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CHAPTER 4 •The change in kinetic energy of a charged

MOVING CHARGES AND MAGNETISM particle, when it is moving through a
• Christian Oersted discovered magnetic magnetic field is zero.
field surrounding a current carrying wire. • The magnetic field can change the
• The direction of the magnetic field direction of velocity of a charged particle,
depends on the direction of current. but not its magnitude.
• The laws of electricity and magnetism Lorentz force
were unified and formulated by James • Force on charge moving in combined
Maxwell who then realized that light was electric and magnetic field.
electromagnetic waves. • F = qE + q( v × B ) = q [ E + ( v × B ) ]
• Radio waves were discovered by Hertz Units of magnetic field (magnetic induction or
and produced by J C Bose and G Marconi magnetic flux density)
Magnetic Lorentz force • SI unit is tesla (T)
• Force on charge moving in a magnetic • Other unit is gauss(G)
field. • 1 gauss =10-4 tesla
F = qvB sin θ , q –charge, v- velocity,
• The earth’s magnetic field is about
B – magnetic field, θ- angle between v and B.
3.6x10-5 T
• Or F = q( v × B )
Definition of Tesla
Special Cases:
• The magnetic induction (B) in a region is
• If the charge is at rest, i.e. v = 0, then
said to be one tesla if the force acting on a
F = 0.
unit charge (1C) moving perpendicular to
• Thus, a stationary charge in a magnetic
the magnetic field (B) with a speed of
field does not experience any force.
1m/s is one Newton.
• If θ = 0° or 180° i.e. if the charge moves Force on a current carrying wire in a magnetic
parallel or anti-parallel to the direction of field
the magnetic field, then F = 0. • The total number of charge carriers in the
• If θ = 90° i.e. if the charge moves
conductor = n Al
perpendicular to the magnetic field, then
• Where, n-number of charges per unit
the force is maximum.
volume, A-area of cross section, l-length
Fmax = qvB
of the conductor.
Right Hand Thumb Rule • If e is the charge of each carrier , the total
• The direction of magnetic Lorentz force charge is Q = enAl
can be found using right hand rule.
• The magnetic force is F = Q(v × B )
• Where v – drift velocity
• Thus F = enAl ( v × B ) = nAve(l × B )
• Thus
F = I lB s in θ
Work done by magnetic Lorentz force • Since I = nAve
• The magnetic Lorentz force is given by
• When θ=0 , F=0
F = q( v × B )
• When θ=900, F = IlB
• Thus F, is perpendicular to v and hence Fleming’s left hand rule
perpendicular to the displacement.
• A rule to find the direction of the force n a
• Therefore the work done current carrying wire.
W = Fd cos 90 = 0
• Thus work done by the magnetic force on
a moving charge is zero.
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• Fore finger – direction of magnetic field •The component of velocity along B

• Middle finger –direction of current remains unchanged.
• Thumb – direction of force. • The motion in the plane perpendicular to
Motion of a charged particle in a Magnetic field B is circular.
Velocity perpendicular to B • The charged particle continues to move
• Charged particle entering perpendicular along the field with a constant velocity.
to a magnetic field undergoes circular • Therefore the resultant path of the
motion. particle is helix.
• The perpendicular force qvB acts as a • The linear distance travelled by the
centripetal force. charged particle in the direction of the
magnetic field during its period of
revolution is called pitch of the helical
path.
2π mv cos θ
p = Tv cos θ =
qB
• The radius of the circular component of
motion is called radius of the helix.
• A natural phenomenon due to the helical
Frequency of circular motion motion of charged particles is Aurora
• We have centripetal force mv2/r = qvB Boriolis.
• The radius of the circle described by the Motion in combined Electric and Magnetic Fields
particle. Velocity Selector
mv • The Lorentz force acting on a charged
r=
qB particle is
• The time period of rotation is
2π r 2π mv 2π m
T= = =
v qBv qB
• Thus the frequency
1 qB
f = =
T 2π m
• This frequency is called cyclotron
frequency. • When B is perpendicular to E
• The angular frequency is given by
2π qB qB
ω = 2π f = =
2π m m

When the initial velocity makes an arbitrary • The total force on the charge is zero,
angle with the field direction when qE = qvB
• Charged particle entering at an angle to a E
magnetic field undergoes helical path. • Thus v =
B
• The crossed E and B fields serve as a
velocity selector.
• Only particles with speed E/B pass
undeflected through the region of crossed
fields.
• This method was employed by J J
Thomson to measure e/m ratio of an
electron.
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• This principle is also employed in Mass •The perpendicular magnetic field throws it
Spectrometer-aa device that separates into a circular path.
charged particles, usually ions, according • If D1 becomes positive and D2 negative it
to their charge to mass ratio. accelerates towards D2 and moves faster
Cyclotron describing a larger semicircle than before.
• Device to accelerate charged particles.
particle • If the frequency of the applied voltage is is
• Designed by E O Lawrence and M S same as the frequency of revolution of
Livingston. charged particle then every time the
Principle / Theory particle reaches the gap between the dees
• A charged particle can be accelerated to the electric field is reversed and particle
very high energies by passing through a receives a push and finally it acquires very
moderate electric field number of times. high energy.
• This can be done with the help of a • In a cyclotron the he charged particle follows
perpendicular magnetic field which a spiral path.
throws the charged particle into
in a circular Cyclotron’s Resonance Condition
motion. • The condition in which the frequency
f of
Cyclotron frequency the applied voltage is equal to the
• We have centripetal force mv2/r = qvB frequency of revolution of charged
• The radius of the circle described by the particle.
particle.
mv Maximum Kinetic Energy
r= • We have mv2/R = qvB
qB
Therefore v = qBR /m
• The time period of rotation is
• Thus the kinetic energy
2π r 2π mv 2π m
T= = = 1 2 q2 B2 R2
v qBv qB K = mv =
2 2m
• Thus the frequency • Where , q- charge, B-
B magnetic field, R –
1 qB radius, m- mass.
f = =
T 2π m Limitations of cyclotron
qB • According to special theory of relativity
• Cyclotron frequency is, f =
2π m
Construction
• At high velocities the cyclotron frequency
will decrease due to increase in mass and
the particlee will become out of resonance.
• This can be overcome by

Increasing magnetic field –
Synchrotron

Decreasing the frequency of ac –
Synchro-Cyclotron
Cyclotron
• Electrons cannot be accelerated
• Neutrons being electrically neutral cannot
• The whole device is in high vacuum so
be accelerated in a cyclotron.
that air molecules do not collide with
Uses
charged particles.
• To study nuclear structure – high energy
Working
particles from cyclotron are used to
• The positive ion entering the gap
bombard nuclei.
between two dees gets accelerated
• To generate high energy particles
towards D1 if it is negative.
• To implant ions in to solids.
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• To produce radioactive isotopes used in

hospitals.
Biot-Savart Law

• The magnetic field at a point due to the • The magnetic field at P due to the current
small element of a current carrying element dl , at A is
conductor is
µ0 Idl sin 900 µ0 Idl
• directly proportional to the current dB = =
flowing through the conductor (I) 4π r2 4π r 2
• The component dB cosθ is cancelled by
• The length of the element dl
the diametrically opposite component.
• Sine of the angle between r and dl
• Thus magnetic field at P ,due to the
• And inversely proportional to the square
current element is the x- component of
of the distance of the point from dl.
dB.
• Thus the magnetic field due to a current
• Therefore dBx = dB cos θ
element is
µ Idl
dBx = 0 2 cos θ
4π r
1
• μ0-permeability of free space, I – current, • But we have r = ( x 2 + R 2 ) 2
and
r- distance


R
µ0 Idl × r cos θ = 1
• or dB = (x 2
+ R2 ) 2
4π r 3
µ0 • Therefore
• where , = 10−7 Tm / A
4π µ0 Idl R
dBx =
• The direction of magnetic field is given by 4π ( x + R ) ( x + R 2 ) 12
2 2 2

right hand rule. µ0 IRdl

Comparison between Coulomb’s law and Biot- dBx =
4π ( x 2 + R 2 ) 3 2
Savart’s law
Coulomb’s law Biot – Savart’s law • The summation of the current elements dl
1 q1q2 over the loop gives , the circumference
F= 2πR.
4πε 0ε r r 2 • Thus the total magnetic field at P due to
the circular coil is
Electric field is due to Magnetic field is due to µ IR (2π R ) µ0 IR 2
B= 0 =
vector source 4π ( x 2 + R 2 ) 3 2 2( x 2 + R 2 ) 3 2
scalar source
Electric field is present Along the direction of • Therefore
everywhere
current magnetic field µ0 IR 2
is zero B= 3
2 2 2
Applications of Biot-Savart Law 2( x + R )
Magnetic Field on the Axis of a Circular Current • At the centre of the loop x=0, thus,
Loop µI
B0 = 0
2R
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• The direction of the magnetic field due to Applications Of Ampere’s Circuital Law
a circular coil is given by right-hand 1. Magnetic field due to a straight wire
thumb rule.
• Curl the palm of your right hand around
the circular wire with the fingers pointing
in the direction of current. Then the right
hand thumb gives the direction of
magnetic field.
• Over the Amperian loop B and dl are
along the same direction.
• Thus ∫ B.dl = ∫ Bdl cos 0 =B ∫ dl
l l l

• That is ∫ B.dl =B(2π r )

l

• From ampere’s circuital law , B × 2π r = µ0 I

Magnetic field lines due to a circular current µI
• Thus B = 0
loop 2π r
2. Magnetic field due to a solenoid

Solenoid

Relation Connecting Velocity of Light , A solenoid is an insulated copper wire

•
Permittivity and Permeability closely wound in the form of a helix
• We have • When current flows through the
4πε 0  µ0  10−7 1 solenoid, it behaves as a bar magnet.
ε 0 µ0 =   = 9
= • For a long solenoid, the field outside is
1  4π  9 × 10 9 × 1016
nearly zero.
1 1
• Thus ε 0 µ0 = = 2 • A solenoid is usually used to obtain a
8 2
( 3 × 10 ) c uniform magnetic field.
• Where c – speed of light in vacuum. • If the current at one end of the
• Therefore the speed of light is given by solenoid is in the anticlockwise
1 direction it will be the North Pole and
c= if the current is in the clockwise
ε 0 µ0
direction it will be the South Pole.
1 Expression for magnetic field inside a solenoid
• In general , v =
εµ

Ampere's Circuital Law

• The closed line integral of magnetic field is

equal to µ0 times the total current.

• The closed loop is called Amperian Loop.

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• Consider an amperian loop abcda The magnetic field in the open space
•
• The magnetic field is zero along cd,bc and inside ( point P) and exterior to the
da. Toroid ( point Q ) is zero.
• The total number of turns of the solenoid • The field B is constant inside the Toroid.
is N = nh , where n – number of turns Magnetic Field due to a Toroid
per unit length, h –length of the amperian
loop.
• Therefore the total current enclosed by
the loop is I e = nhI ,
• where, I –current in the solenoid
• Using Ampere’s circuital law
∫ B.dl =Bh = µ I
l
0 e

Bh = µ0nhI
• Therefore , the magnetic field inside the For points interior (P)
solenoid is • Length of the loop 1 , L1 = 2π r1
• The current enclosed by the loop = 0.
B = µ0nI • Therefore
• The direction of the field is given by Right
Hand Rule. •Magnetic field at any point in the interior
The magnetic field due to a solenoid can be of a toroid is zero.
increased by For points inside ( S )
i) Increasing the no. of turns per unit • Length of the loop , L2 = 2π r2
length (n) • The total current enclosed =N I, where N
ii) Increasing the current (I) is the total number of turns and I the
iii) Inserting a soft iron core into the current.
solenoid. • Applying Ampere’s Circuital Law and
Magnetic Field lines of a Solenoid taking r2 = r
B(2πr) = µ0 NI
µ NI
B= 0
2π r
• Or
B = µ0nI
N
3. Magnetic Field due to a Toroid • Where n =
2π r
Toroid For points Exterior(Q)
• Each turn of the Toroid passes twice
through the area enclosed by the
Amperian Loop 3.
• For each turn current coming out of the
plane of the paper is cancelled by the
current going into the plane of paper.
• Therefore I = 0, B = 0.

• Toroid is a hollow circular ring on which a

large number of turns of a wire are closely
wound.
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Force between two parallel wires Definition of Ampere

• Force per unit length of the conductor is
F µ0 I 1 I 2
= N/m
l 2π r
• When I1 = I2 = 1 Ampere and r = 1 m, then
F = 2 x 10-7 N/m.
• One ampere is that current which, if
passed in each of two parallel conductors
of infinite length and placed 1 m apart in
vacuum causes each conductor to
experience a force of 2 x 10-7 Newton per
metre of length of the conductor.
• Magnetic Field on RS due to current in PQ Magnetic field lines of parallel wires
is
µI
B1 = 0 1 (Acts into the plane of diagram)
2π r
• B1 acts perpendicular and into the plane
of the diagram by Right Hand Thumb Rule
• Magnetic Field on PQ due to current in RS
is Magenetic dipole moment due to a current
µI • It is the product of current and area
B2 = 0 2 (Acts out to the plane of diagram)
2π r • Magnetic dipole moment, m = IA
• Force acting on PQ due to current I1
• For a coil of N turns, m = NIA
through it is
• The dimensions of the magnetic moment
µI µ I Il
F12 = 0 2 I1l sin 900 = 0 2 1 are [A][L2] and its unit is Am2.
2π r 2π r Torque on a rectangular current loop in a
µ0 I 2 I1l uniform magnetic field
F12 =
2π r  When magnetic field is in the plane of
• Force acting on RS due to current I2 the loop
through it is
µI µIIl
F21 = 0 1 I 2l sin 900 = 0 1 2
2π r 2π r
µ0 I 1 I 2 l
F21 =
2π r
µIIl
• Thus F12 = F21 = F = 0 1 2
2π r
• Force per unit length of the conductor is
F µ0 I 1 I 2
=
l 2π r
• Parallel currents attracts and anti-parallel
currents repels.

• We have, the force acting on a conductor

kept in a magnetic field
F = I lB s in θ
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• The field exerts no force on the two arms Circular current loop as a magnetic dipole
AD and BC of the loop. • We have the magnetic field on the axis of
• The force on the arm AB is a circular loop
F1 = IbB ( into the plane of loop) µ0 IR 2
• The force on the arm CD is
B= 3

F2 = IbB ( out of the plane of loop) 2( x 2 + R 2 ) 2

• Thus the net force on the loop is zero. • For x>>R,
• The torque on the loop is µ0 IR 2
B=
2x3
µ0 I ( π R 2 ) µ0 IA
• Thus B = = , where A –
a a 2π x 3
2π x 3
τ = IbB + IbB = I ( ab) B
2 2 Area of the loop.
• Or τ = IAB , where A = ab – area µ0 m µ 0 2 m
• Or B = =
• Also τ = mB , where m = IA , magnetic 2π x 3 4π x 3
moment. • This expression is similar to the electric
• When magnetic field makes an angle field due to a dipole in the axial point.
with the plane of the loop
• Similarly the magnetic field at a point on
the plane of the loop is
µ m
B= 0 3
4π x
• Thus a current loop produces magnetic
field and behaves like a magnetic dipole at
large distances.
Magnetic dipole moment of a revolving electron

• The forces on the arms BC and DA are

equal, opposite, and act along the axis of
the coil, and hence cancel each other.
• The forces on AB and CD are
F1 = F2 = IbB
• The current due to the revolution of
e
electron is I = , where e – electronic
T
charge, T – time period of revolution.
2π r
• We have T = , r – radius of orbit, v –
v
orbital velocity.
• Thus the torque is ev
• Thus I =
2π r
• The magnetic moment associated with
a a this circulating current is
• τ = IbB sin θ + IbB sin θ = I (ab) B sin θ ev
2 2 µl = I (π r 2 ) = (π r 2 )
or τ = IAB sin θ 2π r
τ = mB sin θ , m- magnetic moment evr
• Thus τ = m×B µl =
2
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• The direction of the magnetic moment is •With simple modifications, it can be used
into the plane of the paper. to measure current and voltage.
• Multiplying and dividing RHS of the above Construction
equation with mass of electron me, we get • The galvanometer consists of a coil, with
em vr many turns, free to rotate about a fixed
µl = e
2me axis in a uniform radial magnetic field.
• There is a cylindrical soft iron core which
el
Or µl = , where l- orbital angular
not only makes the field radial but also
2me increases the strength of the magnetic
momentum of the electron. field.
• Vectorially

• The negative sign indicates that the

angular momentum of the electron is
opposite in direction to the magnetic
moment.
Gyromagnetic ratio

• Its value is 8.8 × 1010 C /kg for an electron

Bohr magneton Principle /Theory
• According to Bohr quantization condition , • Works on the torque acting on a
the angular momentum of an electron is rectangular loop in a magnetic field.
given by • The torque on a coil of N turns is given by
τ = NIAB sin θ
• As the magnetic field is radial , θ=900
Where h – Planck’s constant, n =1, 2,3.. • Therefore τ = NIAB
enh • This magnetic torque tends to rotate the
• Thus , µl =
4π me coil.
• A spring Sp provides a counter torque kφ.
• The value of magnetic dipole moment of
• Thus in equilibrium
an electron for n=1 is called Bohr
kφ = NIAB
magneton.
• Thus for n= 1 • where k is the torsional constant of the
eh spring ( the restoring torque per unit
µl = twist)
4π me
• The deflection φ is indicated on the scale
• Substituting the values we get by a pointer attached to the spring.
eh 1.6 × 10 −19 × 6.63 × 10−34
µl = = = 9.27 × 10−24 Am 2  NAB 
4π me 4 × 3.14 × 9.11 × 10 −31 • Thus φ =  I
 k 
• Any charge in uniform circular motion
NAB
would have an orbital magnetic moment. • The current, φ = GI , where G = ,the
k
• Besides the orbital moment an electron
galvanometer constant.
has an intrinsic magnetic moment called
• The galvanometer cannot as such be used
spin magnetic moment.
as an ammeter to measure the value of
Moving coil galvanometer (MCG)
the current in a given circuit.
• Device to know presence of current.
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This is for two reasons:

• Galvanometer is a very sensitive device, it
gives a full-scale deflection for a current
of the order of μA.
• For measuring currents, the galvanometer
has to be connected in series, and as it
has a large resistance, this will change the
value of the current in the circuit.
Current sensitivity of the galvanometer • Potential difference across the given load
• Ratio of deflection to the current resistance is the sum of p.d across
φ  NAB  galvanometer and p.d. across the high
= 
I  k  resistance.
• Current sensitivity can be increased by • Thus V = I g ( G + R )

Increasing the number of turns V
• Therefore , R = −G

Increasing the area of the loop Ig

Increasing the strength of the Difference between Ammeter and Voltmeter
field

Decreasing the torque per unit
twist.
Voltage sensitivity of the galvanometer
• Deflection produced per unit voltage
φ  NAB  I  NAB  1
=  = 
V  k V  k  R
• Voltage sensitivity increases when

Number of turns increases

Area of the loop increases

Strength of the field increases

Torque per unit twist decreases

Resistance decreases *****
Conversion of galvanometer to ammeter
• By connecting small resistance (shunt
resistance ) parallel.

• Potential difference across the

galvanometer and shunt resistance are
equal.
• Thus ( I − I g ) S = I g G
I gG
• Shunt resistance S =
(I − Ig )
Conversion of galvanometer to voltmeter
• By connecting high resistance in series.