The Phases of Penetration and Diffusion PDF

The phases of penetration and diffusion
of Egyptian artefacts and cults in the

region of Istria and Illyricum
(from the 7th c. B.C. to the 4th c. A.D.)
I. PREVIOUS STUDIES ABOUT THE DIFFUSION

OF THE EGYPTIAN ARTEFACTS AND DIVINITIES
IN ISTRIA AND ILLYRICUM
The research of the archaeological material related to the Oriental and

Egyptian cults in the region of Illyricum and Istria started in the 1850’s. During
the last 150 years the great numbers of the artefacts were discovered during
various archaeological excavations in Istria or Illyricum.1 These artefacts
were published by the great number of scholars from Italy, Austria, Slovenia,
Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Hungary, Serbia, and France. The whole
bibliographical survey of the books, articles, papers and catalogues about the
previous publication of the material and historical studies with 316 references
will be published in by the end of 2014 or in early 2015.2 This is the main
reason why I will not discussed the previous publications in which material
was analysed and published, and the various historical interpretations of the
diffusion. In this short chapter I will just pass through the most important names
that made the previous studies with their key hypothesis.
1 For this study relevant were the west regions of Istria (today in Italy, Slovenia and Croatia),
the whole region of Illyricum from the boarders of Noricum to Moesia (today in Slovenia, Croatia,
Bosnia and Herzegovina, Hungary, Serbia, Kosovo and Montenegro).
2 TOMORAD 2014b. .
Aegyptus et Pannonia 5, 2013 185

Mladen Tomorad
The first synthetic paper about the diffusion of the Egyptian cults in
Croatia was published in 1887 by the Croatian scholar and archaeologist Š.
Ljubić.3 In it Ljubić analyzed the cult of the Hellenistic child-god Harpocrates
and reviewed the findings of Egyptian artefacts related with the cult of Osiris,
Isis, Harpocrates and Serapis which was discovered at the east Adriatic coast
and inland. In his two publications W. Drexler partly analyzed the archaeological
material from Austrian-Hungarian Monarchy, and among them artefacts from
Pannonia and Dalmatia was included.4
The first complete systematic catalogue of the artefacts with the
first preliminary synthesis related the diffusion of the Egyptian cults from the
territory of ex-Yugoslavia was collected in the 1968 PhD by B. Perc.5 Next
year (1969) L. Vidman published SIRIS,6 the catalogue of all epigraphic
monuments from the Roman Empire dedicated to Isis and Serapis, but without
the inscriptions with the theophoric names. In it he reinterpreted the previous
known monuments from Istria and Illyricum which were previously published in
Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum.7 Since the early 1960’s P. Selem published
wide range of publications about the artefacts and the diffusion of the Oriental
and Egyptian cults in Illyricum. In them he analysed and discussed various
types of monuments (epigraphic inscriptions, statuettes, shabtis, amulets,
gems, oil lamps, etc.)8 and diffusion of the cults of Egyptian divinities (Serapis,
Harpocrates, Bes, Anubis, Hermes Thot, Nefertum, Jupiter Ammon, Isis, and
Sekhmet) and their connections with the other Oriental cults (Mithras, Magnae
3 LJUBIĆ 1887, 33-36.

4 DREXLER 1890; DREXLER 1900,145-158.
5 PERC 1968.
6 VIDMAN 1969 = SIRIS.
7 SIRIS, 272-295.
8 In his early publications by the end of 1970‘s he analysed monuments from Emona (today
Ljubljana), Celeia (today Celje) and Poetovio (today Ptuj) in Slovenia, Senia (today Senj), Iader
(today Zadar), Aenona (today Nin), Salona (today Solin), Bratia (today Brač), Pharos (today Hvar),
Narona (today Vid near Metković), Epidaurum (today Cavtat), region of Lika, Siscia (today Sisak),
Marsonia (today Slavonski Brod), Mursa (today Osijek) and Teutoburgium (today Dalj) in Croatia,
Oklaj Promine, Fojnica and Komin near Pljevlje in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Sirmium (today
Sremska Mitrovica), Bassianae (today Petrovci), Burgenae (today Novi Banovci) and Guberevac
in Serbia, Drsnik near Peć in Kosovo, Čačak and Suvi Lukavac in Serbia. After 1980 he discussed
the monuments from Sveti Križ and Gornja Lendava in Slovenia, and Cuccium (today Ilok) in
Croatia.
186
The phases of penetration and diffusion of Egyptian artefacts and cults
Mater, Cybele).9 In 1977 M. Ch. Budischovsky published monograph about the

diffusion of the Egyptian cults on both sides of the Adriatic Sea.10 The same
year E. Imamović published monograph about the antique religions in Bosnia
and Herzegovina which included chapters about the Oriental and Egyptian
cults in the Roman province of Dalmatia.11 During his active work V. Jurkić-
Girardi published great number of publications related with the Oriental and
Egyptian cults in Istria and one synthetic monograph in which he catalogued
and analysed monuments related with the Egyptian divinities in Istria (Jupiter
Ammon, Isis Fortuna, Attis-Serapis-Sabasius and Hathor).12 In 2001 L. Bricault
published atlas of the diffusion of the Isaic cults (the fourth century B.C.-the
fourth century A.D.) with three maps related with the territory of Istria and
Illyricum.13 In 2002 K. Giunio published the article in which he catalogued and
analysed the monuments related with the Egyptian gods at the Eastern Adriatic
coast in which he analysed several previously unpublished artefacts from the
Archaeological museum in Zadar.14 In 2004 A. Bugarski-Mesdjian published
her synthetic article about monuments and the diffusion of the Oriental cults in
Dalmatia.15 Since 2000 M. Tomorad published wide range of articles about the
Egyptian collections in Croatia, and the diffusion of Egyptian cults in Istria and
Illyricum. He focused his research on shabtis as one type of artefacts related
with Egyptian divinities in Greco-Roman world.16 In 2005 M. Tomorad published
two articles17 in which he analysed material and written sources related with
Egyptian cults of Isis and Serapis among the sailors and merchants in Roman
fleet with incorporated material from Istria and Illyricum.
9 SELEM 1971, 291-332; SELEM 1972, 7-104; SELEM 1980, 1-75; SELEM 1997.
10 BUDISCHOVSKY 1977.
11 IMAMOVIĆ 1977, 253-263.
12 JURKIĆ-GIRARDI 2005, 147, 203-205, 216-217, 224-225.
13 BRICAULT 2001, 19, 21, 118-120, 123-129.
14 GIUNIO 2002, 21-63.
15 BUGARSKI-MESDJIAN 2004, 563-717.
16 TOMORAD 2000, 1-14; TOMORAD 2004, 89-116; TOMORAD 2006, 279-309, TOMORAD
2015a, 186-190; TOMORAD 2015b..
17 TOMORAD 2005a, 241-253; TOMORAD 2005b, 441-450.

Mladen Tomorad
II THE PHASES OF THE PENETRATION AND DISSEMINATION

OF THE EGYPTIAN CULTS TO THE
EAST ADRIATIC COAST AND ILLYRICUM
1. INTRODUCTION
The penetration and diffusion of the Ancient Egyptian cults to the

territory the east Adriatic coast and Illyricum probably happened during several
phases. According to the previous archaeological and historical studies and
mine latest preliminary typological research of ancient Egyptian artefacts kept
in the various museum collections in this region, we can identify four main
phases of penetration and dissemination:
1) during the first half of the first millennium B.C. when the first ancient Egyptian
artefacts were probably traded by the Phoenician and Greek merchants,
2) during the Greek colonization of the eastern Adriatic coast when more
intensive connections were established and when the first dissemination
probably started (late Bronze age-early Iron Age, around ninth century to the
end of the third century B.C.),
3) the period of the Roman conquest of Illyricum (the end of third century B.C.
to the end of Augustus’ reign),
4) during the Roman rule of Illyricum (the first century to the first half of the fourth
century A.D.), dissemination started during the reign of Emperor Claudius,
and it became more vital during the reign of the Flavian dynasty (A.D. 69-96).
Egyptian cults with syncretistic elements (Isis Fortuna, Hermes-Thoth, Jupiter-
Ammon, Serapis with lions etc.) appeared during the first century and their
popularity continued until the middle of the third century A.D. With the rising of
Christianity at the beginning of the fourth century A.D. we can see a gradual
decline in popularity of all pagan cults which were, at the end of the fourth
century, completely prohibited by emperor Theodosius.18
In previously mentioned synthesis and articles the artefacts related with
diffusion of the ancient Egyptian cults in Illyricum were previously dated from
18 CTh XVI.1.2; CTh XVI.10.8; CTh XII.1.112; CTh IX.16.11; CTh XVI.10.10- XVI.10.12; CTh,
II.8.22; CTh, XVI.10.13; CTh, XVI.10.16.
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the first century to the middle of the fourth century. In these works genuine
ancient Egyptian artefacts (shabtis, amulets, scarabs, figurines) which could
not be dated with any archaeological context were not dated. In most cases
they were not studied according their typology and were not used as the
authority, which can determine an earlier penetration of the ancient Egyptian
elements and possible cults in Istria and Illyricum.
2. THE POSSIBLE EARLY PENETRATION OF EGYPTIAN ARTEFACTS

(THE TENTH TO THE THIRD CENTURY B.C.)
The early dissemination of Egyptian material culture probably started

during the first millennium B.C. when Egyptian religious artefacts (amulets,
scarabs, seals, shabtis etc.) were traded by the Phoenician and Greek
merchants at almost every region of the eastern Mediterranean coast.19
The typological study of blue faïence shabti (AMZ, inv. no. E-561, Pl. 69a),
discovered in Solin (ancient Salona) during the nineteenth century, dated it
to the period of the Twenty-second Egyptian dynasty (945-715 B.C.).20 Since
the early Iron Age, the Illyrian settlement of Salona was one of the most
influential trading posts along the coast. This type of shabti was not typical
for the later periods of Egyptian history and it was not discovered anywhere in
Southeastern Europe during the Greco-Roman period. However, could it have
arrived to the Illyricum settlement of Salona before the Greek colonization
of the Adriatic? Without any archaeological context of the finding we can not
confirm or deny such a thesis. It could have come to Salona anytime between
the eighth and the first centuries B.C. with some unknown merchant from the
Aegean region, Near East or directly from Egypt. In my opinion there are two
options for such a thesis: 1) it could simply be an exotic artefact or souvenir
brought from Egypt before the Hellenistic period, or 2) it might have been
robbed from some Twenty-second dynasty tomb somewhere in Egypt and later
19 About relations with Ancient Egypt and the penetration of Ancient Egyptian elements to
the Mediterranean world see: WITT 1971, 46-58; DUNAND 1973; HÖLBL 1979; PADRÓ I
PARCERISA 1980-1985; HÖLBL 1986; TOMORAD 2000, 8-9; BRICAULT 2001; TOMORAD
2004, 95; TOMORAD 2006, 279; Tomorad 2015a, 168..
20 TOMORAD 2006, 297, no. 22 ; Tomorad 2015a: 168, 179..

Mladen Tomorad
sold to anunknown merchant, traveller or member of the Isiac cults during the
Hellenistic period and the late Roman Republic. The blue faïence shabti from
Salona could be the first ancient Egyptian religious artefact which could have
come to the eastern Adriatic coast during the first millennium B.C.
The only artefact for which we have archaeological context is the New
Kingdom glazed pierced scarab of the local Illyrian magnate, discovered during
the Iron Age tumulus, in Trnjaci-Pilatovići (near Užička Požega in southwestern
Serbia). It was unearthed during the archaeological excavations of a grave
mound in 1978.21 The discovery is dated around 550-520 B.C. The piercing
through the scarab suggests that it was used as an amulet which was worn
around a person’s neck or ankle. A wealthy member of the local community
probably bought it from a trader from the East. The reason why he bought it will
probably remain mystery.
An Egyptian bone handle of a dagger, discovered by local farmer in
the village Sesvete, near Požega, in May 1979, is another interesting artefact
which could have come to Illyricum during this period. It has the goddess Isis
carved onto it. It is still unpublished. There is possibility that was crafted in
Nubia or the Ancient Near East during the Twenty-seventh dynasty or the Late
period of Egyptian history. The location where it was discovered is surrounded
by several Neolithic, Iron age and Roman sites and it is possible that it was
bought by some wealthy member of the Illyrian community like the finding from
Trnjaci-Pilatovići.
It is most likely that the first influential dissemination of ancient
Egyptian artefacts in Dalmatia started during the Greek colonization of the
eastern Adriatic coast. Along with the Greek archaic material remains, the
first ancient Egyptian artefacts probably came to Istria and Illyricum (amulets,
scarabs, shabtis, and maybe the first statuettes of divinities). Such artefacts
could have come to the eastern Adriatic coast from the Etruscan coastal port
Spina, in the valley of the river Po, which was established on the northern
Adriatic coast during the seventh and sixth centuries B.C.,22 or directly from the
Aegean region, Egypt or the eastern Mediterranean. In this region, Oriental,
Greek and Etruscan ceramics, bronze and goldsmith products, reliefs, pottery
and figurines were traded from southern Italy, Etruria, Greece, and Macedonia
21 NMU 202. ZOTOVIĆ 1985, 92-95; ANĐELKOVIĆ 1991: 67-68;TOMORAD 2015a, 173..
22 CAMBI 2002, 14; MIHOVILIĆ 2002, 514; TOMORAD 2015a: 172-173.
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to the Near East and Egypt.23

On the middle Dalmatian islands, inland of the eastern Adriatic coast,
and Istria, a great number of shabtis, amulets, scarabs, and beads, with
hieroglyphic inscriptions, figurines, and statuettes of Isis, Osiris, and Isis-Hathor
with Horus or Harpocrates were discovered.24 Typological studies made during
the research of the Egyptian collections in museums and private collections in
Croatia showed that these artefacts were all products of pre-Roman periods,
and can be dated from the New Kingdom until the Ptolemaic period. For most
of them we do not know the archaeological context, but we do know where
they were found and in some cases the exact year.
3. PENETRATION AND EARLY DIFFUSION OF EGYPTIAN CULTS

DURING THE ROMAN CONQUEST OF ILLYRICUM
(THE THIRD CENTURY B.C.-THE FIRST CENTURY A.D.)
During the Ptolemaic period (306-30 B.C.) the connections and trading
between Illyricum and Egypt became more active, but archaeological remains
do not reveal if these connections were direct or indirect. Along the well
established Amber Route, merchants from the Aegean region and possibly
from Phoenicia and Egypt traded various kinds of goods which were paid
for with Greek, North African (Numidia, Cartago) and Ptolemaic coins. Such
trading is documented with several coin hoards, containing Ptolemaic coins,
which were discovered in territories in Croatia (Široka Kula (1846), Valpovo
(1886), Vrankamen (1887), Mazin (1896), Gračac (1925/1926), Istria, around
Rijeka, around Senj, the middle Dalmatia, islands of Vis, Korčula and Hvar,
the cape Ploče), Bosnia and Herzegovina (Kula, Zvonigrad (the nineteenth
century), Donji Unac near Drvar (1894), Izačić (1907), and Slovenia (Radlje
near Maribor (1850).25 According to the previous studies by I. Mirnik, these
coin hoards can be dated between the third century B.C. and the early first
23 NIKOLANCI 1966, 107; CAMBI 2002, 12-17.

24 AMZ: E561-5, E675, E766, MIB348; AMS: 1221, AV372-5, B214-18, B757, G1622-32, G1676,
G1886-7, H374-8; H5503-7, H2604, H5459-62, I11, I1185; AMIP: A5220 (Pl. 70c); NMU 202 etc.
25 The more detail analysis of these coin hoards with their findings see in: TOMORAD 2015a,
173-175.

Mladen Tomorad
century A.D. The dating of the coin hoards from the second century varies
from 186 B.C. to the late second century, and coin hoards of the first century
vary from the beginning of the century to 9 A.D.26 According to the research
that I did during the spring of 2013 most of these specimens are now kept in
the Archaeological museum in Zagreb, the Archaeological museum in Split,
Zemaljski muzej in Sarajevo, the Archaeological museum of Istria in Pula,
the Museum of naval history and history of Hrvatsko primorje in Rijeka, the
Museum of Senj, the Museum of the city of Šibenik, and Kunsthistorisches
Museum in Vienna.
According the dating of the coin specimens discovered at the various
sites on the eastern Adriatic coast and inland, we can assume that some kind
of economic commerce between Illyricum and Egypt existed since the early
third century B.C. Sadly, these archaeological finds do not give us answers
whether this was direct commerce or indirect from some other traders (who
were most likely from Cartago, Numidia, Greece or a Greek colony around
the Mediterranean and used Ptolemaic coins as the means of payment).
In the ancient world coins were part of very extensive trade, and they were
exchanged by weight but if these coins were brought to Illyricum by Ptolemaic
traders or someone else we do not know. During the Late period, the Egyptian
economy did not use their own currency, and for international and domestic
commerce Egyptians used mostly Greek and Persian coins. Ancient Egypt
started to use their own currency during the early Ptolemaic period, and since
then Ptolemaic coinage was used in their international trade within Egypt and
outside Egypt. The Ptolemaic coins were used for the payment of various
kinds of goods and services by Egyptian traders, but also by Phoenician and
Greek merchants who used them in their international commerce all over the
Mediterranean world.27
It is interesting to note that the biggest number of Ptolemaic coins
were located at the territory of the Illyrian tribe Japodes28 in Široka Kula, Mazin,
26 MIRNIK 1981, 37; TOMORAD 2015a: 173.

27 BOWMAN 1986: 107.
28 Japodes dwelt to the north of the other Illyrian tribe Liburnians. They occupied the interior
of the eastern Adriatic coast between the rivers Kupa and Una, and the great mountain range
of Velebit which separated them from the coastal Liburnians. Their territory covered the central
inlands (today in Croatia) and the Una river valley (today in Bosnia and Herzegovina).
192
Gračac, Donji Una, and Izačić on the western boarder of modern Croatia and
Bosnia and Herzegovina. These findings confirm that Japodes established
trade routes with merchants from Egypt, Greece and the North Africa. According
to historical and archaeological interpretations of the archaeological material
from the region of the Illyrian tribes Japodes and Liburnes, these two tribes
had well organized amber trade since the beginning of the first millennium B.C.
At the same time, Liburnes had been the most important naval and political
force on the eastern Adriatic from the ninth century until the sixth century B.C.
During the fifth century B.C. they lost their influence in the central Dalmatian
region but they kept their influence on the Northern Adriatic and inland from
their main centres, Aenona and Iader, until the end of the first century B.C.29
In the fourth century B.C. Greek geographer Pseudo-Skylax described the
women in the societies of Liburnes and Iapodesas women who had more
influential positions and sexual freedom.30 P. Selem31 used it for his hypothesis
that the prominent positions of women in their societies could enable a more
influential perception of the ancient Egyptian goddess Isis during the Roman
colonization and the Romanization of Dalmatia, but without any presumption
that the dissemination of the ancient Egyptian cults could start earlier than
the first century A.D. In the region around Zadar, Nin, Lika, and the border
between Bosnia and Croatia several Egyptian artefacts have been discovered
so far. During an archaeological excavation in 1932, in Ostrožac near Bihać
(Bosnia and Herzegovina), shabti was discovered in a Roman grave (the first
century B.C.).32 In another the first century Roman grave, from an unknown
site in Lika, a statuette of Serapis and shabti was discovered during 1940’s.33
In Aenona shabti and pseudoshabti (New Kingdom, Ptolemaic dynasty)34 were
discovered along with several oil lamps with carved Isis, Serapis and Jupiter
Ammon, and a statue of Isis (the first century A.D.)35; in Iader a terracotta oil
29 DIMITRIJEVIĆ/TEŽAK-GREGL/MAJNARIĆ-PANDŽIĆ 1998, 306-318.

30 Ps. Skyl., 21. This description is part of the so called Pseudo-Skylax Períplous which was
probably written between 380 and 320 B.C. For a more detailed analysis of the Pseudo-Skylax
text related to the Illyrian tribes along the Eastern Adriatic coast see in: SUIĆ 1955, 121-85. For
the latest translation and commentary of this source see in: SHIPLEY 2011.
31 SELEM 1971, 299.
32 AMZ MIB348. Unpublished.
33 AMZ MIB358. Unpublished.
34 AMZ E675-E676.
35 AMZd L. 163 (t.k. 4379, I.e. 6820), L. 878 (375, I.a. 1383/2, t.k. 4427), L. 495 (I.e. 7298).

Mladen Tomorad
lamp with Isis and Serapis (the first century A.D.)36 and a bronze amulet of
a mummified figure (Ptolemaic dynasty to the first century A.D.)37. All these
findings document the presence of Egyptian artefacts and divinities in that
region from at least the first century B.C. and possibly earlier.
More then one hundred Egyptian artefacts (shabtis, amulets, beads,
scarabs, bronze statuettes of divinities etc.) were discovered along the eastern
Adriatic coast from Istria to Epidaurum (today Cavtat).38 The biggest numbers of
Egyptian artefacts were discovered in Salona,39 the middle Dalmatia region,40
on the islands of Korčula, Hvar, and Vis.41 Most of them were discovered
during 19th century, and today we do not know much about the archaeological
context of these findings except the location of the discovery. According to their
typology, iconography, and the artistic style of crafting, they should be dated
from the Late period to the Ptolemaic dynasty. These artefacts most likely
came to the eastern Adriatic region from the early third century B.C. to the
end of the first century B.C. Were they just part of the goods which merchants
sold to local communities or were they the first evidence of Egyptian cults
which penetrated the eastern Adriatic region during this period? Sadly we
do not posses any archaeological evidence that could provide an answer to
that question. If we compare these findings with the material discovered in
Spain, France, Italy, Aegean and North Africa there is a great possibility that
those artefacts could have arrived to the eastern Adriatic coast and inland
36 AMZd 3672
37 AMZd without inventory number.
38 AMZ: E561-5, E675, E766, MIB348; AMS: 1221, AV372-5, B214-8, B757, G1622-32, G1676,
G1886-7, H374-8; H5503-7, H2604, H5459-62, I11, I1185; AMIP: A5210 (Pl. 71a-c), A5220-1.
70a), A5523-4, A5048; AMS: H2604; NMU: 202. Several artefacts without inventory numbers are
also kept in private collections Lik, Marović and Domančić, and in museum collections in Graz,
Hvar, Ptuj, Senj, Szekszárd, Triest and Vienna.
39 The ten shabtis crafted from the Twenty-sixth to the Ptolemaic dynasty (coll. Marović, AMZ:
E561-5), ten bronze statuettes of Osiris (AMS: H374-8, H5006, H5459, H5461-3), five statuettes of
Isis-Hathor nursing Horus (AMS: H5003-5, H5007, H5460), and Wedjet-eye amulet (AMS: G1629).
40 The eight shabtis crafted from the Eighteenth dynasty to the Late period (AMS: B212-6, G1623-
4, G1626), the four scarabs (AMS: AV373, G1632, G1886-7), pearl with hieroglyphic signs (AMS:
AV372, 374-5), the fragments of the Ancient Egyptian artefacts with or without hieroglyphic signs
(AMS: B217-8, B757), Wedjet-eye amulet (AMS: G1676).
41 Shabti (Twenty-seventh dynasty-Ptolemaic dynasty; coll. Domančić), shabti (Twenty-seventh-
Ptolemaic dynasty, AMS G1625), the two wedjet-eye amulets and the pendant amulet with falcon
with crown (AMS: G1627-8, G1631).
194
before the Romanization of Illyricum during the first century A.D.42 They could
be a crucial element in confirming that the first worshippers of Egyptian cults
were already present in that region. If this thesis is correct then the first active
penetration of ancient Egyptian divinities probably happened between the end
of the third century B.C. until the end of the first century B.C., before the end
of the Roman conquest of Illyricum. Sadly, from this period we do not have
any epigraphic evidence which could confirm the existence of Egyptian cults.
The earliest surviving epigraphic evidence of Isaic cults and communities
were dated to be from the first century A.D. In Auternum Vestinorum (today
Pescara, Italy) two epigraphic inscriptions from the first century A.D. document
the presence of collegium Serapis (CIL IX.3337 = SIRIS 475, 677 = RICIS
615/0401) and collegium Isidis (CIL IX.3338) in Salona. These collegiums
could have developed from the previous individual worshippers or even small
communities of worshippers of Egyptian divinities (Isis, Serapis, Osiris, and
Harpocrates) which are documented on bronze figurines discovered along the
eastern Adriatic coast. They could be imports from Egypt, Italy, the eastern
Mediterranean or Aegean region during the period from the third to the first
centuries B.C., or they could have been be looted from ancient Egyptian tombs
and sold during the Greco-Roman period. The findings discovered in the Roman
settlements on the eastern Adriatic coast and inland, which date from the first
century A.D. until the end of the third century A.D., have a different typology
from the artefacts from the Late and Ptolemaic periods. Does it mean that this
typological older material came from an earlier period than the artefacts from
the Roman period? We cannot confirm such a hypothesis but that is definitely
possible.
According to the previous discussion and the archaeological findings
from the eastern Adriatic coast and inland, I assert that the first penetration
and dissemination of Egyptian cults could have started during the third and the
second centuries B.C. The first worshippers of Egyptian gods and goddesses
were probably present along the coast and inland in the communities of various
Illyricum tribes, and in locations where Greeks established their colonies and
42 TRAN TAM TINH 1971; TRAN TAM TINH 1972; DUNAND 1973; BUDISCHOVSKY 1977;
HÖLBL 1979; PADRÓ I PARCERISA 1980-1985; HÖLBL 1986; TOMORAD 2000: 8-9; BRICAULT
2001.

Mladen Tomorad
trading posts which developed prominent communications with the Aegean

region, Egypt and North Africa (e.g. Etruscans, Phoenicians, Cartago etc.).
One of the most interesting artefacts from the region is a small bronze sistrum
discovered in the pre-Roman settlement of Nesactium (today Vizače near
Pula).43 It is dated from the early second century B.C. to the first century A.D.44
The reason for different dating is probably the typical thinking: that Egyptian
cults appeared in that region from the 1st century A.D. Since the pharaonic
period sistrums were, in the ancient world, typical symbols of the cults of Isis
and Hathor. According to the typology, iconography and comparisons with
similar sistrums from various museums around the world, this sistrum can be
dated to the Ptolemaic period. It could be evidence of some worshipper of Isis
or Hathor who lived in the area of Nesactium, or evidence of early dissemination
of Egyptian divinities in Istria. Bronze figurines of the Egyptian divinities
Neith, Harpocrates, Apis and Osiris, discovered in Istria, are all products of
the Ptolemaic period (the third to the first centuries B.C.) which could have
come to Istria anytime during that period. Sadly the archaeological context for
all these findings was not preserved, and the only confirmed location is Bale
(ancient Valle), where a larger Osiris statuette was found. There are several
possible regions from where they could have come to Istria: from the Etruscan
settlements on the west coast of the Adriatic, some Greek settlement on the
eastern Adriatic coast, directly from the Aegean region, south Italy, eastern
Mediterranean, North Africa or Egypt.
The most interesting objects from this period are ten, still unpublished,
ancient Egyptian artefacts unearthed on the island of Krk.45 According to the
information given by the archaeologist Ranko Starac (Pomorski i povijesni
muzej Hrvatskog primorja, Rijeka), they were found in late Hellenistic graves
from the middle of the first century B.C. The graves, which were excavated in
the backyard of the house Šinigoj in the city of Krk (ancient Curicum), were
43 AMIP A-5048.(Pl. 70b)

44 It was found in 1908 during archaeological excavations in Nesactium, in a grave with an urn
and a terracotta oil lamp which were dated to the second century B.C. Later it was not dated, or
it was dated to the first century A.D. PUSCHI 1914, 59-60; GNIRS 1915, 121; PERC 1968, 157-
158, no. 14; BUDISCHOVSKY 1977, 173; DŽIN 2001, 18-19; TOMORAD 2003, 49, fn. 193; GIUNIO
2002, 26-27; TOMORAD 2005, 17; TOMORAD 2005, 48-49, no. 3 ;TOMORAD 2015b, 177, 181-182.
45 TOMORAD 2015a: 177, 186-195; TOMORAD 2015b; TOMORAD & SLIWA 2015. .
196
dated to the period of civil war between Pompey and Julius Caesar, around
49 B.C. In my opinion they can confirm my hypothesis that ancient Egyptian
artefacts (shabtis, scarabs and amulets) came to the eastern Adriatic coast
before the first century A.D. In early 49 B.C. Julius Caesar ordered Publius
Cornelius Dolabella to build a fleet in the Adriatic,46 and part of this fleet was
stationed in Curicum under the command of Gaius Antonius,47 probably the
brother of Marcus Antonius. At the same time, a Pompey fleet, under the
command of Marcus Octavius and Lucius Scribonius Libo, was stationed in
Issa, and sent to the north Adriatic. After the battle at Krk, in the middle of 49
B.C., the fleet of Gaius Antonius was defeated and he had to surrender to
Marcus Octavius’ troops who took charge of Curicum.48 It is known that part
of the Pompey fleet and military forces who defeated Gaius Antonius near
Krk were recruited in Libirnia, Aegean region and Egypt.49 It is very likely that
a few of these soldiers or sailors who died during the early years of the civil
war (49-48 B.C.) were buried in these late Hellenistic graves with the Egyptian
artefacts which they brought from Egypt or Hellenistic east. We can neither
confirm nor deny that they were worshippers of Egyptian divinities, but that
option is possible.
4. THE DIFFUSION OF EGYPTIAN CULTS DURING THE PERIOD

OF ROMANIZATION AND THE ROMAN RULE OF ISTRIA AND ILLYRICUM
(FROM THE FIRST CENTURY TO THE FOURTH CENTURY A.D.)
This period of diffusion was mostly studied in all previous historical

and archaeological articles and books. That is the reason why will I only divide
all the artefacts in several stages of the diffusion.
The next phase of dissemination of Egyptian cults happened during
the period of the Romanization of the Istria peninsula, Illyricum and Pannonia
during the first century A.D.50 According to previous studies the settlers
46 App. Civ. II.41.

47 App. Civ. II.41..
48 App. Civ. II.47; D. C. XLI.40-411-2.
49 VEITH 1924, 627-674; ŠIŠIĆ 1925, 93-94; MATIJAŠIĆ 2009, 129-31.
50 More about the process of pacification and Romanization in this region in: MATIJAŠIĆ 2009,
87-221; DOMIĆ-KUNIĆ/DŽINO 2013.

Mladen Tomorad
from Italy were considered to be the first members of Roman society which
introduced the cult of Isis and Serapis in Pannonia.51
The oldest artefacts from this period are two oil lamps with the relief
of Isis from Poetovio (Ptuj, Slovenia),52 usually dated to the reign of the
Emperor Claudius I (A.D. 41-54).53 During the same period, at the territory of
the other Illyrian tribe Colapiani in Dalmatia, two shabtis from terracotta54 were
discovered near the ancient Aequum (today Čitluk, small village near Sinj,
Croatia).55 The typology of these shabtis56 suggests the possibility that they
could come to the area around Aequum sometime during the last centuries
B.C. or during the first century A.D. The other artefact that probably belonged
to this phase is the statue of the goddess Isis which is sitting on the throne
with two lions beneath her legs. It was found during the early 1950’s in the
area of Senj.57 L. Bricault dated it from the first century B.C. to the first century
A.D.58 when ancient Senia (today Senj) was used as the stronghold against the
nearby Illyrian tribes Japodes and Liburnes.
The artefact, which could actually be dated to the period of the Flavian
dynasty, was discovered in Pola. It is a marble fragment of a head depicting
the Egyptian goddess Hathor,59 which was excavated from an amphitheatre
in Pula during the archaeological season of 1932-1933. It was found among
building material and mortar during the reconstruction work of the visitors’
seats, together with a coin of the Roman emperor Galba. 60
There are many other artefacts that could be dated to the first century
51 WESSETZKY 1961; MÓCSY 1962, col. 734-736; PINTEROVIĆ 1967, 26-27; LENGYEL/
RADAN 1980, 185-193; SELEM 1980, 1-75; RENDIĆ-MIOČEVIĆ/ŠEGVIĆ 1998, 10.
52 LJG: 5683, 8310.
53 s SARIA 1937, 23; PERC 1968, 192, nos. 40-1; SELEM 1972, 34, 37; SELEM 1980, 19, nos.
31-2; SELEM 1997, 136, nos. 8.23-4.
54 The first shabti from green colored enameled terracotta typologically is the typical shabti
produced during the 26th dynasty in Egypt. The second shabti from brown terracotta was probably
crafted during the Late or Ptolemaic period. FMS: without inventory numbers.
55 The Roman settlement Aequum was formed during the fifth decade of the first century A.D., but
at the same are pre-Roman settlement was also discovered.
56 TOMORAD 2006, 285-6, nos. 1-2.
57 DEGMEDŽIĆ 1952, 251-4, pl. 1 and 4.
58 BRICAULT 2001, maps XXVI-XXVII, 119, 125, 129.
59 AMIP A-8712.
60 DEGRASSI 1933, 395-396; PERC 1968, 148-150; JURKIĆ-GIRARDI 2001, 14-15; TOMORAD
2003, 48, FN. 180; TOMORAD 2005, 16-17; TOMORAD 2005, 45-6.
198
A.D. They were discovered in Tergeste, Aegida (Kopar), Loron near Poreč, Pola,
Galižana, Savudrija, Aenona, Iader, Aternum (Pescara), Salona, Oklaj Promine,
Poetovio, Sv. Križ, Andautonia, Siscia, and Mursa. They were dedicated to Bes
(Oklaj Promine),61 Isis (Tergeste,62 Aegida,63 Aenona,64 Poetovio,65 Siscia66),
Isis Fortuna (Tergeste,67 Silbonis,68 Lika,69 Andautonia70), Isis with Horus (Sv.
Križ71), Isis Panthea (Galižana72), Isis and Serapis (Aenona,73 Iader74), Isis,
Serapis, Liber, Libera and Anubis (Iader75), Jupiter Ammon (Pola,76 Asseria,77
Andautonia,78 Siscia79), Osiris, Isis and Nephtis (Mursa80) and Serapis (Pola81).
Many of the Egyptian artefacts “re-discovered” in various museums,
during the project Croato-Aegyptica, are still not analyse, date or publish. Due
to the lack of archaeological context of most of the findings, we will probably
never find out when and how they came to Istria and Illyricum. According
to typology, iconography and crafting techniques of these artefacts, we can
presume that many of them could have arrived during the 1st or 2nd centuries
A.D. In his articles and books, Selem82 made a hypothesis that some of them
could have been crafted in local workshops related to the worshippers of
Egyptian cults but there is no evidence that can support such a hypothesis.
It is possible that such workshops existed near the sanctuaries or temples
61 AM: H4427.
62 MCAT, without inventory number.
63 MCAV, without inventory number.
64 AMZ A34.
65 LJG 5683, 8310.
66 MCA 581.
67 MCAT 2457, 2466, 3440, and one without inventory number.
68 AMIP A4620.
69 AMZ A4633.
70 APA, without inventory number.
71 NHMV 55419.
72 AMIP A41.
73 AMZd L.163, L.878.
74 AMZd 3672.
75 MMV, without inventory number.
76 AMIP: A391, A393, A16602.
77 AMZd 213.
78 APA, without inventory number.
79 AMZ, without inventory number.
80 MSO AA-6243.
81 AMIP 313.
82 SELEM 1963, 94-107; SELEM 1969, 125-44; SELEM 1971, 291-332; SELEM 1972, 7-104;
SELEM 1980, 1-75; SELEM 1997.

Mladen Tomorad
in the main centres of Isaic cults but we still do not have any archaeological
evidences that can support such theory.
The next big group of artefacts mostly came to Croatia during the
second century A.D. and during the reign of Severus dynasty with the great
influence of the syncretism of the various divinities (e.g. Jupiter Ammon, Isis
Fortuna, Isis Tyche, Hermes Thot, Mercury Thot, Harpocrates Helium, Serapis
with lions, etc.). The biggest group is devoted to Serapis and crafted as the
marble tomb stele with a head of Serapis with kalathos or only kalathos between
two lying lions. They were discovered in Pannonia region of Illyricum in Sirmium
(today Sremska Mitrovica),83 Bassiana (today Petrovci),84 Teutoburgium (today
Dalj),85 near Križevci86 and in Koprivnica87. Other monuments with syncretistic
elements were mostly bronze statuettes (Isis Fortuna, Isis Tyche, Hermes Thot,
Mercury Thot, and Harpocrates Helium) or parts of architectural decorations of
city forums in Pola and Iader (e.g. Jupiter Ammon).
There is also a group of objects which were produced or brought to Illyricum
during the third century B.C. or the first half of fourth century A.D. Such artefacts
are mostly funerary steles and tombstones. Along with all these artefacts there
are many epigraphic monuments with votive and funerary inscriptions (altars,
cippus of the tombstone, etc.), and with theophoric names (Isiodora,88 Apius,89
Isiada,90 Aeflnia Isias,91 Isias,92 T. Annius Isiodorus,93 Pomponius Serapion,94
Serafio,95 Aurelius Isiodorus96) which can be dated from the first to the fourth
century A.D.
In previous publications artefacts without any knowledge of the
83 Eight of them are today kept in the museum in Sremska Mitrovica and three in the Archaeological
museum in Zagreb (inv. nos. 164a-b, 165).
84 AMZ: A161-3.
85 MSO 6148.
86 CMKr 26.
87 Today in the City museum of Koprivnica.
88 From Aenona or Iader. CIL III.10004.
89 From Clambetae (Gradina near Obrovac). It was kept in Kruševo and today it seems to be lost.
90 From Dugopolje. AMS A5966.
91 From Pola. AMIP 439. CIL V.101.
92 From Pola. AMIP 339.
93 From Pola. AMIP A4118.
94 From Pučište on the island of Brač. AMS, without inventory number. CIL III.3101.
95 From Salona. AMS, without inventory number.
96 From Salona. AMS A310. CIL III.8935.
200
archeological context discovered in Illyricum and Istria were mostly dated

during the long period from the first to the end of the fourth century A.D. For
the genuine Egyptian artefacts I did prolonged this dating for reasons which
I already argument in previous sections of this article. These artefacts are
twenty-nine Egyptian shabtis (discovered in area of modern Čitluk, at the
island of Hvar, area of Salona, the Middle Dalmatia, Daruvar, Osijek, Ostrožac
near Bihać, Nin and Kazale in Istria), various amulets (discovered at the
island of Hvar and in the Middle Dalmatia ), stele of Pedi-hor-pa-khered from
Mursa,97 gems (discovered in Pharos, Salona, Mursa, Siscia and Stolac),
various statuettes of the Egyptian divinities (discovered in Marsonia, Mursa,
Siscia, the region of Istria, Knin, Salona, the middle Dalmatia, and Epidaurum)
, lamps (discovered in Poetovio, Andautonia, Aenona, Iader, and Salona),
and various other artefacts (vessels, reliefs, inscriptions etc.). Not genuine
Egyptian artefacts related with the Egyptian divinities could be imports from
Roman Egypt, Italy or the eastern Mediterranean and Aegean region during
the period from the early first century to the middle of the fourth century A.D.
Some artefacts, like Nilotic relief discovered in Salona in 189198 and
the architectural decorations of the Diocletian palace in Split (sphinxes brought
from Karnak in Egypt, one Ptolemaic statue of prince or king, columns etc.)
which had been previously analyzed in the context of Egyptian cults on the
eastern Adriatic coast should be reconsidered as the Roman “Aegyptiaca”, as
they probably had nothing to do with Egyptian cults or divinities.
With the rising of Christianity at the beginning of the 4th century A.D.
we can observe a gradual decline in the popularity of Egyptian and Oriental
cults which were, at the end of the 4th century, completely prohibited by
emperor Theodosius.99
97 MSO AA-2590.
98 AMS D-150.
99 More about it in Tomorad 2015c, 150-151.

Mladen Tomorad
III ANALYSIS OF THE DIFFUSION OF EGYPTIAN DIVINITIES

AND THE EGYPTIAN ARTEFACTS WITH THE LOCATIONS OF THEIR
DISCOVERY IN ISTRIA AND ILLYRICUM
1. ISTRIA
Locations of discovery of the monuments related with Egyptian divinities:

Italy: Tergeste (Trieste)
Slovenia: Aegida (Kopar)
Croatia: Emonia (Novigrad), Loron near Poreč, Parentium (Poreč), Kazale
near Filipani, Pola (Pula), Silbonis (Savudrija), Ager Polensis (Galežana),
Nesactium (Vizače)
Monuments related with Egyptian and syncretistic gods and goddesses:

Apis: unknown location (2)
Harpocrates: unknown location
Hathor: Pola
Isis Augusta: Tergeste, Parentium, Emonia, Pola
Isis with Harpocrates: Tergeste
Isis: Tergeste, Aegida, Pola
Isis Fortuna: Tergeste (4), Loron, Pola, Silbonis
Isis lactans: Tergeste
Isis Panthea: Ager Polensis
Jupiter Ammon: Pola (6)
Neith: unknown location
Serapis: Tergeste, Pola
“Genuine” Egyptian artefacts:

Shabti: Kazale
Sistrum: Nesactium
Theophoric names Isiodorus, Isias (2) on epigraphic inscriptions: Pola (3)
202
Table1:
Table 1: Egyptian
Egyptian divinities
divinitiesononthethe
artefacts fromfrom
artefacts IstriaIstria:
Divinity A
Divinity ArE
A Al ArE EIn Al OL EIn ThN OL St ThN St
Apis 2
Apis 2
Harpocrates
Harpocrates 1
1
Hathor
Hathor 1 1
Isis 1 1 1 3 1
Isis 1 1 1 3 1
Isis Augusta 4
Isis Augusta 4
Isis Fortuna 7
Isis Fortuna 7
Isis lactans 1
Isis lactans 1
Isis with Harpocrates 1
Isis with Harpocrates 1
Isis Panthea 1
Isis Panthea 1
Jupiter Ammon 7
Jupiter Ammon 7
Neith 1
Neith 1
Osiris 1
Osiris 1
Serapis 1 1
Serapis 1 1
A = Amulet, Al = Altar with inscription, ArE = Architecture elements, EIn = Epigraphic
A = Amulet, Al = Altar with inscription, ArE = Architecture elements, EIn =
inscription with an altar, OL = Oil lamp, ThN = Theophoric names, St = Statue or statuette
Epigraphic inscription with an altar, OL = Oil lamp, ThN = Theophoric names,
St = Statue or statuette
2. DALMATIA

Italy: Auternum Vestinorum (Pescara)
Croatia: Curicum (Krk), Senia (Senj), Clambetae (Obrovac), Aenona (Nin),
Iader (Zadar), Asseria (Podgrađe near Benkovac), Varvaria (Gradina near
Bribir), Lika, Knin, Aequum (Čitluk), Tragurim (Trogir), Salona (Solin), Smiljevci
near Solin, Dugopolje near Split, the Diocletian palace in Split, Promona
(Oklaj Promine), Narona (Vid near Metković), Bostan, Proložac near Imotski,
Epidaurum (Cavtat), Pharos (Stari Grad, island of Hvar), island of Hvar, island
of Brač, Pučište at the island of Brač
Bosnia and Herzegovina: Ostrožac near Bihać, Zenica, Turbe near Travnik,
Bigeste (Ljubuški Humac), Livno, Fojnica, Stolac, Municipium S. (Komine near
Pljevlje)

Mladen Tomorad

Anubis: Salona, unknown location
Bes: Salona, Promona
Harpocrates riding crocodile related with Isis Thermutis: Aenona (2)
Harpocrates: Aenona, Iader, Salona, Smiljevci, Stolac
Hermanubis: Salona
Hermes Thot: Knin (2), Salona
Horus?: Hvar
Isis and Serapis: Aenona (2), Salona, Pharos, Municipium S., unknown location
in the region of Zadar
Isis lactans: Salona, unknown location
Isis, Serapis, Liber, Libera and Anubis: Iader
Isis: Aenona, Varvaria, Bigeste, Auternum Vestinorum, Salona, Narona,
Bostan, Fojnica
Isis Thermutis: Aenona
Isis Fortuna: Lika, Proložac
Isis Hathor with Harpocrates: Salona (5)
Jupiter Ammon: Aenona, Iader (4), Asseria, Salona, Narona
Nefertum: Pharos, unknown location
Osiris: Iader, Salona (6), Pharos, unknown location
Phallic pendant amulet: Salona
Sekhmet: Epidaurum
Serapis: Senia, Iader, Auternum Vestinorum, Salona, Smiljevci, Turbe, Livno
or Fojnica
Serapis Jupiter Ammon: Salona

Amulets of cats: Curicum (5)
Canopic jar: unknown location
Head of Ptolemaic ruler: the Diocletian palace
Egyptian sphinxes: the Diocletian palace (13)
Egyptian ureus: Zenica
Male Egyptian figure: Salona
Parts of figurines with or without hieroglyphic signs: the Middle Dalmatia (3)
204
Pearls with hieroglyphic signs: the Middle Dalmatia (3)

Relief representing the life on the Nile: Salona
Scarabs: Curicum (2), Salona (3), the Middle Dalmatia (4)
Shabtis: Curicum (2), Aenona (2), Ostrožac, Čitluk (2), Salona (10), the Middle
Dalmatia (8), Pharos (2)
Theophoric names on epigraphic inscriptions: Isiodo(rae) from Aenona,
Isiodor(ae) from Iader, Apius from Clambetae, Iulia Serapia from Tragurim or
Klis, Serafio from Salona, Isiacae Firminae from Salona, Aurelius Isiodorus
from Salona, Isiada from Dugopolje, Pomponius Serapion from Pučište, L.
Cornelis Serapion from unknown location
Wedjat-eye amulet: Salona, Pharos (2)
Table 2: Egyptian divinities on the artefacts from Dalmatia

Divinity A Al ArE C EIn G OL R Sc St T ThN TS V
Apis 1
Anubis 3 1
Bes 1 1
Harpocrates 4 3 1 1
Harpocrates 2
with Isis
Thermutis
crocodile
Hermanubis 2
Hermes Thot 3
Horus 1
Isis 1 1 3 1 1 3 4 1
Isis Fortuna 2
Isis Hathor 1 5
with
Harpocrates
Isis lactans 1 1
Isis Thermutis 1
Isis and 1 1 3
Serapis
Isis, Serapis, 1
Liber and
Libera
Jupiter 2 3 1 1 1
Ammon
Nefertum 2
Osiris 2 12
Sekhmet 1
Harpocrates
Isis lactans 1 1
Isis Thermutis 1
Mladen Tomorad
Isis and 1 1 3
Serapis
Isis, Serapis, 1
Liber and
Libera
Jupiter 2 3 1 1 1
Ammon
Nefertum 2
Osiris 2 12
Sekhmet 1
Serapis 1 2 4 1 1 1 2 4
Serapis Jupiter 1
Ammon
A = Amulet, Al = Altar with inscription, C = Cippus, EIn = Epigraphic inscription

A = Amulet, Al = Altar with inscription, C = Cippus, EIn = Epigraphic inscription or votive
or votive inscription, G = gemmae, OL = Oil lamp, R = ring, Sc = Sarcophagus
inscription, G = gemmae, OL = Oil lamp, R = ring, Sc = Sarcophagus or cover of the
or cover of the sarcophagus with or without inscription, St = Statue or statuette,
Tsarcophagus with= Theophoric
= tablet, ThN or without inscription,
names, TSSt= =Tombstone,
Statue or statuette,
V = Vessel,T vase
= tablet,
ThN =
Theophoric names, TS = Tombstone, V = Vessel, vase
3. PANNONIA

Slovenia: Emona (Ljubljana), Poetovio (Ptuj), Gornja Lendava, Sv. Križ near
Kostanevice
Croatia: Aquae Iasae (Varaždinske Toplice), Andautonia (Ščitarjevo), Siscia
(Sisak), Križevci, Koprivnica, Aqua Balissae (Daruvar), Marsonia (Slavonski
Brod), Sesvete near Požega, Mursa (Osijek), Cibalae (Vinkovci), Burgenae
(Novi Banovci), Teutoburgium (Dalj), Cuccinum (Ilok)
Serbia: Sirmium (Sremska Mitrovica), Bassianae (Petrovci), Taurunum
(Zemun)

Anubis: Mursa (2), Sirmium
Bes: region of Slavonia
Harpocrates: Siscia, Marsonia, Mursa, Burgenae, Sirmium
Hermes Thot: Mursa, Burgenae
206
Isis and Serapis: Poetovio, Aquae Iasae

Isis Augusta: Poetovio (2), Siscia (2)
Isis Fortuna: Andautonia
Isis Myrionyma: Poetovio
Isis with Horus: Sv. Križ
Isis, Anubis and Harpocrates: Emona
Isis, Serapis and Harpocrates: Emona
Isis: Poetovio (4), Aquae Iasae, Siscia, Sirmium
Jupiter Ammon: Poetovio (4), Andautonia, Siscia (2)
Nephtis: Mursa
Osiris: region of Slavonia (2)
Osiris, Nephtis, Isis: Mursa
Patake: Mursa
Serapis Augustus: Poetovio
Serapis: Emona, Gornja Lendava, Poetovio (5), Siscia, Križevci, Koprivnica,
Teutoburgium, Sirmium (11), Bassianae (3)
Shu: Mursa
Unnut: Mursa

Egyptian funeral cone: Emona
Handle of an Egyptian dagger: Sesvete, Taurunum
Handle of bronze mirror: Cibalae
Negroid figurine: region of Slavonia
Scarabs: region of Slavonia (5)
Scaraboid: Siscia
Shabtis: Aqua Balissae, Mursa, Cuccinum
Sphinx: Siscia, Teutoburgium

Mladen Tomorad
Table 3: Egyptian divinities on the artefacts from Pannonia

Divinity A Al CSt EIn FC Fr G M OL Rt S St
Anubis 2 1
Bes 1
Harpocrates 1 1 1 2
Hermes Thot 2
Isis 1 2 2 2
Isis Fortuna 1
Isis Augusta 3 1
Isis Myrionyma 1
Isis and Serapis 1 1
Isis with Horus 1
Isis, Anubis and 1
Harpocrates
Isis, Serapis and 1
Harpocrates
Nephtis 1
Osiris 1 2
Osiris, Nephtis, 1
Isis
Jupiter Ammon 3 1
Patake 1
Serapis Augustus 1
Serapis 1 23 1
Shu 1
Unnut 1
A = Amulet, Al = Altar with inscription, CSt = Cornice of a sepulchral stele with

A =pair
lion Amulet,
and Al = Altar
head with inscription,
of Serapis CSt =EIn
or khalatos, Cornice of a sepulchral
= Epigraphic stele with
inscription lion pair and
or votive
head of Serapis
inscription, FC or khalatos, EIn
= Egyptian = Epigraphic
funeral cone, Frinscription
= Fresco,orGvotive inscription,
= gemmae, M =FC = Egyptian
mould
from terracotta,
funeral cone, Fr OL = Oil lamp,
= Fresco, S = Egyptian
G = gemmae, stele,from
M = mould St =terracotta,
Statue orOLstatuette, Rt S =
= Oil lamp,
=Egyptian
Relief tablet
stele, St = Statue or statuette, Rt = Relief tablet
Artefacts discovered in Roman graves at the unknown sites in Illyricum:

Serapis: unknown site in the Middle Croatia
Shabtis: unknown site in the Middle Croatia
208
CONCLUSION
In the discussion during the previous chapters several stages of the

early penetration of Egyptian artefacts and the diffusion of Egyptian cults were
already pointed out. The previous publications written by the great number of
archaeologist and historians dated this dissemination from the first century
to the fourth century A.D. The previous scholars did not study typology of the
“genuine” Egyptian artefacts, and the other material which can determine
relations between this region with Egypt and north Africa during the first
millennium B.C. (e.g. Ptolemaic coinage). For that reason they did not consider
possibilities of the much earlier penetration of the Egyptian objects to the east
Adriatic coast and inland. The only historian which mentions such possibility
was P. Selem but in his scholarly papers and books he did not study it or tried
to prove such possibilities. For that reason I tried to determine all possible
stages of penetration and dissemination of the cultic material which can be
dated from the eight-seventh century B.C. to the end of the fourth century A.D.
After this new preliminary typological study of discovered artefacts we can now
identify four main circles of the dissemination:
1) during the tenth century through the sixth century B.C. when the first
ancient Egyptian artefacts were probably traded by the Phoenician and Greek
merchants,
2) during the formation of the first Greek settlements (late Bronze age-early
Iron Age, circa ninth century B.C.) and the period of Greek colonization of the
eastern Adriatic coast (circa seventh century B.C. to the end of third century
B.C.) when more intensive connections were established and when the first
dissemination probably started,
3) during the period of Roman conquest of Illyricum (the end of third century
B.C. to the end of Augustus’ reign),
4) and during the Roman rule of Illyricum (the early first century to the middle
of the fourth century A.D.).

Mladen Tomorad
The more intensive dissemination of Egyptian cults probably started

with the reign of Emperor Claudius, and it became more vital during the reign
of the Flavian dynasty (A.D. 69-96). Egyptian cults with syncretistic elements
(Isis Fortuna, Hermes-Thoth, Jupiter-Ammon, Serapis with lions etc.) appeared
during the first century A.D. and their popularity continued until the middle of
the third century A.D.
With the rising of Christianity at the beginning of the fourth century A.D.
gradual decline in popularity of all pagan cults became more visible and by
the end of the fourth century A.D. the cults of Egyptian divinities completely
disappeared from this region. This disappearance is probably results of the
emperors prohibitions of the pagan rituals and cults since the middle of the
fourth century A.D. and the movements of the various nomadic tribes which
passed through this region during the period of Late Antiquity (Goths, Huns,
Avars, etc.). The complete prohibition edits of the emperor Theodosius100 along
with destructive forces of the alien tribes changed the image of this region
completely for centuries: cities and settlements were destroyed along with the
sanctuaries of the pagan rituals, population number has been decreased and
as the result of all these elements the old gods were probably forgotten.
Mladen Tomorad
Department of History, Croatian Studies,
University of Zagreb
100 CTh XVI.1.2; CTh XVI.10.8; CTh XII.1.112; CTh IX.16.11; CTh XVI.10.10- XVI.10.12; CTh,
II.8.22; CTh, XVI.10.13; CTh, XVI.10.16.
210
APPENDIX
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Plate 69
a) Shabti, from the 22nd dynasty, from Salona (today Solin), Croatia, discovered
during 19th century. Zagreb: The Archaeological museum, inv. no. E-561.
Photo M. Tomorad, 2005.
b-c) Ptolemaic coin of Ptolemy VI Philometor (180-145 B.C.), from Mazin
near Gračac, discovered 21st June 1896. Alexandrian mint. Zagreb: The
Archaeological museum, inv. no. A3870. Photo M. Tomorad, 2002.
d-e) Ptolemaic coin of Ptolemy VI Philometor (180-145 B.C.), from Mazin
near Gračac, discovered 21st June 1896. Alexandrian mint. Zagreb: The
Archaeological museum, inv. no. A3892. Photo M. Tomorad, 2002.
f-g) Ptolemaic coin of Ptolemy VIII Euergetes II (170-116 B.C.), from Gračac,
discovered during archaeological excavations in 1925/1926. Alexandrian mint.
Zagreb: The Archaeological museum, inv. no. A9371. Photo M. Tomorad, 2002.
Plate 70
a, c) Bronze amulet of Harpocrates, from unknown site in Istria. Pula: The
Archaeological museum of Istria, inv. no. A-5221. Ptolemaic period. Photo M.
Tomorad, 2004.
b) Bronze sistrum, from Nesactium (today Vizače). Ptolemaic period. Pula: The
Archaeological museum of Istria, inv. no. A-5048. Photo M. Tomorad, 2004.
d, e) Bronze statuette of goddess Neith, from unknown site in Istria, Croatia.
Ptolemaic period. Pula: The Archaeological museum of Istria, inv. no. A-5220.
Photo M. Tomorad, 2004.
Plate 71
a-c) Bronze statuette of the young Egyptian prince or pharaoh in kneeling
position, from unknown site in Istria, Croatia. The Ptolemaic period. Pula: The

Mladen Tomorad
Archaeological museum of Istria, inv. no. A-5210. Photo M. Tomorad, 2004.

d-f) Bronze statuette of Apis, from unknown site in Istria, Croatia. The Ptolemaic
period. Pula: The Archaeological museum of Istria, inv. no. A-5223. Photo M.
Tomorad, 2004.
Plate 72
a-b) Bronze statuette of Osiris, from from Bale in Istria, Croatia. The Ptolemaic
period. Pula: The Archaeological museum of Istria, inv. no. A-5224. Photo M.
Tomorad, 2004.
c-d) Pseudoshabti, from Curicum (today Krk), Croatia, discovered in the late
Hellenistic cemetary from the 1st c. B.C., c. 49 B.C. Košljun: The Franciscan
monastery, the archaeological collection: inv. no. 641. Photo M. Tomorad 2013.
e-g) Shabti of lady Mehytweskhet, from Curicum (today Krk), Croatia. 21st
dynasty, discovered in the late Hellenistic cemetary from the 1st c. B.C., c. 49
B.C. Košljun: The Franciscan monastery, the archaeological collection: inv. no.
642. Photo M. Tomorad 2013.
Plate 73
a) Bronze statuette of Isis-Fortuna, from unknown site in the region of Lika,
Croatia. 1st c. A.D. Zagreb: The Archaeological museum, inv. no. A-4633a (B-
71). Photo: M. Tomorad, 2004.
b) Bronze statuette of Isis-Fortuna, from Savudrija, Croatia. 1st c. A.D. Pula:
The Archaeological museum of Istria, inv. no. inv. no. A-4620. Photo M.
Tomorad, 2004. Isis-Fortuna, from Savudrija, Croatia,
c) Shabti, from Mursa (today Osijek), Croatia, 22nd dynasty, discovered in
1954. Osijek: The Museum of Slavonia, inv. no. AA-6243.
d) Lamp with the representation of Harpocrates, from Aenona (today Nin),
Croatia. Zadar: The Archaeological museum, inv. no. 706.
Plate 74
a-b) Amulet of the cat, from Curicum (today Krk), Croatia. The Roman period.
Košljun: The Franciscan monastery, the archaeological collection: without
inventory number. Photo M. Tomorad 2013.
c-d) Scarab from hard paste, from Curicum (today Krk), Croatia. The Ptolemaic
212
period. Košljun: The Franciscan monastery, the archaeological collection:

without inventory number. Photo M. Tomorad 2013.
e-f) Scarab from green glazed faience, from Curicum (today Krk), Croatia.
The Ptolemaic period. Košljun: The Franciscan monastery, the archaeological
collection: without inventory number. Photo M. Tomorad 2013.
Plate 75
Pedi-hor-pa-khered votive stele with Osiris, Isis and Nephthys, from Mursa
(today Osijek), discovered during 19th century. Osijek: The Museum of
Slavonia, inv. no. AA-2590.
Plate 76
a) Marble fragment of a head relief depicting the Egyptian goddess Hathor,
from amphitheatre (today “Arena”) in Pola (today Pula), second half of the 1st
c. A.D. Pula: The Archaeological museum of Istria, inv. no. A-8712. Photo M.
Tomorad, 2004.
b) Stone monument with sistrum, from Savudrija, Croatia. The Roman period.
Pula: The Archaeological museum of Istria, inv. no. A-41. Photo M. Tomorad,
2004.
c) Marble statue of Isis, from Aenona (today Nin), 1st c. A.D. Zagreb: The
Archaeological museum, inv. no. A-34. Photo M. Tomorad, 2004.
d) Stone monument with Jupiter-Ammon, from Pola (today Pula). The Roman
period. Brijuni: Lapidarium, without inventory number.
Plate 77
a) Stone monument with Serapis head, from Sirmium (today Sremska Mitrovica,
Serbia), 2nd or early 3rd c. A.D. Zagreb: The Archaeological museum, inv. no.
A-164a. Photo M. Tomorad, 2004.
b) Bust of Isis, from Narona (today Vid near Metković), Croatia. 2nd or early
3rd c. A.D. Vid: The Archaeological museum Narona. Photo T. Glučina.
c) Black granite sphinx, the Peristyle of the Diocletian’s palace in Split.
Originally from Luxor, 18th dynasty.

Mladen Tomorad
Plate 78
a-d) Votive altar dedicated to Isis and Serapis, Liber and Libera, from Iader
(today Zadar), Croatia. Verona: Museo archeologico Maffeiano, without
inventory number.
Plate 79
a) Bronze bust of Isis, from Salona (today Solin), Croatia. The late 2nd or 3rd
c. A.D. Discovered in 1820. Wien: Kunsthistoriches Museum, inv. no. VI 395.
b) Bronze bust of Serapis, from Salona (today Solin), Croatia. The late 2nd or
3rd c. A.D. Discovered in 1820. Wien: Kunsthistoriches Museum, inv. no. VI 395.
c) Lamp with the representation of Isis and Serapis, from Aenona (today Nin),
Croatia. 2nd c. A.D. Discovered in 1896. Zadar: The Archaeological museum,
inv. no. 163, 4379.
d) Lamp with the representation of Isis and Serapis, from Aenona (today Nin),
Croatia. 2nd c. A.D. Discovered in 1896. Zadar: The Archaeological museum,
inv. no. 375.
Plate 80
Left and right medallion, cover of the sarcophagus of Aurelius Satrius and
Aurelia Maxima dedicated to Serapis, from Salona (today Solin), Croatia.
The end of 3rd or early 4th c. A.D. Split: The Archaeological museum, inv. no.
A-393, D-86. Photo T. Seser.
Plate 81
a) Cover of the sarcophagus of Aurelius Satrius and Aurelia Maxima dedicated
to Serapis, from Salona (today Solin), Croatia. The end of 3rd or early 4th c.
A.D. Split: The Archaeological museum, inv. no. A-393, D-86. Photo T. Seser.
b) Central medallion with inscription, cover of the sarcophagus of Aurelius
Satrius and Aurelia Maxima dedicated to Serapis, from Salona (today Solin),
Croatia. The end of 3rd or early 4th c. A.D. Split: The Archaeological museum,
inv. no. A-393, D-86. Photo T. Seser.
214
ABBREVIATIONS FOR MUSEUMS AND INSTITUTIONS
Archaeological collection and the Lapidarium dr. Grga Novak, Hvar (Croatia)
= ACGN
Archaeological collection of Benko Horvat - Museum of contemporary art,
Zagreb (Croatia) = MCA
Archaeological museum of Istria, Pula (Croatia) = AMIP
Archaeological museum, Split (Croatia) = AMS
Archaeological museum, Zagreb (Croatia) = AMZ
Archaeological park “Andautonija”, Ščitarjevo (Croatia) = APA
Franciscan monastery, Košljun (Croatia) = FMK
Franciscan monastery, Sinj (Croatia) = FMS
Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna (Austria) = KMH
Landesmuseum Joanneum, Graz (Austria) = LJG
Museo Archeologico Regionale “P. Orsi”, Siracusa (Italy) = MARPOS
Museo civico archeologico, Pescara (Italy) = MCAP
Museo civico archeologico, Trieste (Italy) = MCAT
Museo del territorio parentino, Poreč (Croatia) = MTP
Museum of Požega, Požega (Croatia) = MP
Museum of Slavonia, Osijek (Croatia) = MSO
Museum of Sombor (Serbia) = GMS
Museum of Szekszárd, Szekszárd (Hungary) = MS
Museum of Šibenik, Šibenik (Croatia) = MGŠ
National museum, Užice (Serbia) = NMU
Prähistorische Abteilung, Naturalhistorisches Museum, Vienna (Austria) =
NHMV

Mladen Tomorad
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The phases of penetration and diffusion

of Egyptian artefacts and cults in the

I. PREVIOUS STUDIES ABOUT THE DIFFUSION

The research of the archaeological material related to the Oriental and

Aegyptus et Pannonia 5, 2013 185

3 LJUBIĆ 1887, 33-36.

Mater, Cybele).9 In 1977 M. Ch. Budischovsky published monograph about the

Aegyptus et Pannonia 5, 2016 187

II THE PHASES OF THE PENETRATION AND DISSEMINATION

The penetration and diffusion of the Ancient Egyptian cults to the

2. THE POSSIBLE EARLY PENETRATION OF EGYPTIAN ARTEFACTS

The early dissemination of Egyptian material culture probably started

Aegyptus et Pannonia 5, 2016 189

to the Near East and Egypt.23

3. PENETRATION AND EARLY DIFFUSION OF EGYPTIAN CULTS

23 NIKOLANCI 1966, 107; CAMBI 2002, 12-17.

Aegyptus et Pannonia 5, 2016 191

26 MIRNIK 1981, 37; TOMORAD 2015a: 173.

29 DIMITRIJEVIĆ/TEŽAK-GREGL/MAJNARIĆ-PANDŽIĆ 1998, 306-318.

Aegyptus et Pannonia 5, 2016 193

Aegyptus et Pannonia 5, 2016 195

trading posts which developed prominent communications with the Aegean

43 AMIP A-5048.(Pl. 70b)

4. THE DIFFUSION OF EGYPTIAN CULTS DURING THE PERIOD

This period of diffusion was mostly studied in all previous historical

46 App. Civ. II.41.

Aegyptus et Pannonia 5, 2016 197

Aegyptus et Pannonia 5, 2016 199

archeological context discovered in Illyricum and Istria were mostly dated

Aegyptus et Pannonia 5, 2016 201

III ANALYSIS OF THE DIFFUSION OF EGYPTIAN DIVINITIES

Locations of discovery of the monuments related with Egyptian divinities:

Monuments related with Egyptian and syncretistic gods and goddesses:

“Genuine” Egyptian artefacts:

Locations of discovery of the monuments related with Egyptian divinities:

Aegyptus et Pannonia 5, 2016 203

Monuments related with Egyptian and syncretistic gods and goddesses:

“Genuine” Egyptian artefacts:

Pearls with hieroglyphic signs: the Middle Dalmatia (3)

Table 2: Egyptian divinities on the artefacts from Dalmatia

A = Amulet, Al = Altar with inscription, C = Cippus, EIn = Epigraphic inscription

Locations of discovery of the monuments related with Egyptian divinities:

Monuments related with Egyptian and syncretistic gods and goddesses:

Isis and Serapis: Poetovio, Aquae Iasae

“Genuine” Egyptian artefacts:

Aegyptus et Pannonia 5, 2016 207

Table 3: Egyptian divinities on the artefacts from Pannonia

A = Amulet, Al = Altar with inscription, CSt = Cornice of a sepulchral stele with

Artefacts discovered in Roman graves at the unknown sites in Illyricum:

In the discussion during the previous chapters several stages of the

Aegyptus et Pannonia 5, 2016 209

The more intensive dissemination of Egyptian cults probably started

Aegyptus et Pannonia 5, 2016 211

Archaeological museum of Istria, inv. no. A-5210. Photo M. Tomorad, 2004.

period. Košljun: The Franciscan monastery, the archaeological collection:

Aegyptus et Pannonia 5, 2016 213

ABBREVIATIONS FOR MUSEUMS AND INSTITUTIONS