Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Body Beautiful? Gender, Identity and The Body in Professional Services Firms
Body Beautiful? Gender, Identity and The Body in Professional Services Firms
Body Beautiful? Gender, Identity and The Body in Professional Services Firms
Kathryn Haynes*
Introduction
T he two professions of accounting and law are the most established and
oldest of those encompassed in the professional services sector. Their
identification as a profession, with the attendant notions of public service,
client service, technical competence and professional characterization, make
them particularly relevant for study in the context of professional identity. The
nature of professional identity (Alvesson and Willmott, 2002), together with
career advancement for professional women in industrialized countries
(Davidson and Cooper, 1992), has long been recognized as problematic.
Both accounting and law have previously been considered masculine territo-
ries from which women have been excluded through barriers to entry. His-
torically the opportunity for women to become accountants was problematic,
as they were seen by some as both physically and intellectually unfit for such
a role (Lehman, 1992). Women’s oppression in accountancy interacted with
the development of power and influence in the profession itself and the
constitution of its knowledge base in terms of gender (Kirkham, 1992). Until
the latter half of the 20th century the professional echelons of accounting were
a male preserve in the UK, as the masculine qualities required of accounting
professionals ‘contrasted markedly with the image of the weak, dependent,
emotional “married” woman of mid-Victorian Britain’ (Kirkham and Loft,
1993, p. 516). Similarly, in the legal profession women were historically sub-
jected to significant barriers to entry. In many western countries women’s
admission to law occurred at the turn of the 19th to 20th century or during the
first decades of the 20th century as the progress of professionalization grew
apace, but entry to the judiciary occurred much more slowly (Schultz, 2003).
For example, in England and Wales women struggled to achieve equality
with men and were often subordinated into the least prestigious sections of
the profession (Sommerlad and Sanderson, 1998) and in Canada monopolies
on legal services gave law societies significant power to exclude women from
the profession (Brockman, 2001). Despite professions such as accounting and
law appearing to have accepted the close tying of educational credentials to
meritocratic access as an ‘ideological necessity’, their role in supporting
access to status required restricted entry (Larson, 1977, p. 51). Hence, profes-
sional practices, such as restricting access to work experience requirements,
have contributed to historical and continued professional closure for those
seen as ‘other’, as a result of their gender, race, or class (Francis and
Sommerlad, 2009; Hammond, 2002; Sommerlad, 2007).
Recent decades have seen significant increases each year in the numbers
of women attracted to these professions and the professional service firms in
them. In the case of law, the percentage of female students enrolling with the
Law Society in the UK consistently reached around 62 per cent in the years
from 2001 to 2009 (Law Society, 2010), whereas in accounting, worldwide
numbers of female student members of the six major UK accounting bodies
Methodology
The data in this article derive from a 2-year funded research project involving
professional services firms in the USA and the UK. These geographical areas
are where most of the largest and, therefore, arguably the most influential
professional services firms originate, although it is acknowledged that cul-
tural contexts may differ in and between these contexts and with other parts
of the world. The article draws from semi-structured interviews carried out
with 15 female practitioners in the USA and 15 in the UK. The interviewees
were initially sourced through personal contacts in the two professions and
through contacting professional women’s networking groups, followed by
snowballing techniques whereby additional interviewees were referred to me
through contacts, an invaluable source when the potential participants are
few in number or difficult to ascertain, or where some degree of trust is
required to initiate contact (Atkinson and Flint, 2001). In this case, the fact that
I am a former accountant enabled me to utilise personal contacts from aca-
demia, accounting and law, and develop some degree of trust with partici-
pants through a shared experience of the sector.
The interviews ranged in length from 1 to 3 hours and took place either in
the firm’s offices, in a public place or in the participant’s home. All were
recorded with the permission of the participant and were then transcribed. I
listened to the tapes while scrutinizing the transcript, the first time to correct
for any errors, and the second time to annotate them with significant
The participants in the study expressed awareness that the nature of profes-
sionalism incorporates aspects of presentation, embodied in the form of
required attire or dress:
We won’t let our junior associates, you know, go to Court without a jacket.
They know they have to have a jacket at the office, even if it is a simple 2
second, you know, put an uncontested motion on the record in front of the
Judge. (Partner A, law firm)
For women professionals, however, not only do they have to negotiate their
attire and dress, but also how they perform this elusive ‘professional
demeanour’, which encapsulates speech and manner. While promotion com-
mittees and recruiters are looking for ‘speaking with some kind of impact’,
women’s experiences of speaking authoritatively are met negatively as over-
bearing. In this quote, the participant recalls a promotion committee discuss-
ing a female candidate for promotion to partner status:
We disagreed with the hiring partner on a candidate ... his reaction ... to the
way that she was speaking, because she does have this very authoritative
manner of speaking, is that she was strident and he couldn’t get past that
and listen to what she was saying because she was so strident and he felt
attacked. (Associate lawyer A)
Women found that to assert their authority in professional services firms in
the traditionally male-dominated environments of the law and accounting
professions, they had to tread ‘a very fine line between assertive and shrill
and you can’t go over the shrill line’ (Partner C, law firm). They were aware
of the need to be assertive but not to be perceived as overly aggressive even
though the nature of the job requires a degree of physical presence, perfor-
mativity and authority. For the lawyers, particularly when advocating
in court, the role is ‘performative in the sense that the essence or identity
that they otherwise purport to express are fabrications manufactured and
sustained through corporeal signs and other discursive means’ (Butler,
1990, p. 185). Nevertheless, acceptable performativity is gendered as
masculine:
Some people talked to me about my manner of speaking: ‘Maybe you need
to tone it down a little bit you know’ — it is ridiculous because I had to do
it to kind of give me authority in Court, to have authority to be among the
men, and then I did it and the men are like, ‘We’re feeling defensive and
scared’. (Associate lawyer C)
Society’s cultural expectations are that women embody softer, feminine
attributes, whereas in law, the nature of the work sometimes involves pow-
erful advocacy which requires more assertive behaviour. Women who
are deemed to be acting contrary to femininity and embodying the more
masculine attributes required by the law profession are subject to negative
characterizations:
If a man had made the same arguments, in the same manner, in the same
way as a woman, you know they were just protecting their clients’ interests
or whatever, but if a woman does it, she is a bitch. That is one of the things
for women, at least in litigation, it is more of a problem for women to be
taking strong positions and arguing forcefully and striking that balance. If
you do it too much you are a bitch, that is how you would be characterized
and you know, with some people, if you do it at all you are a bitch. (Partner
A, law firm)
The elusive and ephemeral professional demeanour that encapsulates body
language, manner and speech may have differential sets of performative
criteria for men and women, so that what is regarded as professional for a
man may be regarded as too masculine for a woman.
The women in the study were conscious of how they utilised, maintained or
developed their bodies in order to fit more successfully into the masculine
culture of professional services firms. Sometimes this involved the use of
natural attributes which enabled them to fit more easily into the symbolic
order of professionalism:
You may have noticed I am extraordinarily tall and I think it has actually
served me very well in law and in a male dominated profession because I
think that I do get accorded a lot more credibility because of that ... people
think that I am older or more experienced or more confident or sure of
myself or whatever.... I think that does work to your advantage in law.
(Associate lawyer A)
At other times they were conscious of compensating for their apparent lack of
fit and professional demeanour by altering their self-presentation through the
management of their body. This includes simply out-dressing others, using
clothes as a cloak of professionalism:
I sort of think that if you go to a meeting and you are the only women in the
room you better be the best dressed one there, and if you go to a meeting
with clients and you are the accountant you better be dressed one notch
above the client. (Senior Manager D, accounting)
I think there is still the misconception as far as body image goes that if you
are fat it is your fault, you are fat because you choose to eat too much ... so
I have always been aware of it. (Partner A, law firm)
Control of the body and its outward display, through being physically fit,
healthy and an appropriate weight, can be said to be indicative of being in
control of one’s rationality and corporeal presence, central to the embodiment
of the professional in accounting and law:
They want you to appear fit and healthy and you know you cannot be
overweight, they encourage you to be healthy ... they do encourage that.
(Associate lawyer B)
Those who do not conform to this norm struggle to attain the professional
demeanour and professional embodiment so prized in professional services
firms:
A colleague, she looks young, and she is also very heavy, and ... I have seen
her struggle throughout her career with being taken seriously, and unfor-
tunately I think some of it has to do with her weight, and ... she had all her
own issues about it already and then I think on top of it she was being
judged for it, which is unfortunate, but I think law firms in a lot of ways are
kind of shallow. (Associate lawyer A)
The worst part is the stress, I mean I don’t look like that anymore, in terms
of the photograph they took after I [was made partner], you know, so on the
whole, you lose some part of yourself. (Partner D, law firm)
This comment from a partner was striking in its veracity as I had visited her
web pages to glean some background information prior to our meeting and
almost did not recognize the woman I met from the photograph on the
website. Long hours, associated tiredness, a sedentary working life and an
inability to plan weekend physical activities with friends due to work com-
mitments had led to her sense of physical deterioration.
Conclusion
barriers to entry have largely been overcome for women in accounting and
law, progression through the hierarchy remains problematic and women are
not being retained in professional services firms in the numbers that might be
expected (Law Society, 2010; Professional Oversight Board for Accountancy,
2010), an issue which has concerned governments and the professions alike
(Panel of Fair Access to the Professions, 2009).
Drawing from interviews with women professionals in accounting and law
firms, this article has examined an aspect of working life which remains
problematic — the relationship between the body and identity in professional
services firms. I suggest that concepts of professional identity and gendered
embodiment are closely interlinked. The physical body is an important facet
of professionalism because it is symbolic of aspects of identity and the self, an
embodied representation of a perceived identity. The findings suggest that, in
terms of gender, the historical challenges of gendered body image and fitness
to practice remain an issue in contemporary firms. Bourdieu’s theories of
capital, particularly physical capital, are used to argue that professional
embodiment remains resolutely masculine.
While women are conscious of managing their embodied identities in this
context and may use some degree of agency to resist these cultural norms,
they are still subjected to marginalization as certain forms of physical capital
are associated with legitimate professional identity. Moreover, physical
capital and a particular masculine form of professional embodiment become
associated with hierarchical and inegalitarian notions of worth. Women have
to tread a fine line between hiding negatively constructed aspects of feminin-
ity while displaying positively construed masculine forms of embodiment in
order to be taken seriously. These issues may have severe implications for the
women themselves as they subsume facets of their identity and sacrifice
aspects of their bodies. They also have potentially serious implications for the
professions. While the women in this study have all remained in the profes-
sion and some have achieved partnership status, the findings might help to
explain if and how women continue to feel marginalized in accounting and
law.
Future research might usefully research the impact of such gendered
embodiment on women who have left professional services firms to pursue
other options. It might also consider the impact on men of embodied identi-
ties in the professional context. Importantly, the concept of professional
embodied identity might be applied to other groups known to be marginal-
ized in the professions on grounds of race, disability, and social background,
which remain tangible issues in allowing equality of opportunity in profes-
sions (Panel of Fair Access to the Professions, 2009). If only certain forms of
embodied identities are regarded as legitimate, there are serious implications
for cultural, social and physical capital and for the careers and identities of
individuals, if they are to secure equal access to status, career progression and
affirmation.
Acknowledgements
Note
1. For more detail on Bourdieu and gender see Masculine Domination (Bourdieu,
2001).
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