LAB.

REPORT

ELE201: Electronic Circuits And Devices

Sherubtse college
30th /May/2020
SPRING SEMESTER

Abstract

This article consists of four reports on inverting and

non-inverting amplifier,study of rectifiers,transistor
characteristics and RC phase Shift Oscillator.On each
case,the experiments are performed and the result are
analyzed with much careful calculation with the actual
experimented data and finally the results are discussed.

Tutor: Mr. Vijay Kumar

Summitted by: Dik Man Rai(07170526)

Bsc. Physics, 2nd year, 2nd semester

Contents

0.1 Invearting and Non-inverting Amplifier

(Operational Amplifier) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
0.2 Study of Rectifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
0.3 Transistors Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
0.4 RC phase Shift Oscillator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

1
0.1 Invearting and Non-inverting Amplifier
(Operational Amplifier)
Aim:
To design and to investigate inverting and non-inverting amplifiers using Op-
Amp.
Apperatus Required:
1. IC 741

2. Resistor 1k and 10 k

3. DC-Power supply of 12 V

4. Multimeter

5. Bread board

6. Connecting wires.

7. Potentiometer.
Theory:
(1) Op-Amp Basics

The operational amplifier is one of the most useful and important com-
ponents of analog electronics. They are widely used in popular electronics.
Their primary limitation is that they are not especially fast.

Figure 1: Parts and use of the Op-Amp

2
 The typical performance degrades rapidly for frequencies greater than
about 1 MHz, although some models are designed specifically to handle
higher frequencies. The primary use of op-amps in amplifier and related
circuits is closely connected to the concept of negative feedback.

Figure 2: Op-Amp

(2)Inverting Amplifier

Inverting Amplifier is a closed loop mode applications of op-amp and

employs negative feedback. Rf and R1 are feedback and input resistance of
the circuit respectively. Inverting Amplifier is one in which the output is
exactly 180o out of phase with respect to input (i.e. if we apply a positive
voltage, output will be negative). Output is an inverted (in terms of phase)
amplified version of input.
The input terminals of op-amp draw no current because of large differential

Figure 3: Inverting Amplifier

input impedance. The potential difference across the input terminals of an

3
op-amp is zero because of the large open loop gain of the op-amp. Due
to these two conditions, no current enters op-amp circuit and the inverting
terminal is at ground potential. The inverting terminal is now called virtual
ground.
Using Kirchoff ’s Current Law [KCL(Node)]

Iin + If = 0
Iin = −If
Vin −Vo
=
Rin Rf
Vo −Rf
=
Vin Rin
 −R 
f
Vo = Vin
Rin

Thus, the closed loop voltage gain Vo of the inverting amplifier is independent
of the large open loop gain of the op-amp.

(3)Non-Inverting Amplifier

Non-inverting amplifier is a linear closed loop mode application of op-

amp. There will be no phase shift between to output and input. Hence the
name, non-inverting amplifier. Non-inverting amplifier is one in which the
output is in phase with respect to input (i.e. if we apply a positive voltage,
output will be positive). Output is an Non inverted (in terms of phase) am-
plified version of input.

Assuming the op-amp is ideal and applying the concept of virtual short,
the voltage at the inverting terminal is equal to non-inverting terminal.
ApplyingKirchoff ’s Current Law [KCL(Node)]

Iin + If = 0
Vin Vin − Vo
+ =0
Rin Rf
Vin Vin Vo
+ − =0
Rin Rf Rf
 1 1  Vo
Vin + =
Rin Rf Rf
 Rf 
Vo = 1 + Vin
Rin

4
 Figure 4: Non-Inverting Amplifier

The closed loop gain, Vo does not depend on the open loop gain, V, of the
op-amp. Vo is usually greater than unity. One of the applications of a non-
inverting amplifier is emitter follower wherein Rf = 0; hence Vo = 1

5
 Procedure:

1. Collects all the required apparatus for the experiment.

2. With the help of circuit diagram, set the connections for inverting and
non-inverting amplifier as shown in figure 3 and figure 4.

3. With constant resistance values, change the amount of input voltage

from potentiometer.

4. For each value of input voltage given from potentiometer, record the
practical output voltage from the multimeter.

5. Calculate the theoritical output voltage for each input voltage.

6. Repeat the above procedure for atleast five different values of input
voltage by adjusting the potentiometer.

7. Tabulate the readings for inverting and non-inverting in different tables.

Observation Table:
(1)Inverting

Vout (mV)
Sl.No Rin (KΩ) Rf (KΩ) Vin (mV)
Theoretical Practical
1 1 10 28 -280 -297
2 1 10 64 -640 -655
3 1 10 66 -660 -680
4 1 10 77 -770 -796
5 1 10 98 -980 -1,000.4

6
 (2)Non-Inverting

Vout (mV)
Sl.No Rin (KΩ) Rf (KΩ) Vin (mV)
Theoretical Practical
1 1 10 70 770 786
2 1 10 74 814 819
3 1 10 81 891 900.3
4 1 10 85 935 946
5 1 10 91 1,001 1,010.2

Calculations:
Inverting

Rf = 10k
Rin = 1k

1)For Vin = 28 mV
 
Rf
Vout = − Vin
Rin
 
10
Vout = − × 28
1
Vout = −280mV

2)For Vin = 64 mV
 
Rf
Vout = − Vin
Rin
 
10
Vout = − × 64
1
Vout = −640mV

7
3)For Vin = 66 mV
 
Rf
Vout = − Vin
Rin
 
10
Vout = − × 66
1
Vout = −660mV

4)For Vin = 77 mV
 
Rf
Vout = − Vin
Rin
 
10
Vout = − × 77
1
Vout = −770mV

5)For Vin = 98 mV
 
Rf
Vout = − Vin
Rin
 
10
Vout = − × 98
1
Vout = −980mV

8
 Non-Inverting

Rf = 10k
Rin = 1k
 
Rf
Vout = 1 + Rin
Vin
10


Vout = 1 + 1
Vin
Vout = 11 × Vin

1)For Vin = 70 mV
Vout = 11 × Vin
Vout = 11 × 70
Vout = 770mV

2)For Vin = 74 mV
Vout = 11 × Vin
Vout = 11 × 74
Vout = 814mV

3)For Vin = 81 mV
Vout = 11 × Vin
Vout = 11 × 81
Vout = 891mV

4)For Vin = 70 mV
Vout = 11 × Vin
Vout = 11 × 85
Vout = 935mV

5)For Vin = 70 mV
Vout = 11 × Vin
Vout = 11 × 91
Vout = 1, 001mV

9
 Source of Error and precaution:

1. Make sure that the connection of the circuit is correct.

2. Avoid short circuiting while the apparatus is in use.

3. Due to the random change in the multimeter, there might be some

error in taking down the readings.

4. Do not perform the experiment for a lengthy period, which may effect
the readings.

Result Analysis:
In the inverting amplifier it is closed loop mode application of Op-Amp so
it gives a negative output voltage. In the non-inverting amplifier it is linear
closed loop mode application of Op-Amp so there is no phase shift between
the input and output voltage.

10
0.2 Study of Rectifiers
Aim:
To measure and study rectifiers.
1. Half-wave Rectifier

2. Full-wave Rectifier

3. Bridge Rectifier

Apparatus Required:

1. Breadboard

2. Cathode ray tube

3. Resistance

4. Capacitance

5. Wires

6. Diodes

7. Connecting wires

8. Multimeter

Theory:
One of the very important applications of diode is in DC power supply as a
rectifier to convert AC into DC. DC Power supply is the important element
of any electronic equipment. This is because it provides power to energize all
electronic circuits like oscillators, amplifiers and so on. In electronic equip-
ments, D.C. Power supply is must.

11
 Figure 5: Block Diagram of regulated power supply

For example, we can’t think of television, computer, radio, telephone,

mobile as well as measuring instruments like multi-meter etc. without DC
power supply.

The reliability and performance of the electronic system proper design of

power supply is necessary. The first block of DC power supply is rectifier.
Rectifier may be defined as an electronic device used to convert ac voltage
or current into unidirectional voltage or current. Essentially rectifier needs
unidirectional device. Diode has unidirectional property hence suitable for
rectifier. Rectifier broadly divided into two categories: Half wave rectifier
and full wave rectifier.

1)Half wave rectifier:

In half wave rectifier only half cycle of applied AC voltage is used. An-
other half cycle of AC voltage (negative cycle) is not used. Only one diode is
used which conducts during positive cycle. The circuit diagram of half wave
rectifier without capacitor is shown in the following figure. During positive
half cycle of the input voltage anode of the diode is positive compared with
the cathode.

12
 Figure 6: Half-wave rectifier(LTspice)

Wave formation

Figure 7: Wave Formation By Half-wave rectifier(LTspice)

Diode is in forward bias and current passes through the diode and posi-
tive cycle develops across the load resistance RL. During negative half cycle
of input voltage, anode is negative with respected to cathode and diode is
in reverse bias. No current passes through the diode hence output voltage is
zero.

1)Full wave rectifier:

The full wave rectifier consists of two diodes and a resister as shown in Fig-
ure below. The transformer has a centre-tapped secondary winding. This
secondary winding has a lead attached to the centre of the winding. The
voltage from the centre tap to either end terminal on this winding is equal to
one half of the total voltage measured end-to-end. Figure below shows the
operation during the positive half cycle of the full wave rectifier. Note that
diode D1 is forward biased and diode D2 is reverse biased. Note the direction

13
of the current through the load.

Figure 8: Full-wave rectifier- Circuit operation during positive

half cycle

During the negative half cycle, (shown in figure below) the polarity re-
verses. Diode D2 is forward biased and diode D1 is reverse biased. Note that
the direction of current through the load has not changed even though the
secondary voltage has changed polarity. Thus another positive half cycle is
produced across the load.

Figure 9: Full-wave rectifier- Circuit operation during negative

half cycle

14
 Figure 10: Full-wave rectifier(LTspice)

Figure 11: Wave Formation Of Full-wave rectifier(LTspice)

3)Full wave bridge rectifier

The Bridge rectifier is a circuit, which converts an ac voltage to dc voltage

using both half cycles of the input ac voltage. The Bridge rectifier circuit is
shown in the following figure. The bridge rectifier produces almost double
the output voltage as a full wave center-tapped transformer rectifier using
the same secondary voltage. The advantage of using this circuit is that no
center-tapped transformer is required.
The circuit has four diodes connected to form a bridge. The ac input voltage
is applied to the diagonally opposite ends of the bridge. The load resistance
is connected between the other two ends of the bridge. During the positive
half cycle (Figure 12), both D3 and D1 are forward biased. At the same
time, both D2 and D4 are reverse biased. Note the direction of current flow

15
through the load.

Figure 12: Operation during positive half cycle

During the negative half cycle (Figure 13) D2 and D4 are forward biased
and D1 and D3 are reverse biased. Again note that current through the
load is in the same direction although the secondary winding polarity has
reversed.

Figure 13: Operation during negative half cycle

Formula Used:
For Half-wave Rectifier:
Vm
Vdc =
π
2
Vrms = Vac2 + Vdc2

16
 Vac
Ripple F actor(γ) =
Vdc
Pdc
Ef f iciency(η) =
Pac
For Full-wave and Bridge Rectifier:

2Vm
Vdc = √
2

2
Vrms = Vac2 + Vdc2
Vac
Ripple F actor(γ) =
Vdc
Pdc
Ef f iciency(η) =
Pac
Procedures:
Half-wave Rectifier Circuit

1. Representing the output voltage vo (t) for an Ohmic load resistance

- Assemble the circuit and apply an AC voltage of Vs = 6V to terminals
1 and 2.
- Use channel 1 of the oscilloscope to measure the peak-to-peak value
of the transformer voltage at terminals 1 and 2.
- Determine the amplitude (peak value) Vs and the frequency f of the
transformer voltage Vs (t).
- Use the second oscilloscope channel to measure the output voltage
Vo (t).
- Determine the amplitude (peak value) V − o and the frequency f of
the output voltage Vo (t).
- Calculate the amplitude of output voltage Vo and compare the calcu-
lated value with the measured value.

2. Representing the output voltage as a function of the charging capacitor

- Assemble the circuit without the capacitor and apply an AC voltage
of Vs = 6V to terminals 1 and 2.
- Without the capacitor, record the output voltage Vo (t) on the oscil-
loscope.
- Connect the capacitors CL1 = 10µF , CL2 = 47µF and CL3 = 100µF
(polarity must be crrect) to the terminals 3 and 4 (parallel to the load
resistor) one after the other.

17
 - Record the output voltages Vo (t) of the different capacitors on the
oscilloscope.
- Thus, comment on the relationship between the output voltage ripple
and the capacitance value of the capacitor.

3. Representing the output voltage as a function of the load resistor

- Connect the capacitor CL = 47µF between the terminals 3 and 4.
- Connect the load resistance RL1 = 100ω1 RL2 = 1kω and RL3 = 10kω
parallel to the capacitor one after the other.
- Display the corresponding output voltage Vo (t) on the oscilloscope.
- Comment on the relationship between the output voltage ripple and
the load resistor value.

Full-wave Rectifier circuit

Step 1

- Connect the full-wave rectifier circuit with a capacitor in parallel with

load resistor.
- Measure the DC load voltage, peak to peak ripple voltage, Vr (pp), and vout
(DC) in the output.
- To measure the ripple voltages, switch the oscilloscope to AC coupling.
- This slows you to magnify the small ac ripple voltages without including
the much larger dc level.

Step 2

- Measure the ripple frequency at which the waveform repeats.

- Connect
(a) 100µF
(b) 1000µF
- Sketch ripple and calculate ripple factor.
- Observe the ripples as you increase the value of capacitance from 100µF to
1000µF .
- Thus, tabulate the observations and evaluate the ripple factor of the full
wave rectifier (r).

18
 Observation Table:

Rectifier type Vm (V) Vdc (V) Vac (V) Vrms (V)

Half-wave Rectifier 65 20.69 69 32
Full-wave Rectifier 11.5 7.32 2.62 7.778
Bridge Rectifier 10 6.366 3.0776 7.071

Calculation:

For Half-wave Rectifier

For DC mode

From the knob of CRO(volt/dividion)→ 5

From the screen of CRO → 13

Amplitude(Vm ) = 13 × 5 = 65 V

From the knob of CRO(volt/dividion)→ 5 × 10−3

From the screen of CRO → 18
1 1
F requency(f ) = = = 11.11 Hz
T 8 × 5 × 10−3
Vm
Vdc = = 20.69 V
π
For AC mode
From the knob of CRO(volt/dividion)→ 5
From the screen of CRO → 12.8

Amplitude(Vm ) = 12.8 × 5 = 69 V

From the knob of CRO(volt/dividion)→ 5 × 10−3

From the screen of CRO → 18
1 1
F requency(f ) = = = 11.11 Hz
T (8 × 5 × 10−3 )

19
To find Vac

T aking,
Vm 64
Vrms = = = 32 V
2 2
2
Vrms = Vac2 + Vdc2
(32)2 = Vac2 + (20.69)2
Vac2 = (32)2 − (20.69)2
√
Vac = 595.9239
Vac = 24.4 V

To find Ripple Factor γ

Vac 24.4
γ= = = 1.179
Vdc 20.69
To find Percentage Regulation

Vno load − Vload

P ercentage Regulation = × 100%
Vload
2.6 − 1.8
= × 100 = 44.4%
1.8
To find Efficiency η

2
Pdc Idc R
η = =  
Pac 2 R 1+
Irms
Rf
R

I2 Rf
=  dc  , where 1 + is neglected
2
Irms 1+
Rf R
R
2
 2  2
Pdc Idc Im 2
η = = 2 = ×
Pac Irms π Im
 2 2  
Im 4
= 2
× 2
π Im
4
η = × 100 = 40.5%
π2

20
To find ratio of rectification

pdc 4
Ratio of rectification = = 2
pac π
= 0.405

To find Transformer Utility Factor(TUF)

Pdc
TUF =
Pac
Vm Im
Pac = Vac × Vdc = √ ×
2 2
√
2 2
TUF = = 0.287
π2

For Full-wave Rectifier

For DC mode

From the knob of CRO(volt/dividion)→ 5

From the screen of CRO → 2.3

Amplitude(Vm ) = 2.3 × 5 = 11.5 V

From the knob of CRO(volt/dividion)→ 5 × 10−3

From the screen of CRO → 3.5
1 1
F requency(f ) = = = 57.142 Hz
T 3.5 × 5 × 10−3
2Vm
Vdc = = 7.32 V
π
For AC mode
From the knob of CRO(volt/dividion)→ 5
From the screen of CRO → 2.2

Amplitude(Vm ) = 2.2 × 2 = 11 V

21
 From the knob of CRO(volt/dividion)→ 5 × 10−3
From the screen of CRO → 3.5
1 1
F requency(f ) = = = 57.142 Hz
T 3.5 × 5 × 10−3
To find Vac

T aking,
Vm 2 × 20
Vrms = √ = √ = 14.14 V
2 2
2
Vrms = Vac2 + Vdc2
(7.778)2 = Vac2 + (7.38)2
Vac2 = (7.778)2 − ((7.38)2
√
Vac = 6.914
Vac = 2.62 V

To find Ripple Factor γ

Vac 2.62
γ= = = 0.359
Vdc 7.32
To find Percentage Regulation

Vno load − Vload

P ercentage Regulation = × 100%
Vload
11 − 10
= × 100 = 10%
10

To find Efficiency η

Pdc I2 R
η = = 2 dc
Pac Irms (Rf + R)
 2 √ !2
2 × Im 2
= ×
π Im
 2
2  
4 × Im 2
= 2
× 2
π Im
8
η = × 100 = 81.05%
π2

22
To find Ratio of rectification

pdc 8
Ratio of rectification = = 2
pac π
= 0.8105

To find Transformer Utility Factor(TUF)

Vdc Idc
TUF =
Vrms Irms
TUF = 0.812

For Bridge Rectifier

Multiplication factor = 5
Amplitude from the screen = 2

Vm = 2 × 5 = 10 V

The frequency for dc mode is

1 1
Fdc = = = 52.63 Hz
T 3.8 × 5 × 10−3
Now, voltage across dc mode is
2Vm
Vdc =
π
2 × 10
=
π
= 6.3661 V

For AC mode
Multiplication factor = 5
Amplitude from the screen = 2

Vm = 2 × 5 = 10 V

The frequency for dc mode is

1 1
Fac = = = 52.63 Hz
T 3.8 × 5 × 10−3

23
To find Vac

T aking,
Vm 10
Vrms = √ = √ = 7.071 V
2 2

we know,
2
Vrms = Vac2 + Vdc2
(7.071)2 = Vac2 + (6.3661)2
Vac2 = (7.071)2 − ((6.3661)2
√ √
Vac = 49.99 − 40.52 = 9.47
Vac = 3.0776 V

To find Ripple Factor γ

Vac 3.0776
γ= = = 0.4834
Vdc 6.3661
To find Efficiency η

Pdc I2 R
η = = 2 dc
Pac Irms (Rf + R)
 2 √ !2
2 × Im 2
= ×
π Im
 2
 2  
4 × Im 2
= ×
π2 2
Im
8
η = × 100 = 81.05%
π2

To find Ratio of rectification

pdc 8
Ratio of rectification = = 2
pac π
= 0.8105

24
Result Analysis:
The ratio of rectification of half-wave rectifier is 0.405.
The ratio of rectification of full-wave rectifier and bridge rectifier is same,i.e.,
0.8105.

Source of Errors and Precautions:

1. Connections must be verified before running the experiment.

2. Never remove or insert a diode into a circuit with voltage applied.

3. The resistance should be chosen of kilo-ohm range.

4. Ensured a replacement diode into a circuit was in the correct direction.

5. To obtain the best performance the frequency should be 50Hz to 1 Mhz.

Conclusion:
The result we obtained may not be the accurate results due to the error
discussed above.

25
0.3 Transistors Characteristics
Aim:
To Plot the Transistor Characteristic of Common-Emitter Configuration and
to Find the h-Parameters for the Same

Apparatus Required:
1. Transistor Characteristic Apparatus

2. Two multimeters

3. Breadboard

4. Connecting wire

5. BC547

6. Resistor (1 KΩ)

Circuit Diagram:

Figure 14: Circuit Diagram

26
Theory:
A transistor is a three-terminal device consisting of alternate regions of p-and
n-type semiconductors as shown below. The three segments of the transis-
tor are called emitter (E), base (B) and collector (C). Here (i) the emitter
is sandwiched between the emitter and the collector, (ii) the emitter and
collector are of the same type (p or n), and (iii) the base and emitter (or
collector) are of different materials. You may recall that a diode is a unidi-
rectional device. That is, it controls the direction of current flow. However,
by itself, it cannot control the amount of current passing through it. But
in a transistor, the base terminal controls the current flowing between the
emitter and the collector. This control action gives the transistor an added
advantage over the diode. Depending on the type of doping, the transistors
are classified as n-p-n or p-n-p. In general, the level of doping decreases from
emitter to collector to base.

Figure 15: (a) n-p-n transistor (b) p-n-p transistor

Figure 16: a)n-p-n b) p-n-p transistor

The names of the terminals of a transistor give clear indication of their

functions. In case of a n-p-n transistor, the majority carriers (electrons)
from the emitter enter the base region. Since base is a very lightly doped
thin layer, it allows most of these electrons (originating in the emitter) to

27
pass into the collector. (The doping level of collector is in-between that of
the emitter and the base.) The collector is the largest of the three regions,
and it dissipates more heat compared to the other two regions.

You are familiar with p-type and n-type semiconductors as also the p-n
junction. We now discuss the working principle of a transistor and consider
an n-p-n transistor because it is more commonly used. When no voltage is
applied across the transistor, diffusion of free electrons across the emitter-
base and collector-base junctions produces two depletion layers, as shown
below.

Figure 17: Schematic diagram of transistor

28
 For each depletion layer, the barrier potential is about 0.7 V at 25o C for
a silicon transistor and 0.3V for a germanium transistor. Do you know that
silicon transistors are more widely used than germanium transistors because
of higher voltage rating, greater current ratings, and low temperature sensi-
tivity? For our discussion, we will refer to silicon transistors, unless indicated
otherwise. Since the three regions of the transistor have different doping lev-
els, the depletion layers have different widths. If a region is heavily doped,
the concentration of ions near the junction will be more resulting in thin
depletion layer and vice versa.

In a transistor, since the base is lightly doped as compared to emitter and

collector, the depletion layers extend well into the base, whereas penetration
in emitter/ collector regions is somewhat less.

Source of error and precaution

1. Make sure that the circuit connections are correct.

2. Do not perform the experiment for a lengthy period, which may effect
the readings.

3. Due of some fluctuating reading in the multimeter, there might be some

error in noting down the read

4. Avoid short circuiting while the apparatus is in use.ing.

Procedure:
Input characteristic:

1. Collect all the required materials for the experiments.

2. set up the circuit as per the circuit diagram.

3. Set VCE = 0V , vary VBE in steps of 0.2v and not down the corresponding
IB . Repeat the above procedure for 5V and 10V etc.

4. Plot the graphs:VBE vs IB .

5. Find the h-parameter:

• hf e : forward current gain.

29
 • hre : input impedance.
Output characteristics:
1. Set up the circuit.
2. Set IB = 10 µA,vary VCE insteps ofc1V and note down the correspond-
ing IB the above procedure for 20 µA and 30 µA. etc.
3. Plot the graphs:VCE vs IC for the constant IB .
4. Find the h-parameter:
• hce : output admittance
• hre :reverse voltage gain

Observation Table:
Input Characteristics
VCE = Constant

VCE =0 VCE =3V VCE =6V

VBE IB IB IB
0 0 0 0
0.1 0 0 0
0.2 0 0 0
0.3 0 0 0
0.4 0 0 0
0.5 0 0 0
0.6 0.005 0.001 0.001
0.62 0.01 0.001 0.002
0.64 0.02 0.003 0.003
0.66 0.039 0.005 0.006
0.68 0.074 0.009 0.01
0.70 0.126 0.014 0.017

30
Output characteristics
IB = constant

IB =10µ A IB =20µ A IB =30µ A

VCE Ic IC IC
0 0.51 0.57 2.98
1 2.58 6.71 10.94
2 2.60 6.19 9.54
3 2.66 6.16 9.31
4 2.76 6.26 8.54
5 3.00 6.39 8.63
6 3.16 6.44 8.78

Graph (VBE vs IB for a constant VCE )

Figure 18: Graph for constant VCE = 0 V and VCE = 10 V

31
Calculation:

∆VBE VBE2 − VBE1

hie = =
∆IB VCE−constant IB2 − IB1

From the graph we have obatined that,

• VBE2 = 0.64 V

• VBE1 = 0.6 V

• IB2 = 0.02 mA

• IB1 = 0.005 mA

So, we get
0.64 − 0.62
hie =
(0.02 × 10−3 ) − (0.005 × 10−3 )
hie = 666.7 Ω

Similarly,
∆VBE VBE2 − VBE1
hre = =
∆VCB IB−constant VCE 2 − VCE 1

From the graph we have obatined that,

• VBE2 = 0.64 V

• VBE1 = 0.6 V

• VCE 2 = 6 V

• VCE 1 = 0 V

So, we get
0.64 − 0.62
hre =
6−0
hre = 0.0066

32
Graph (VCE vs IC for a constant IB )

Figure 19: Graph for constant IB = 10 µA, IB = 20 µA and IB = 30 µA

Calculation

∆IC IC − IC1
hf e = = 2
∆IB VCE−constant IB2 − IB1

From the graph we have obatined that,

• IC2 = 0.57 mA

• IC1 = 0.51 mA

• IB2 = 20 µA

• IB1 = 10 µA

So, we get

(0.57 × 10−3 ) − (0.51 × 10−3 )

hf e =
(20 × 10−6 ) − (10 × 10−6 )
hf e = 6

33
Similarly,
∆IC IC2 − IC1
hoe = =
∆VCE IB−constant VCE 2 − VCE 1

From the graph we have obatined that,

• IC2 = 0.57 mA

• IC1 = 0.51 mA

• VCE 2 = 10 V

• VCE 1 = 0 V

So, we get

(0.57 × 10−3 ) − (0.51 × 10−3 )

hoe =
10 − 0
hoe = 6 µΩ

Result:
Parameters Practical Readings
hf e 6
hie 666.7 Ω
hre 0.0066
hoe 6 µΩ

Result Analysis:
In the input characteristeristics the value of VCE remains constant for certain
value of VBE but it starts increasing steadily after a certain amount of VBE
in all different values of VCE .
Whereas in the output characteristics the value of Ic steadily increases for
increase in VCE for all different values of IB .

34
0.4 RC phase Shift Oscillator
Aim:
To design and construct a RC Phase Shift Oscillator for given operating
frequency(F ).

Apparatus Required:
1. DC Power Supply
2. OP-AMP
3. Capacitors
4. Transistors
5. Potentiometer
6. Oscilloscope
7. Resistors
8. Breadboard
9. Connecting Wires
10. Markers
11. Tracing sheets

Formula Used:
1
F = √
2π 6RC
Where,
F is the Frequency of the wave.
R is the resistance.
C is the capacitor.

35
Theory:
Rc phase shift oscillator is a linear electronic oscillator circuit that produces
a sine wave output. It consists of an inverting amplifier elements such as a
transistor or op-amp with its output fed back to its input through a phase-
shift network consisting of resistors and capacitors in a ladder network. The
feedback network ’shifts’ the phase of the amplifier output by 180 degrees at
the oscillation frequency to give positive feedback. Phase shift oscillators are
often used at audio frequency as audio oscillators.

The oscillator is an amplifier with positive feedback that generates a num-

ber of waveforms usually used in instrumentation and test equipments. An
oscillator that generates a sinusoidal output is called a harmonic oscillator;
the transistor usually acts in the active region. The output of the relaxation
oscillator is not sinusoidal depending on the transient rise and decay of volt-
age in RC and RL circuits.

Figure 20: Wave of third capacitor

When the power is turned on, some of the free electrons pick up extra
energy due to ambient temperature and start moving randomly in different

36
directions and generate a noise voltage. The noise voltage contains frequen-
cies of all harmonics that are amplified and feedback to the input in phase
with the original signal. This in turn increases the magnitude of the in-
put voltage. This repeats for several cycles, resulting in an input voltage.
This again repeats for several cycles, resulting in a signal of many frequen-
cies. Due to the resonance in the tank circuit (RC/RL/LC), a particular
frequency signal is selected and the remaining signals are suppressed com-
pletely. In this way we get oscillation at only one frequency. After the output
voltage reaches a desired level, the value of loop gain automatically decreases
to the unity, and the output amplitude remains constant. In order to have
better stability and the above mentioned condition, a negative feedback is in-
troduced (emitter resistance parallel with a capacitor in the amplifier circuit).

Phase shift oscillator consists of an amplifier with three-lead network in the

feedback path. Since an amplifier introduces 180o phase shift between input
and output, the remaining 180o phase shift is compensated by connecting
three RC combinations. [180o /3 = 60o each]. Phase shift oscillator finds an
application in low frequency range.

Source of Error and precautions:

1. Make sure the connections are correct with the help of circuit diagram.
2. Do not perform the experiment for a lengthy period, which may effect
the readings.
3. The connections in the CRO may be lose, due to this the sine wave we
got was distorted.
4. Avoid short circuiting while the apparatus is in use.
5. There might be some errors with taking down the readings of time
period and phase difference.

Procedure:
1. Collects all the required apparatus for the experiment.
2. With the help of circuit diagram, set the circuit connections.
3. Switched on the power supply and observed the output on the CRO
(sine wave).

37
 4. Measured the frequency of oscillation and the amplitude of the output
voltage.

5. Measured and drew the wave form with the help of marker and tracing
sheets.

6. Noted down the practical frequency, do some calculation and compared

it with its theoretical frequency.

Calculations:
Determination of phase difference

4T
4φ = × 360o
T
Time period of the wave is

T = 0.2 × 3.8
= 0.76ms

Phase difference for first capacitor,

1.3 × 0.1
4φ1 = × 360o
0.76
= 61.5o

Phase difference for second capacitor,

2.4 × 0.1
4φ2 = × 360
0.76
= 113.6o

Phase difference for third capacitor,

1.9 × 0.2
4φ3 = × 360
0.76
= 180o

38
 Figure 21: Wave of first capacitor

Determination of frequency theoretically

1
F = √
2π 6RC
1
= √
2π 6 × 560 × 0.1 × 10−6
= 1160.26Hz

Determination of frequency experimentally

1
F = × 1000
T
1
= × 1000
0.76
= 1315.78Hz

39
 Figure 22: Wave of second capacitor

Result:
The frequency that we obtained experimentally is 1315.78Hz.

Result analysis:
Percent error of the frequency
Theoretical value-Experimental value
Percentage error = | | × 100
Experimental value
1160.26 − 1315.78
= | | × 100
1315.78
= 11.82%

40
 Figure 23: Wave of third capacitor

Conclusion:
The experimental value that we obtained is slightly more than the theoretical
value with the percentage error of 11.82%. The slight difference in result is
might be due to the lose connections and errors caused while taking the note
of wave function on the CRO and its corresponding values.The result might
be also affected due to the extended time period while experimenting and a
slight fluctuation in power source could have also affected the result. Hence
this obtained result may not be correct.

41