
Local peoples in the study area have excellent indigenous knowledge for managing their
homegarden. It was indicated that diverse taxa of wild, indigenous and cultivated
multipurpose plant species were used for their unique values such as medicinal, food, non-
food and market potential. These diversified homegarden were managed by family members.
A rare trend of using chemical fertilizers and pesticides for income generating crops, most of
time used organic fertilizers .Thus, the indigenous knowledge and management practice will
change unless attention is given and proper documentation is made.
The homegardens of the study area are sites for cultivation of wild species, trial sites of new
variety of income source vegetables and other species and in situ conservation sites of
indigenous and wild species.
Chanecha,Ochollo and Channo traditional homegarden is an important place for cultivation
of edibles, cash crops, and other important plant species. This agroecosystem serves functions
of fulfilling subsistence to the local people in the area. From homegarden products pulses,
vegetables and fruits supplement staple food plants like ‘Enset’, maize, wheat and barley for
vitamins, minerals and proteins to make a would be balanced diet to the households.

22
Homegarden plants were also found important in providing household medicinal services and
additional household income, indicators of social status and implications of cultural and
language diversity of the local people.

Recommendations
The following main recommendations are drawn from the study:
 Families in the area where gardening is weakly developed can learn a lot from those
in which it is well developed and share indigenous knowledge. It should be promoted
by agricultural office with integrated nutritional education.

 The tendency of introducing market-oriented few species in homegarden threatens

other benefits and long-term sustainability of homegarden. Therefore, the agricultural
office should take care to prevent the disarticulation of local varieties of plant species
by educating people to grow multipurpose plant species, and expansion of traditional
management system.

 The participation of the local people and awareness rising through training or
education on sustainable utilization and management of plant resources should be
encouraged by concerned institutions.

 Chancha, Ochollo and Channo administration should work strongly in promoting

homegardening as an alternative plan of action and young children in the
intensification of the farming homegardens.
 Chancha, Ochollo and Channo homegardens owner, especially the farmers should
collaboratively work with the concerned woreda agricultural sector experts for the
sustainable change and common betterments with in a near future
Acknowledgements

First and foremost, I would like to glorify and bring the greatest of all thanks to God for
completion of this Msc Degree program through the existing internal and external challenges.
I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to my advisor Dr. Feleke Woldeyes
(Department of Biology, AMU) and Tizazu Gebre (PhD) for their critical comments,
guidance and invaluable suggestions throughout the research work from the beginning to the
accomplishment of the tasks. Finally, I thank those people whose names are not mentioned
here for their direct or indirect contributions to the completion of this study.

23
REFERENCES
Abdoellah O.S.,Hadikusumah H.Y., Takeuchi K., Okubo S. and Parikesit. (2006).
Commercialization of homegardens in an Indonesian village: vegetation composition
and functional changes. In: Kumar B.M. and Nair P.K.R. (eds), Tropical
homegardens: A time-tested example of sustainable agroforestry, pp 233 – 250.
Springer Science, Dordrecht
Almekinders CJM, Fresco LO and Struik PC. (1995). The need to study and manage
variation in agro-ecosystems. Netherlands Journal of Agricultural Science 43: 127-
142
Altieri, M. A. (1995). Agroecology: the science of sustainable agriculture. Westview Press,
Boulder, pp. 125-231.
Álvarez-Buylla, M., Lazos-Chavero, M.A., and García-Barrios, J.R.(1989).Agroforest.Syst.,
8, 133.
Amare Getahun .(1976). Some Common Medicinal and Poisonous Plants Used in Ethiopian
Folk Medicine. Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia, 63 pp.
Babu,K.S.,D.Jose& C. Gokulapalan. (1982). Species diversity in a Kerala home
garden.AgroforestryToday 4:15.Ban, N., and Coomes, O.T. 2004, Geographical
Review, 94, 348.
Bayush Tsegaye. (1997). The significance of biodiversity for sustaining agricultural
production and role of women in the traditional sector: the Ethiopian experience.
Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 62: 215-227
Belachew Wassihun, Zemede Asfaw and Sebsebe Demissew .(2003). Ethnobotanical study of
useful plants in Daniio Gade (homegardens) in southern Ethiopia.Ethiop. J. Biol. Sci.
2(2): 119-141.
Benneh, G. (1974). The ecology of peasant farming systems in Ghana (1).Environment in
Africa. Environment and Regional Planning Research Bulletin 1(1):35-49, Dakar,
Senegal.
BODEP (Bureau of Development and Economic Planning) of Southern Nationa, Nationalities
and Peoples' Regional State. (1996). Regional Conservation Strategy, Volume 1.
Awassa, Ethiopia
Brandt, S. A.(1984). New perspectives on the origins of food production in Ethiopia. Pp.
173–190 in From Hunters to Farmers: the causes and consequences of food
production in Africa (J. Desmond Clark and Steven A.Brandt, eds.). University of

24
 California Press, Berkeley, USA.Bukoba district, North-Western Tanzania. 1.
Farming systems analysis. Agroforestry Systems 26:53-64
Brown, B.J., Hanson, M.E., Liverman, D.M., and Merideth, R.W. (1987). Environ Manag.,
11, 713.22 María T. Pulido et.al.
Brownrigg L. (1985). Home Gardening in International Development: What the literature
shows. The League for International Food Education, Washington, DC, 330p
Caballero K. (1992). Mayan homegardens: past, present and future.Etnóecolgica 1: 35–54.
Casas, A., Cruse-Sanders, J., Morales, E., Otero-Arnaiz, A., and Valiente-Banuet, A. (2006),
Biodivers.Conserv., 15, 879.
Christanty L.(1990). Homegardens in tropical Asia with special referenceto Indonesia. pp. 9–
20. In: Landauer K. and Brazil M.(eds), Tropical Homegardens. United Nations
University Press,Tokyo.
CSA (Central Statistical Authority).(1996). Population and housing census, 1994.Analytical
report for the Southern Nations, Nationalities and People's Region. Addis Ababa.
Darshan Shankar.(1860).Growing herbal plants in home gardens for health care, The
Foundation for Revitalisation of Local Health Traditions (FRLHT), South India
;pp65-67
Das,T., Das, A.K. (2005). Inventorying plant biodiversity in homegardens: A case study in
Barak Valley, Assam, North East India.Assam University.Current Science 89/1,
155- 163.
Dawit Abebe, Asfaw Debella and Kelbessa Urga (2003).Medicinal Plants and Other Useful
Plants of Ethiopia.Ethiopian Health and Nutrition Research Institute, pp.312.
Ehret, C. (1979). On the Antiquity of Agriculture in Ethiopia. Journal of African History
20:161-177.
Endashaw Bekele.(2007).Study on Actual Situation of Medicinal Plants in Ethiopia ,Japan
Association for International Collaboration of Agriculture and Forestry, Addis
Ababa unversity, Ethiopia ,pp 12-20http://www.endashaw.com
Esquivel,M.and K.Hammer.(1992). The Cuban home garden,’Conucos’: a perspective
environment for evolutionand in-situ conservation of plant genetic resources.
Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution 39 (1):9-22.
Eyzaguirre, P.B.; Linares, O.F. (eds.).(2004). Home Gardens and
Agrobiodiversity.Smithsonian Books, Washington, USA.
Eyzaguirre, P. and Watson, J. (2002). Homegardens and agrobiodiversity: an overview
across regions. In: Homegardens and in situ conservation of plant genetic resources
25
 in farming systems. Proceedings of the Second International
HomegardensWorkshop, 17-19 July 2001, Witzenhausen, Federal Republic of
Germany, pp. 10-18 (Watson, J. W. and Eyzaguirre, P. B. eds.). International Plant
Genetic Resources Institute, Rome, Italy.
Feleke Woldeyes .(2000).A study on the biodiversity management in Daaaddegoyo
(traditional home gardens) by Kaficho people of Bonga area (southwestern
Ethiopia): An ethnobotanical approach. MSc thesis, Biology Department, Addis
Ababa University, Ethiopia
Fernandes E.C.M. and Nair P.K.R. (1986).An evaluation of the structure and function of
tropical homegardens. Agric Syst 21: 279 – 310.
Fernandes, E. C. M. and Nair, P. K. R. (1990).An evolution of the structure and function of
tropical homegardens. In: Tropical homegardens, pp. 105-114, (Landauer, K. and
Brazil, M., eds). United Nations University Press, Tokyo.30 Fernandes et al.
Fisseha Mesfin. (2007). An Ethnobotanical study of Medicinal Plants in Wonago woreda
SNNPR, Ethiopia.M. Sc. Thesis, Addis Ababa University, pp.72.34 Gautam et.al;
( 2006)
Gautam, R, Sthapit, B.R. and Shrestha, P.K. eds.(2006). Homegardens in Nepal:
Proceedingof a workshop on "Enhancing the contribution of home garden to on-
farm management of plant genetic resources and to improve the livelihoods of
Nepalese farmers: Lessons learnedand policy implications", 6-7 August 2004,
Pokhara, Nepal. LI-BIRD, Bioversity International and SDC.Encourage home
gardening for plant biodiversity conservation and management.
George W. Dickerson.(2004).Spices and Herbs for the HomeGarden New, Mexico State
University,NMSU and the U.S. Department of Agriculture cooperating pp1.
Gesseler, M., U. Hodel, H.H. Cai, V.V. Thoan, N.V. Ha, N.X. Thu and T. Ba.( 1997). In
Situ Conservation of Plant Genetic Resources (PGR) in Home Gardens of Southern
Vietnam. IPGRI/APO. Serdang, Malaysia.
Godbole, A. (1998). Home Gardens: Traditional Systems for Maintenance of Biodiversity.
Pp. 9–12 in Applied Ethnobotany in Natural Resource Management-Traditional
Home gardens (A. Rastogi, A. Godbole and S.Pei, eds.). International Centre for
Integrated Mountain Development, Kathmandu, Nepal.island, Central Maluku,
Indonesia, and its role in maintaining tree species diversity.Agroforest Syst 54: 225
González-Soberanis, C., and Casas, A. (2004).J. of Arid.Environ., 59, 245. 24 María T.
Pulido et al.
26
Goodland, R. (1995), Annual Review of Ecology and Systematic, 26, 1.
Habtamu Hailu .(2008). Homegardens and agrobiodiversty conservation in Sebeta town,
Oromia National Regional State, Ethiopia.MSc thesis-unpublished. Addis Ababa
University,Addis Ababa.
Hart, Robert A. de J. (1996a). "Forest gardening, in the sense of finding uses for and
attempting to control the growth of wild plants, is undoubtedly the oldest form of
land use in the world." p.124

High C, Shakleton CM 2000. The comparative value of wild and domestic plants in
homegardens of a SouthAfrican rural village.Agroforestry Systems, 48: 141-156.
Hijmans, R.J., L. Guarino, M. Cruz and E. Rojas, E. 2001. GIS software for PGR research:
1. DIVA-GIS. Plant Genetic Resources Newsletter 127:15-19.
Hoogerbrugge ID and Fresco LO(1993). Homegarden systems: agricultural characteristics
andchallenges. International Institute for Environment and Development,
Gatekeeper series no. 39.
House, P., and Ochoa, L.(1998).Huertos caseros tradicionales de América
Central:características, beneficios e importancia, desde un enfoque multiciplinario,
R.Lok,(Ed), CATIE, Turrialba, Costa Rica., 61.
IPGRI (International Plant Genetic Resources Institute).(2002). The economics of
conserving agricultural biodiversity on-farm.Via dei Tre Denari 472/a 00057
Maccarese, Rome. Italy.
Jacob, VJ and Alles WS.(1987). Kandyan Gardens of Srilanka. Agroforestry Systems
5:123-137
Jensen M. (1993a).Productivity and nutrient cycling of a Javanese homegarden. Agroforest
Syst 24: 187–201.
Jensen M.(1993b). Soil conditions, vegetation structure and biomass of a Javanese
homegarden. Agroforest Syst 24: 171–186
Jose D. and Shanmugaratnam N.(1993). Traditional homegardens of Kerala: a sustainable
human ecosystem. Agroforest Syst 24:203–213.
Kates, R.W., Clark, W.C., Corell, R., Hall, J.M., Jaeger, C.C., Lowe, I., McCarthy,J.J.,
Schellnhuber, H.J., Bolin, B., Dickson, N.M., Faucheux, S., Gallopin, G.C.Grübler,
A., Huntley, B., Jäger, J., Jodha, N.S., Kasperson, R.E., Mabogunje, A.,Matson, P.,
Mooney, H., Moore, B., O´Riordano, T., and Svedin, U. (2001), Science,292, 64

27
 Kent, M. and Coker, P. (1992). Vegetation Description and Analysis: A practical approach.
Belhaven Press, London. pp. 263.
Kumar B.M. and Nair P.K.R.( 2004). The enigma of tropical homegardens.Agroforest Syst
61:135 – 152.
Kumar B.M, George S.J. and Chinnamani S.( 1994). Diversity, structure and standing stock
of wood in the homegardens of Kerala in peninsular India. Agroforest Syst 25: 243–
262.
Landauer, K. and Brazil, M. (eds.) (1990).Tropical Homegardens. Selected papers from an
international workshop held at the Institute of Ecology, Padjadjaran University,
Bandung,Indonesia.pp.123-230 59 Marten and Abdoellah,1988
Lamont, S.R. and Eshabugh, W.H. (1999).Species composition diversity and use of homegardens
among three Amazonian village; Economic Botany, 54: 312.
Lamprecht, H. (1989). Siliculture in the tropics. Tropical forest ecosystems and their tree species
possibilities and methods are the long-term utilization. T 2- verlagsgeslls chaft, RoBdort,
Germany, pp. 296.
Martin, G. J. (1995). Ethnobotany: A Method Manual. Chapman and Hall, London, pp.268.
Martinet, C. and McNeely, J. (1992).Managing parks for the 21 century.A device from the
parks congress.Parks 3: 13-21.62 Martínez-Ballesté et.al; 2005
McConnell DJ.(1992). The forest-garden farms of Kandy, Sri Lanka. FAO, Rome
Méndez V.E., Lok R. and Somarriba E.(2001). Interdisciplinary analysis of homegardens in
Nicaragua: micro-zonation, plant use and socioeconomic importance. Agroforest Syst
51:85– 96.
Miller R.P., Penn Jr. J.W. and van Leeuwen J.(2006). Amazonian homegardens: their
ethnohistory and potential contribution to agroforestry development. In:Kumar B.M.
and Nair P.K.R. (eds), Tropical homegardens: A time-tested example of sustainable
agroforestry, pp 43 – 60. Springer Science, Dordrecht multidiciplinario, R. Lok, (Ed),
CATIE, Turrialba, Costa Rica., 129.
Murphy, F. F. (1968). A report on the fertility status and other data on some soils of
Ethiopia.   USAID, Oklahoma, 671 pp.
Nair P.K.R.(1993). An introduction to agroforestry. Kluwer, Dordrecht, 499p
Nair, M.A. & C. Sreedharan.(1986). Agroforestry farming systems in the homesteads of
Kerala, Southern India.Agroforestry Systems 4:339-36369

28
Nautiyal S, Vimla B, Rao KS, Maikhuri RK (2008). The Role of Cultural Values in
Agrobiodiversity Conservation: A Case Study from Uttarakhand, Himalaya. Journal
of Human Ecology, 23: 1-6
Netting RMC and Stone MP.(1996). Agrodiversity in a farming frontier: Kofyar smallholders
on the Benue plains of Central Nigeria. Africa 66: 52-6971
NHGW .(2004). Enhancing the contribution of home-gardens to on-farm management of
plant genetic resources and to improve the livelihoods of Nepalese farmers: Lessons
learned and policy implications.Nepal Home Garden Workshop, August 6-7, 2004
Pokhara, Nepal.Retrieved from: http://www.ipgri.cgiar.org/.
Ninez, V.(1987). Household gardens: theoretical and policy considerations. Agricultural
Systems 23:167-186
Okafor JC and Fernandes ECM.(1987). Compound farms of South Eastern Nigeria: A
predominant agroforestry homegarden system with crops and small livestock.
Agroforestry Systems 5: 153-168.
Okigbo BN. (1990). Homegardens in tropical Africa. In: Landauer K and Brazil M (eds).
1990. Tropical homegardens. Selected papers from an International workshop held at
the Institute of Ecology, Padjadjaran University, Bandung, Indonesia, 2-9 Dec., 1985.
United Nations University press.
Okigbo, B.N.(1994). Conservation and use of germplasm in African traditional agriculture
and use systems. Pp.15–38 in Safeguarding the Genetic Basis of Africa’s Traditional
Crops. (A. Putter, ed.). CTA, The Netherlands/IPGRI, Rome, Italy.
Padoch C. and de Jong W.(1991). The housegardens of Santa Rosa:diversity and variability
in an Amazonian agricultural system.Econ Bot 45: 166–175.
Rico-Gray V., Garcia F.J.G., Chemas A., Puch A. and Sima P.(1990).Species composition,
similarity, and structure of Mayan homegardens in Tixpeual and Tixcacaltuyub,
Yucatan, Mexico. Econ Bot 44: 470–487.
Shannon, C. E. and Wiener, W. (1949).The Mathematical Theory of
Communication.University of Illinois, Chicago, USA.
Shrestha, P., Guatam, R., Rana, R. B. and Sthapit, B. (2002). Homegarens in Nepal: Status
and scope for research and development. In: Homegardens and in situ conservation of
plant genetic resources in farming systems: proceedings of the second
internationalhomegardens workshop, 17-19 July 2001, pp.97-124, (Watson, J. W. and
Eyzaguirrre, P.B., eds). Witzenhausen, Germany.

29
Shrestha, P., R. Gautam, R. B. Rana & B. Sthapit.(2001). Homegardens in Nepal: status and
scope for research and development. pp. 105-124. In: J. W. Watson & P. B.
Eyzaguirre (eds.) Homegardens and in situ Conservation of Plant Genetic Resources
in Farming Systems. Proceedings of the Second International Home Gardens
Workshop, Witzen-hausen, Federal Republic of Germany.
Singh G.B.(1987). Agroforestry in the Indian subcontinent: past,present and future. pp. 117–
138. In: Steppler H.A. and Nair P.K.R. (eds), 83 Agroforestry: A Decade of
Development, International Centre for Research in Agroforestry, Nairobi
Smith, R. M., Thompson, K., Hodgson, J. G., Warren, P. H, and Gaston, K. J. (2006). Urban
domestic gardens (IX): Composition and richness of the vascular plant flora, and
implications for native biodiversity. Biological Conservation.129: 312-322.
Soemarwoto O and Conway G R. 1991.The Javanese homegarden.Journal of Farming
System Research and Extension 2:95-118.
Soemarwoto, O. & Conway, G.R.(1992).The Javanese homegarden. Journal for
FarmingSystems Research-Extension 2, 95-118
Soemarwoto, O.(1987). Home gardens: a traditional agroforestry system with a promising
future. pp. 157-172. In: H.A Steppler & P.K.R. Nair (eds.) Agorofrestry A Decade of
Development. ICRAF,Nairobi, Keny
Solomon Tamrat.(2010). Study of useful plants in and around Gette Ouduma (Traditional
Gedeo homegardens) in kochere wereda, South Ethiopia; an ethnobotanical approach.
M. Sc. Thesis, Addis Ababa University, pp. 95
Steinberg M.K. (1998). Political ecology and cultural change: impacts on swidden-fallow
agroforestry practices among the Mopan Maya in southern Belize. Prof Geogr 50:407
– 417.
Talemos Seta.(2007). Diversity in enset-based homegardens and its significance to
householdfood supply in Wolaita (Southernn Ethiopia): an ethnobotanical approach.
MSc thesisunpublished. Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa.93 Talukdor et.al;
2000
Tesfaye Abebe .(2005). Diversity in homegarden agroforestry systems of Southern
Ethiopia.PhD dissertation.Wageningen University, Wageningen.
Tigist Wondimu, Zemede Asfaw and Ensermu Kelbessa .(2006). Ethnobotanical Study of
Food Plants around Dheeraa Town, Arsi, Ethiopia. SINET: Ethiop. J. Sci., 29 (1): 71-
80.

30
Torquebiau, E., and Penot, E.(2006).Tropical homegardens: a time-tested example of
sustainable agroforestry, B.M. Kumar and Nair P.K.R., (Eds), Springer
Science,Dordrecht, 269.
Torquebiau, E. (1992). Are tropical agroforestry home gardens sustainable? Agriculture,
Ecosystems and Environment 41, 189-207.
UNICEF.(1982).Home gardens Handbook. Biodiversity guide for Ethiopia. World
Conservation Monitoring Centre, Cambridge, UK. Euphytica 96:1-2.
Vogl-Lukasser B, Vogl C .(2004). Ethnobotanical research in homegardens of small farmers
in the alpine region of Osttirol (Austria): an example for bridges built and building
bridges. Ethnobotany Res Appl 2:111–137
Whittaker, R.H. (1972). Evolution and measurement of species diversity.Taxon.21:213-
251.
Wiersum K.F.(1982).Tree gardening and taungya in Java:Examples of
agroforestrytechniques in the humid tropics. Agroforest Syst 1: 53 – 70.
Wojtkowski, P.A.(1993). Towards an understanding of tropical home gardens.
Agroforestry Systems 24(2):215-222
World Bank .(2006). Linking Agricultural Innovations to Knowledge Sharing in Africa. IK
Notes.Retrieved from: http://www.worldbank.org/afr/ik/default.html.
World Bank. (1997)."Knowledge and Skills for the Information Age, the First Meeting of the
Mediterranean Development Forum"; Mediterranean Development
Forum,URL:http://www.worldbank.org/html/fpd/technet/ mdf/objectiv.htm
Zemede Asfaw. (2002). Homegardens in Ethiopia: Some observations and generalizations.
In: Homegardens and In situ Conservation of Plant Genetic Resources in Farming
Systems, pp. 125-139 (Watson J. W. and Eyzaguirre, P.B., eds.). Proceedings of the
Second International Homegardens Workshop, July, 2001, Witzenhausen,
Germany.International Plant genetic Resources Institute, Rome, Italy.
Zemede Asfaw and Ayele Nigatu.(1995). Home Gardens in Ethiopia: Characteristics and
Plant Diversity, Sinet:Ethiop. J. Sci., 18(2):235-266.
Zemede Asfaw and Mesfin Tadesse.(2001). Prospects for sustainable use and development of
wild food plants in Ethiopia.Econ. Bot. 55(1):47-62.
Zemede Asfaw and Zerihun Woldu.(1997). Crop associations of home-gardens in Welayta
and Gurage in Southern Ethiopia. SINET: Ethiop. J. Sci. 20(1):73-90.
Zemede Asfaw.(1999).Ethnobotany of Nations Nationalities and Peoples in Gabella.
benishagul-Gumuz and Southern regions of Ethiopia (A research Report submitted to
31
 the Research and Publications Office of Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, pp.
172.
Zemede Asfaw.(1997a).The Indigenous Food Plants, Food Preparations from Indigenous
Crop and HomeGardens in Ethiopia. Research Report to UNU.
Zemede Asfaw.(1998).The role of home gardens in the production and conservation of
medicinal plants. Pp.76–99 in Conservation and Sustainable Use of Medicinal
Plants in Ethiopia, Proceedings of the National Workshop on Biodiversity
Conservation and Sustainable Use of Medicinal Plants in Ethiopia.IBCR,
AddisAbaba, Ethiopia.
Zemede Asfaw.(2001).The role of home gardens in the production and conservation of
medicinal plants. Pages 76-91. In: Medhin Zewedu and Abebe Demissie eds.,
Conervation and sustainable use of medicinal plants in Ethiopia. Proceedings of the
National Workshop on Biodiversity Conservation and Sustainable Use of Medicinal
Plants in Ethiopia, Institute of Biodiversity Conservation and Research. Addis
Ababa.

32
33