LIFE CYCLE PERSPECTIVE – A NEW REQUIREMENT OF

ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

Magdalena RYBACZEWSKA-BŁAŻEJOWSKA

Summary: The intention of this article is to discuss a new requirement of environmental

management systems (EMSs), which is the consideration of environmental aspects of an
organisation from the life cycle perspective, resulting from the ISO 14001:2015 standard.
Consequently, the key characteristics of the concept of life cycle perspective are described.
Subsequently, the current level of implementation of this concept by Polish organisations,
formally registered to Eco-Management and Audit Scheme (EMAS), is presented. Finally,
the author provides theoretical considerations on the suitability of life cycle assessment
(LCA) for identification and evaluation of environmental aspects from the life cycle
perspective.

Keywords: environmental management, Eco-Management and Audit Scheme (EMAS), life

cycle, life cycle assessment (LCA)

1. Introduction

In 2015, the new ISO 14001 standard concerning the implementation process of
environmental management systems (EMSs) was announced. One of the main changes in
the revised version of the ISO 14001 standard is life cycle perspective. Life cycle
perspective requires organisations to control or influence the way their products and
services are designed, manufactures, distributed, consumed, and end-of-life treated as to
prevent environmental impacts from being shifted within the life cycle [1]. Organisations
have a three-year transition period after the revision has been published as to ensure the
compatibility of their EMS to the new edition of the standard. Considering the above, the
prime aim of the article is to support the inclusion of the concept of life cycle thinking into
organisations’ day-to-day operations. And thus, the author discusses key requirements of
EMSs on life cycle perspective, presents the current level of application of life cycle
perspective amid Polish organisations and finally specifies potential tool to its
implementation.

2. Key requirements of environmental management systems that refer to life cycle

perspective

While implementing EMS organisations are required to identify environmental aspects that
can be controlled and influenced, and to determine these that have a significant impact on
the environment, from the life cycle perspective. According to the ISO 14001:2015
standard, environmental aspect is “an element of an organisation’s activities or products or
services that interacts or can interact with the environment”. Environmental aspects cause
environmental impacts, being the environmental consequences of organisation’s operation.
When determining environmental aspects, organisations ought to take into account:
 − “changes, including planned or new developments, and new or modified activities,
products and services,
− abnormal conditions and reasonably foreseeable emergency situations” [1].
Considering the ISO 14001:2015 standard requirements, the process of determining
environmental aspects can be divided into four major stages, including:
− identification of activities, products and services that will be embraced by EMS,
− recognition of environmental aspects (inputs and outputs) related to them,
− identification of environmental impacts, adverse or beneficial, resulting from the
determined environmental aspects, and finally
− evaluation of environmental aspects in order to determine the significant ones.
Essentially, environmental aspects are identified during the planning phase, which is the
case of ISO 14001 certified organisations, or an initial environmental review, which is the
case of EMAS registered organisations.
Addressing the concept of life cycle perspective by organisations means taking the
responsibility for all stages of a product or service that can be controlled or influenced.
Life cycle is defined as “consecutive and interlinked stages of a product or service,
including raw material acquisition, design, production, transportation/delivery, use, end-
of-life treatment and final disposal” [1]. By looking on its activities from the life cycle
perspective, an organisation can potentially prevent or mitigate adverse environmental
impacts during the above enumerated life cycle stages (see Fig. 1).
As to apply the life cycle perspective to products and services, organisations ought to
consider a number of issues, including [3]:
− the life cycle of the given product or service,
− the stage in the life cycle their product or service is in,
− the degree of control or influence they have over the life cycle stages, and finally
− the possible influence on the supply chain.
The above is only possible by strong network co-operation across organisations, including
suppliers, manufacturers, intermediaries, third-party service providers and customers [4].

3. The application of life cycle perspective amongst Polish organisations

Managing environmental aspects is a very complex issue and, therefore, for that purpose
organisations apply EMSs. EMS can be defined as a problem identification and problem
solving tool, which provides organisations with a method to systematically manage their
environmental activities, products and services and helps to achieve their environmental
obligations and performance goals [5]. ISO 14001 and Eco-Management and Audit Scheme
(EMAS) are two the most important EMSs. Continual improvement, prevention of
environmental pollution and legal compliance are the principles of EMSs. [6] Due to the
fact that there is limited reliable data on organisations certified to ISO 14001, the level of
application of life cycle perspective amid Polish organisations is discussed upon the official
statistics of the General Directorate for Environmental Protection regarding organisations
registered to EMAS.
According to the database of the General Directorate for Environmental Protection,
there were 70 organisations in Poland formally registered to EMAS by the end of 2016 (see
Tab. 1) [7]. The first formal EMAS registration was in 2005 and since then EMAS shows a
dynamic increasing trend. Although the predominant part of organisations comes from the
 Fig. 1. Model of life cycle and ISO 14001:2015 requirements
Source: Own research, based on [2]

industrial sector (involved in manufacturing), recently organisations from the service sector
and authorities have been joining the scheme too.

Tab. 1. Growth of EMAS registered organisations in Poland from 2005 to 2016

2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016

NO. OF EMAS REGISTERED
ORGANISATIONS 2 12 18 32 41 70

GROWTH RATE [%] 500 50 78 28 71

Source: Own research, based on [6]

The core of EMSs is the continual improvement circle called also as “Plan-Do-Check-
Act (PDCA)” circle [1]. The PCDA circle is an iterative process, which crucial elements
are developing an environmental policy and planning, and implementing it. Subsequently
the system is checked to make sure it is functioning as planned and if necessary corrective
actions are introduced. Finally, top managers review the system at planned intervals. If any
of these elements is missing, the continual improvement is very difficult to achieve.
Although the steps to having EMAS in place are basically parallel to the ISO 14001
system, it includes few other specifications for continual improvement, such as an initial
environmental review, an active involvement of employees, a documented legal compliance
and finally the publication of an environmental statement [8]. The initial environmental
review being a comprehensive analysis of the environmental impacts (direct and indirect),
caused by an organisation’s activities, products and services is a fundamental EMAS
requirement regarding the application of the concept of life cycle perspective. Direct
environmental aspect are associated with these activities, products, and services of
organisation, over which it has direct management control, whereas indirect environmental
aspects are associated with the activities, products, and services of organisations it co-
operate with through production stages, transportation and supply chain and thus cannot be
fully controlled [9]. Use of raw materials and natural resources, including water, energy and
heat, emissions to air, water and land, and finally generation of waste are sample direct
environmental impacts.
To explore the application of the concept of life cycle perspective while determining
environmental aspects and their consequences to the environment amid Polish organisations
registered to EMAS cluster analysis was used. Consequently, exemplary organisations were
chosen for the analysis representing the industry, services and public administration.
Despite the fact that their environmental declarations constituted an essential source of
information, the author investigated a number of other EMAS related documents to have a
broader view on the research issue.
The analysis of environmental declarations proved that Polish organisations do not
apply life cycle perspective while determining environmental aspects. Instead, they still
apply production or service oriented method and rely on traditional, very often subjective,
approaches and criteria when assessing their influence on the environment. Consequently,
Polish organisations confront their business or statutory performance, first of all, against
legal requirements, expectations of interested parties and environmental factors (probability
of occurrence within organisation’s processes, duration of impact or range of impact), less
frequently costs and image.
Notwithstanding of the type of organisation, they recognise direct and indirect
environmental aspects having input, output or other (qualitative) character (see Tab. 2). The
most often occurring inputs are water, energy, heat, paper and other natural resources
consumption, whereas the most often occurring outputs are emissions to air (CO2, NOx,
SO2), water pollution and waste generation. Although the occurrence of inputs and outputs
is relatively balanced, 30 – 53% in the case of manufacturing company, 50 – 40% in the
case of service company and 41 – 53% in the case of public administration, the research
proved that the output-based environmental aspects do not have sometimes their
counterparts in the inputs used. However, organisations determine environmental aspects
independently and there are also good examples. This is the case of manufacturing
organisation where inputs and outputs are assigned separately to each unit process, taking
place in the company.
Finally, despite the fact that the identification of environmental impacts resulting from
determined environmental aspects has a character of cause-and-effect relationship, it is
solely expressed at the level of man-made interventions on the environment. Therefore,
natural resources depletion, air pollution and water pollution are the most frequently
occurring environmental impacts in Polish organisations registered to EMAS.
Unfortunately, none of them convert inputs and outputs into category indicators
representing environmental mechanisms such as climate change, acidification or
eutrophication.
 Tab. 2. Characteristics of environmental aspects amongs Polish organisations formally
registered to EMAS (three examplary organisations)
TOTAL NUMBER
OF SIGNIFICANT CHARACTER OF
ENVIRONMENTAL ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS
TYPE ASPECTS
OF ACTIVITY
THEREIN THEREIN INPUTS OUTPUTS OTHER
DIRECT INDIRECT [%] [%] [%]

MANUFACTURING 16 7 30 53 17

SERVICE 8 2 50 40 10

PUBLIC
8 9 41 53 6
ADMINISTRATION
Source: Own research

4. Life cycle assessment (LCA) and its role in implementing the concept of life cycle
perspective

The ISO 14001 standard does not recommend a single method for determining
environmental aspects considering life cycle perspective, however, it obligates
organisations to take into account “the inputs and outputs that are associated with its current
and relevant past activities, products and services; planned or new developments; and new
or modified activities, products and services” [1]. Moreover, organisation ought to consider
emissions to air, releases to water, releases to land, use of raw materials and natural
resources, use of energy, energy emitted, generation of waste and by-products and use of
space, which corresponds to their environmental aspects. Considering the above, a
performance of life cycle assessment (LCA) while identifying environmental aspects seems
to be a reasonable solution.
Life cycle assessment (LCA) is one of techniques of life cycle management (LCM) that
evaluates the environmental aspects and potential environmental impacts of a product
system (i.e. any goods, production process or service) throughout its life cycle, from raw
material acquisition, through production, distribution and use, up to end-of-life treatment
[10, 11]. Depending on the end-of-life treatment, LCA is defined as the cradle-to-cradle
analysis, in case of reuse and recycling, or the cradle-to-grave analysis, in case of disposal.
LCA is regulated by the series of ISO 14040 standards, which Polish equivalents are:
− PN-EN 14040:2009 Environmental management – Life cycle assessment –
Principles and framework, and
− PN-EN 14044:2009 Environmental management – Life cycle assessment –
Requirements and guidelines.
The methodology of LCA is structured along a framework that is the subject
of worldwide consensus and forms the basis of a number of ISO 14000 standards.
This framework divides the entire LCA procedure into four distinct phases [12]:
− goal and scope definition,
 − life cycle inventory analysis (LCI),
− life cycle impact assessment (LCIA), and
− interpretation.
Goal and scope definition is the first phase of LCA. It incorporates a number of
successive operations, including the formulation of the goal of the analysis, the
determination of a product system and its functional unit, and finally the definition of the
system boundaries [13]. The goal of the study ought to be formulated transparently, not
only in terms of what is to be done, but also of the reasons for executing the study [12]. The
product system is a set of material, product and energy connected unit processes that fulfil
one or more defined functions. Unit process is the smallest part of the product system for
which the environmental data are collected. The system boundary is a set of criteria
specifying unit processes being a part of a product system (see Fig. 2) [14].

THE SYSTEM
BOUNDARY

Fig. 2. A simplified product system for PET bottle

Source: Own research, cf. [15]

Life cycle inventory (LCI) is the second phase of LCA. It covers the collection and
quantification of inputs and outputs, assigned to each unit process individually, for a given
product system throughout its life cycle [13]. Inputs cover two types of data, i.e. inputs
from nature (resources) and inputs from technosphere (materials, fuels, electricity and
heat). Outputs cover all emissions (to air, water and soil), waste and non-material emissions
(radiation, noise) (see Fig. 3). Depending on the goal and scope, the LCA analysis can rely
on foreground data and/or background data.
Life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) is the third phase of LCA. It defines the
relationship between the environmental inventory (environmental aspects) and defined
impact categories, and category indicators (environmental impacts) at the midpoint level
and areas of protection at the endpoint level. The mandatory elements of LCIA are the
selection of impact categories, category indicators and characterisation models,
classification (assignment of LCI results to the impact categories) and characterisation
(calculation of category indicator results) [13]. The optional elements of LCIA are
normalisation (calculating the magnitude of the category indicator results relative to
reference values) and weighting (assigning weights to different impact categories). Due to
the complexity of the LCIA phase, there is a range of sophisticated LCIA methods,
including: Eco-indicator, ILCD, IPCC, CML, ReCiPe, to support LCA practitioners.

Fig. 3. An exemplary general scheme of LCI for tissue paper production

Source: Own research, cf. [16]

Life cycle interpretation is the last phase of LCA. It ought to enable the evaluation of
results, as to their consistency and completeness, an analysis of achieved results, in terms of
soundness and robustness and the formulation of conclusions and recommendations
regarding the reduction of environmental impacts [12].
Considering the above, the primary responsibilities of LCA that predispose this
technique to implementing the concept of life cycle perspective by organisations are [17,
18]:
− the identification and assessment of inputs and outputs of both direct and indirect
environmental aspects and related to them environmental impacts,
− the documentation of potential environmental aspects of the product during all
stages of its life cycle,
− the analysis of the possibility of occurrence of interrelated environmental impacts as
to avoid the transfer of pollution,
− recognition of the character of changes in the environment by including several
impact categories at the midpoint and endpoint level, and finally
− the prioritization of improvement, by the evaluation of environmental impacts and
thus it enables organisations to concentrate their endeavours on activities, products
or services that need the greatest control or influence.
Last, but not least important strength of the LCA technique is the availability of
standardized, scientifically based and software supported methodology for it performance
that brings reproducible results.
As every method, LCA is not free of limitations from the point of the considered
applications, which are a relatively high complexity, time consumption and cost
requirements [19]. They stem primarily from the following facts: necessity to collect
extensive foreground environmental data, purchasing LCA software and training or hiring
employees. Despite these weaknesses, LCA proves high potential in implementing the
concept of life cycle perspective.
5. Conclusions

The life cycle perspective is a step change in the approach to environmental

management systems and thus determining environmental aspects. Polish learning
organisations will soon understand it and turn towards innovative methods supporting their
continual improvement. Consequently, it can be expected that in the near future, LCA
become a common practice amid ISO 14001 certified and EMAS registered organisations.

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PhD Magdalena RYBACZEWSKA-BŁAŻEJOWSKA

Department of Production Engineering
Faculty of Management and Computer Modelling
Kielce University of Technology
25-314 Kielce, Al. Tysiąclecia Państwa Polskiego 7
Tel. (41) 34-24-378
e-mail: m.blazejowska@tu.kielce.pl