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A portrait of intimate apparel female shoppers: A segmentation study

Article  in  Australasian Marketing Journal (AMJ) · February 2017

DOI: 10.1016/j.ausmj.2017.01.004

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 Australasian Marketing Journal 25 (2017) 67–75

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Australasian Marketing Journal

j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w. e l s e v i e r. c o m / l o c a t e / a m j

A portrait of intimate apparel female shoppers: A segmentation study

Yelena Tsarenko, Carolyn J. Lo *
Department of Marketing, Monash University, PO Box 197, Caulfield East, VIC 3145, Australia

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Article history: This research expands dialogue on the dynamic consumer–product relationship within the under-
Received 31 August 2016 researched, albeit sensitive, context of intimate wear. Drawing on involvement theory alongside specific
Revised 11 November 2016 product and service attributes, this study delineates and profiles segments within the highly engen-
Accepted 30 January 2017
dered consumption of the bra. Data gathered from 221 Australian females unveiled three distinct segments
Available online 22 February 2017
of female bra shoppers: Enthusiasts who derive significant hedonic value in purchasing bras, Dilet-
tantes who portray high interest in lingerie but exhibit the lowest levels of competency in bra-
Keywords:
shopping, and Pragmatists who hold the lowest score in terms of hedonic value but perceive themselves
Segmentation
Intimate apparel as highly competent bra shoppers. Demographic and attribute profiling further captures differences between
Inconspicuous fashion consumption segments on factors including age, brand importance, lingerie servicescape ambience, and professional
Product attributes fitting advice. Findings provide relevant insights for lingerie retailers and suggestions for future research.
Service attributes © 2017 Australian and New Zealand Marketing Academy. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

C H I N E S E A B S T R A C T

该项研究将消费者与产品之间动态关系的对话扩展到亟待研究的敏感领域——内衣消费。 该项研究根据涉入理论
并结合特定产品属性和服务属性, 描述和介绍了高消耗文胸的细分市场。 来自 221 名澳大利亚女士的数据揭示了女
性文胸购买者的三个不同细分市场：热衷者通常能从购买文胸中满足其享乐主义价值观, 而外行的购买者通常对内
衣表现出高昂的兴趣, 但是在购买文胸时却表现出极低的购买力, 而实用主义者并不能从购买体验中获得享乐价值,
但是她们认为自己是最具购买力的文胸购买者。 人口统计学和产品属性与服务属性分析进一步反映了细分市场之
间的区别,包括年龄、品牌重要性、内衣服务环境和专业试衣建议相关因素对细分市场的影响。
这些发现为内衣零售商提供了相关的见解, 并对未来研究的方向提出了建议。
© 2017 Australian and New Zealand Marketing Academy. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction dominating contemporary consumption ideology. Unsurprisingly, lin-

While literature on gendered consumption has been on the rise,
extant research has rarely appreciated nor examined the variance ex-
isting within the same gender. More specifically in the context of lingerie
consumption (Hart and Dewsnap, 2001; Hume and Mills, 2013), studies
have yet to explore the differences among female shoppers in rela-
tion to purchasing intimate wear. This exploratory segmentation study
therefore examines the gendered consumption of a product typically
designed as a non-visible apparel item – the bra. Regarded by women
as a wardrobe necessity, the bra serves as a foundation for clothing
(Singer, 2014) and is a type of undergarment with which females
develop an enduring and meaningful relationship (Amy-Chinn et al.,
2006), albeit less explicit than that of conspicuous products. This dis-
creet fashion product has undergone significant transformation in recent
decades due to not only advances in production technology but also,
perhaps more significantly, its position as a carrier of cultural meanings
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: JiaEn.Lo@monash.edu (C.J. Lo).
gerie has blossomed from a commodity into a fashion market segment
with reportedly higher margins than regular apparel (MarketResearch
.com, 2015). Accounting for 55.5% of the world lingerie market, global
bra sales in 2016 were estimated to be worth US$16.42 billion, with
brands distributing their products in well-known retailers or retailers
offering their own brands and/or brands of trusted manufacturers
(Just-Style.com, 2016).
While new and different lingerie silhouettes are continuously de-
veloped and offered, seasonal trends cannot belie the functional and
hedonic needs that drive women to buy and consume the product. In
light of the need to understand distinctive segments of intimate apparel
shoppers, the primary aim of this paper is to explore whether the mo-
dalities and practices of lingerie consumption differ according to various
types of consumers through the use of clustering techniques. The second
aim of this research is to profile identified segments of consumers based
on the importance of certain product and service attributes.
Building on the postulation that consumers differ in the amount
of utility they derive from the same product (Coulter et al., 2003),
we address the first aim of this study through the lens of involve-
ment theory. Consumer involvement encapsulates complex

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ausmj.2017.01.004
1441-3582/© 2017 Australian and New Zealand Marketing Academy. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
68 Y. Tsarenko, C.J. Lo / Australasian Marketing Journal 25 (2017) 67–75
“person–object” relationships from the perspective of product im-
portance and its relevance to the consumer. While some individuals
approach the task of apparel shopping as a chore that requires im-
position on time and energy (Fischer and Arnold, 1990), others
experience it as a pleasurable leisure activity (Green, 2001), deriv-
ing self-enhancing benefits contributing to one’s self image and
personal identity (Babin et al., 1994; Hourigan and Bougoure, 2012).
Existing literature on consumer behaviour in the fashion clothing
market has drawn heavily on consumer involvement theory (e.g.
Kapferer and Laurent, 1985; O’Cass, 2000). According to Rothschild
(1984), “involvement is an unobservable state of motivation, arousal
or interest. It is evoked by a particular stimulus or situation [and]
its consequences are types of searching, information processing and
decision making” (p. 217). As Martin (1998) further suggested, con-
sumer involvement reflects a specific consumer’s response to the
product or service.
Fashion-based consumption can be seen as an opportunity for
consumers to express their unique personal identity, social status,
and professional image (Thompson and Haytko, 1997). This pro-
jected identity presents a means of communicating with the external
world and, as Gabriel and Lang (2006) stated, “[we] want to buy
things not because of what things can do for us, but because of
what things can mean to us and what they say about us” (p. 48).
While prior research has explored the consumer decision-making
process in the context of lingerie (Hart and Dewsnap, 2001; Hume
and Mills, 2013), there are no specific studies that marries the
concept of consumer involvement and the purchase of intimate
apparel. Adding to this apparent literature gap are the unique char-
acteristics surrounding the intimate apparel product category,
qualifying it an interesting subject of research. Briefly, these char-
acteristics are associated with the fact that (1) intimate apparel,
particularly bras, are products designed almost exclusively for
females, (2) bras consists of multiple subcategories featuring various
styles, material and purposes, and (3) the category is closely en-
twined with one’s self concept. In combination, these aspects relate
to the degree of consumer involvement with the product, which
in turn serves as a basis for segmentation.
Consumer segmentation is an important tool for retailers. Given
the diversity of consumers and almost impossibility to satisfy all
consumers with a single product, market segmentation serves to
differentiate between distinct groups of consumers by identifying
specific segments with similar requirements and buying charac-
teristics (Dibb and Simkin, 1991). Careful market segmentation
requires an understanding of the needs and expectations of con-
sumers from which meaningful and profitable market segments can
be identified based on appropriate geographic, demographic,
behavioural and/or psychographic characteristics. In turn, clearly
defined market segments help marketers develop strategies for ef-
fective targeting and positioning (Dibb and Simkin, 1991). Within
the intimate apparel product category, a review of popular brands
and retailers revealed the use of a combination of segmentation ap-
proaches, of which (a) age and life cycle (demographic variables)
as well as (b) usage occasion, benefits sought and attitudes
(behavioural variables) proved to be distinguishing characteristics
between consumer segments. While researchers have previously
noted that demographic characteristics may not always convey ef-
fective differentiation across fashion involvement profiles and are
therefore less ideal for segmentation strategies (Haley, 1968; Moye
and Kincade, 2003; O’Cass, 2004), brands have consistently recog-
nized the undeniable role of age and life cycle in affecting bra
purchase decisions due to the changing needs of the female body.
Many brands including Berlei, Victoria’s Secret, Triumph and Bonds
carry a wide range of bras that provide suitable comfort, support
and fit according to the needs of growing teens, working women,
nursing mothers and older women. Brands have also distinguished
between different bra-wearing behaviour by differentiating the
product into usage patterns, such as occasions and benefits sought
(e.g. T-shirt bra designed for seamless everyday wear, push-up bras
for enhanced cleavage, convertible bras for strapless or halter-
neck outfits and sports bra for physical activities). In addition to
targeting consumers of various age and bra-usage behaviour, some
brands further overlay differentiation strategies using females’ at-
titude towards their ideal self-concept. For instance, Victoria’s Secret
line focuses on sensuality and body appeal while their youthful Pink
line emphasizes more fun and cheekiness (Schlossberg, 2016; Singer,
2014). However, these approaches appear to be largely directed
towards broadening their range of product offerings, rather than em-
ploying segmentation as a systematic marketing tool.
Taken together, it is imperative “not only to understand involve-
ment itself but also to understand the role involvement plays
together with other variables in guiding the formation of pur-
chase and consumption patterns” (O’Cass, 2004, p. 878). This suggests
that measurements of consumer involvement should be em-
ployed alongside relevant variables when identifying consumer
segments of intimate apparel. In taking the first step towards em-
pirically segmenting consumers of this product category, we focus
on exploring the nuances of specific product and service attri-
butes that would enable retailers to develop more targeted and
tailored strategies towards enhancing consumer value during the
shopping experience. Thus, the importance of such attributes to a
particular consumer segment will be used to profile identified seg-
ments of female shoppers.
The following section provides an overview of existing litera-
ture regarding consumer involvement, the product concept of
intimate apparel, product-related attributes, and service attri-
butes. We then discuss the methodology and measures used in this
study before presenting the results and discussion of managerial
and theoretical implications.
2. Conceptual background
2.1. Consumer involvement
Consumers engage differently with various models of consump-
tion. Douglas and Isherwood (1996) noted that consumption is not
only directed to communicate to others but also to ourselves. This
highlights the personal relevance that can be associated with a con-
sumption behaviour or specific product category, conceptualized as
consumer involvement. While involvement has been examined as
a crucial factor in consumer behaviour (see, for example, Kapferer
and Laurent, 1985), there is little agreement on the meaning of the
involvement construct (Behe et al., 2015). In the pioneering work
of Sherif and Cantril (1947), involvement was described as the state
of the organism when presented with any stimulus which is con-
sciously or subconsciously related to the ego (“ego central”). This
finding was confirmed by Kassarjian’s (1981) observation that the
differences between individuals make some consumers more in-
terested, concerned, or involved in the purchase decision process.
Hence, consumer involvement can be broadly defined as “the degree
of psychological identification, affective and emotional ties the con-
sumer has with a stimulus or stimuli” (Martin, 1998, p. 8).
According to Laaksonen (1994, p. 28), both social psychologists
and consumer behaviour researchers consider involvement as a prop-
erty of product-related cognitive structure, determined either in
terms of an attitude or knowledge structure in relation to the
product. However, Kapferer and Laurent (1985) proposed that in-
volvement may be approached more meaningfully as an arousal or
motivational state that can be triggered by antecedents including
interest, perceived pleasure value and perceived risk. In turn, such
facets were postulated to provide a clearer picture of the involve-
ment profile of consumers, challenging previous practices of
measuring involvement with a single index or even item (Kapferer
 Y. Tsarenko, C.J. Lo / Australasian Marketing Journal 25 (2017) 67–75
and Laurent, 1985). Among the instruments used to measure con-
sumer involvement, some hold universal application (Zaichkowsky,
1985; Kapferer and Laurent, 1985; O’Cass, 2000), while a few were
aimed at measuring the involvement concept with specific prod-
ucts or aspects of the retail experience, including the automotive
industry (Bloch, 1981), lawn or ten-pin bowling (Martin, 1998), and
the retail store (Arora, 1985).
In this study, we adopted a scale for measuring consumer in-
volvement in bra shopping based on the studies of Kapferer and
Laurent (1985) and O’Cass (2004), where the latter pertains to fashion
products and is therefore closely associated with the context of
this study. While involvement has often been limited to low/high
dichotomies, Kapferer and Laurent (1985) advocated the use of mea-
suring several facets of involvement separately since some products
inherently elicit more involvement from consumers and variances
exist in the level of involvement between consumers and a product.
Supporting this position, Michaelidou and Dibb (2006) similarly
noted that “involvement for different products may be affected by
different factors” (p. 442). Specifically, facets of involvement include
interest in the product, hedonic or pleasure value derived from
the purchase, perceived risk or importance of the consequences of
a wrong purchase, and perceived sign value of projected identity
from making the purchase (Kapferer and Laurent, 1985).
Additionally, Laaksonen (1994) observed the elemental nature
of the concept of involvement, stating that it cannot be analyzed
without consideration of its contextual properties. Hence, simply
measuring consumer involvement is not enough to explain various
aspects of consumer behaviour. Based on this view, we consid-
ered consumers’ personal characteristics, the product-related
characteristics of the bra, and service attributes in purchasing a bra
in order to better delineate involvement profiles. Taken together,
this study deconstructs consumers’ involvement in the context of
bra shopping and postulates how retailers can (through product
offerings or in-store service experience) facilitate consumer effort
in their search for the right undergarment in congruence with their
conception of identity (Amy-Chinn et al., 2006).
2.2. The bra as a product concept
Within the sphere of existing marketing literature on clothing
and fashion, only a handful of studies focus on intimate apparel
(Granot et al., 2010; Hart and Dewsnap, 2001; Law et al., 2012;
Tarnanidis et al., 2015). Several factors may account for this dearth:
first, undergarments can be considered a subset of the apparel con-
stellation which researchers perceive to be particularly sensitive and
intrusive, and hence a topic difficult to research (Law et al., 2012).
Second, the nature of lingerie features the unique combination of
being highly gender-oriented and equivocal (Farrell-Beck and Gau,
2002). Although postmodernists argue that gender boundaries are
increasingly losing their distinction in consumption practices (e.g.
Firat and Venkatesh, 1995), the bra inherently holds purposes and
features exclusive to the female body.
As its traditional function as a necessary and discrete part of
women’s attire remains highly relevant, the myriads of bra styles,
designs and fabrics made widely available through technology have
reshaped the role of bras (Freeman, 2004), requiring a broader con-
sideration of its allure to female consumers. Accordingly, these varied
roles influence consumers’ relationship with the bra (Freeman, 2004)
denoting a contention central to the concept of involvement.
To consumers, the bra may represent support, comfort, allure,
or sex appeal in any or simultaneous combination. As the “social
visibility” of the bra increases – not only in the way it contributes
to the impression of the breast shape through clothing (Hart and
Dewsnap, 2001), but also in more recent fashion trends of bras
as outerwear – the bra concept becomes even more equivocal.
On the one hand, the bra is often marketed as a high fashion, fun,
69
or sensually satisfying product; on the other, shopping for a bra
has been considered “a necessary evil” (Tsarenko and Mavondo,
2008). For example, anecdotal reflections on consumer attitudes
include the notion that “shopping for a sports bra may rank right
up there with a visit to the dentist” (De Moeller, 2004, p. 4). The
apparent lack of enjoyment of the experience of bra shopping
may, at least partially, explain the Australian Consumers Associ-
ation’s findings where nearly 70% of women do not wear the right
bra size (Smith, 2005). Another possible reason is a lack of size
standardization within the bra manufacturing industry, rendering
it difficult for women to know their correct bra size (Burstin,
2005). A further interesting aspect of intimate apparel and more
specifically, the bra, is its close association with the provision of a
service (through the fitting process) where bra shopping has been
said to involve “being measured, poked, prodded and fitted by a
matronly, but reassuring elderly woman” (Hall, 2003, p. 45).
Taken both literally and symbolically, the bra represents an inter-
esting product against which to examine certain characteristics of
consumer segments.
2.3. Product-related attributes
Product-related attributes refer to features that are important
to a consumer making a specific purchase decision. In relation to
bras, attributes may be associated with style, design, fabric, and brand
(Tsarenko and Strizhakova, 2015). Some women actively seek to
maximize their sex appeal while others are concerned with the func-
tionality of the garment, particularly the support and comfort it
provides. Furthermore, there may be situations where customers
seek to match their intimate apparel to a specific style or colour of
attire. The desire of a female to wear well-assembled outfits with
comfortable and coordinated underwear reveals a deeper structur-
al level: it is not just about being “sexy,” but about being sexy in
the “right” way through intimate self-dialogue (Amy-Chinn et al.,
2006).
Female consumers may also place high utility on branded prod-
ucts. For instance, females may be attracted to the introduction of
new brands and celebrity-endorsed or founded lingerie brands,
forming relationships with a retailer or a specific line of lingerie de-
pending on their “currently relevant motivation” (Percy and Rossiter,
1992, p. 267). As bras are often regarded as a high-risk purchase
(Tsarenko and Strizhakova, 2015), brand names may play a part in
alleviating the pressure present in the bra decision-making process.
The purchasing risk might be greater for women with larger bra sizes,
who rely more on their bra for functional support rather than fashion
(Filipe et al., 2015). Additionally, consumers may depend on brands
with which they have previously been satisfied, or choose a brand
that has been recommended from a trusted source. In some cases,
consumers may develop strong bonds with a brand such that the
relationship becomes highly emotional, and “customer senti-
ments toward the brand extend beyond simply repeat purchase
behavior” (Martin, 1998, p. 7). These evidences suggest that product
attributes and attachment to brands have the potential to delin-
eate female shopper segments where highly involved consumers
are more likely to attach greater importance to the style, design and
brand of the bra.
2.4. Service attributes
Factors associated with specific service provision may serve to
either enhance satisfaction with the purchase experience or lead
consumers to view shopping as a chore. The importance of phys-
ical attributes of stores has been emphasized in retailing literature
where Gould and Stern (1989, p. 142) found that “fashion con-
scious women will tend to look for appearance-related reinforcement
in shopping activity. The presence of mirrors, flattering lighting, and
70 Y. Tsarenko, C.J. Lo / Australasian Marketing Journal 25 (2017) 67–75
sales people trained to provide positive appearances are reinforc-
ers” of satisfying purchasing environments. In relation to female bra
shoppers, this implies that the immediate shopping atmosphere
should present a combination of various sensations that stimulate
engagement with the product and enhance the shopping experi-
ence (Arnold and Reynolds, 2003).
One key aspect of service attributes influencing consumer in-
volvement is the availability and quality of advice provided (Harris
et al., 2000). Advice is very important to bra buyers as, in compar-
ison to a t-shirt or dress, a bra is a highly complex apparel item with
an enormous range of styles, fabrics, brands, and sizes that should
not compromise its underlying function. Hardaker and Fozzard
(1997) found that “bra design is highly specialized and demands
detailed knowledge of fabric performance” (p. 311). In purchasing
this specific apparel, an advice from personnel may range from
simply providing information to professional fitting of this garment.
Interestingly, many young shoppers reported a preference to receive
advice from peers rather than shop assistants (Mallalieu and Palan,
2006). This underscores the fact that reinforcement of a purchas-
ing activity in the form of advice is significant but, more importantly,
the source of the advice plays a crucial role in consideration. Given
the lack of studies that examine consumer behaviour when pur-
chasing lingerie and, particularly, the bra, we can only speculate that
when women request assistance with bra fitting, the involvement
of a stranger within one’s intimate, personal space has the poten-
tial to create both cognitive and emotional discomfort. Yet, it can
present a channel where consumers learn more about the product
and appreciate the knowledge and expertise of a shop assistant. Thus,
women who are highly involved in the purchase of intimate apparel
would be expected to be more likely than less involved shoppers
to consider the importance of service attributes such as store en-
vironment, ambience of the lingerie department/section, and
availability of professional advice.
3. Method
3.1. Sample and data collection
The population of interest in this study was Australian females
over the age of 18 years. A seven-page questionnaire was de-
signed to capture a range of issues associated with the purchase and
use of a bra. Questions focused primarily on five aspects: (a) fashion
consciousness, (b) attitude towards bra shopping, (c) product and
service attributes, and (d) demographic characteristics.
Given the highly personal and potentially sensitive topic of lin-
gerie, a self-administered questionnaire was deemed the most
appropriate method for data collection. Using convenience sam-
pling, six hundred questionnaires were distributed to shoppers who
were approached at various retail outlets: a prestigious depart-
ment store, discount department stores, and an independent boutique
lingerie store. Shoppers who agreed to participate in this study were
given the questionnaire with a reply-paid envelope to take home
and complete. In total, 221 usable questionnaires were received, pro-
viding a 36% response rate. The data were entered into SPSS, noting
the date when the questionnaire was received. This allowed for testing
non-response bias by comparing early against late respondents. Com-
parisons using t-tests indicated no differences between early and
late respondents, suggesting that non-response bias was not a serious
problem (Armstrong and Overton, 1977).
The sample consists of 42.1% of women within the 25–39 age
range. A notable 21.4% have never been fitted for bras, while 26.4%
of those who did were fitted more than three years ago. As shown
in Table 5, up to 80% of women purchase from one to five bras per
year. These demographic implications will be further explored in
the results and discussion section.
Table 1
Measurement model: consumer involvement.
Loading t value
Hedonic value
Shopping for bras is a pleasurable experience .72 a
Buying lingerie is one of life’s pleasures .84 12.48
I enjoy shopping for lingerie .96 13.41
Buying a bra is a bit like giving yourself a special gift b
Competence
When I see a range of bras, I find it is not difficult to .55 a
make a choice
I am confident in my ability to shop for bras .78 6.35
I always choose the right bra for myself .86 6.52
I think I am good at shopping for bras .85 6.52
Interest in bra
I have a strong interest in bras .81 a
I attach great importance to buying the most .77 6.46
appropriate bra
I always try a bra on before purchasing it .53 4.07
I try to keep my collection of bras up to date b
Projected identity
The bra you buy tells something about who you are .96 4.91
You can tell what a person is like by the bra she chooses .51 a
CFA model fit indices: χ2 = 83.38, df = 48, GFI = .95, CFI = .97, TLI = .96, RMSEA = .058.
a
Item was fixed to 1 to set the scale.
b Item was deleted after running CFA as a result of low factor loading or high mod-
ification indices.
3.2. Development and validation of measures
The involvement scale was measured using items developed from
Kapferer and Laurent (1985) and O’Cass (2004). Specifically, four factors
of involvement comprising of hedonic value, competence, interest
in the product and projected identity were adapted from Kapferer
and Laurent’s (1985) involvement facets. Although arguably not actual
involvement per se, these facets serve as a proxy for involvement that
allows a better understanding of the degree and type of involve-
ment between consumers and the product. Some modifications were
made to reflect the context of the study, and items were rated on a
seven-point scale. Four subscales were extracted through explorato-
ry factor analysis (EFA), and results of confirmatory factor analysis
(CFA, AMOS 22) indicated that the measurement model provided a
satisfactory fit to the data (see Table 1). The four extracted dimen-
sions were interpreted as hedonic value (α = .88), competence (α = .80),
interest in the product (α = .75), and projected identity (α = .70).
Items measuring product-related attributes were developed from
an extensive review of fashion clothing literature (Deeter-Schmelz et al.,
2000; Greenland and McGoldrick, 2003; Hart and Dewsnap, 2001;
O’Cass, 2000). The results of CFA demonstrated that the measure-
ment model provided a satisfactory fit to the data (see Table 2). Product-
related attributes consisted of bra style and design (α = .82) and brand
attachment (α = .85). Service attributes were measured using three sub-
sections consisting of store environment (α = .84), ambience of lingerie
section (α = .70), and importance of advice (r = .40, p < .05).
4. Results
4.1. Profiling segments
Four factors (hedonic values, competence, interest, and pro-
jected identity) were used for a K-means cluster analysis of the sample
where two-, three-, and four-cluster solutions were first attempted.
After comparing between cluster solutions for their efficacy and re-
sulting distribution of respondents to cluster cells, the three-cluster
solution was deemed to have the best representation across all mea-
sures used. To provide for a more in-depth examination of the three
clusters, other techniques such as profiling or discriminant analysis
were used to determine which internal variables account for the
 Y. Tsarenko, C.J. Lo / Australasian Marketing Journal 25 (2017) 67–75 71

Table 2 terest in bras. In contrast, Pragmatists (Segment 3) report a high score

Measurement model: product-related and service attributes. on competent bra shopping but low scores on the other three factors.
Loading t value As Table 4 highlights, Enthusiasts differ significantly from both Dil-
Bra style and design ettantes and Pragmatists in that they consider bra shopping as a
Fabric .75 9.98 hedonic activity and perceive this product as an indicator of pro-
Cut/style .80 8.57 jected identity. Enthusiasts and Pragmatists are surprisingly similar
Bra colours available .65 10.62 on the competency dimension, displaying significantly more com-
Availability of matching lingerie (i.e. Brief, G-string, cami, .74 a

etc.)
petence than Dilettantes. However, both Enthusiasts and Dilettantes
Brand attachment indicate greater interest in bras than Pragmatists.
I look my best when wearing brand name bras .69 10.74 In the following section, we discuss the differences between in-
Wearing a high-quality designer bra makes me feel special .86 7.91 volvement profiles based on demographic characteristics. This will
I always consider the brand name when purchasing a bra .59 11.03
be followed by an examination of the relationship between degree
for myself
I always consider the brand name when purchasing a bra .82 8.92 of involvement and product-related and service attributes.
for someone else
I prefer bras with bold, recognizable brand names .86 a
4.2. Demographic profiling of segments
Store environment
Store displays .66 a

Clear signage for each section .84 18.26 The use of demographic variables has received mixed support
The speed of service provided by sales staff .79 20.90 due to its limitations in distinguishing differences between users
The courtesy of the sales staff .73 9.43 beyond personal characteristics (Haley, 1968). Nonetheless, demo-
Ambience of lingerie section
a
graphics provide marketers with a useful snapshot of consumers
Layout of lingerie department .66
Temperature .84 9.12
and complement the involvement profiles of each segment. In this
Seating for a companion/friend .79 9.70 study, all clusters were subject to profiling based on age, time of
Change room layout .73 10.01 last fitting, number of fashion magazines read, number of bras pur-
Importance of advice chased per year, and monthly expenditure on clothing. A one sample
The level of knowledge about the bras by the sales staff .91 a
chi-square test was first conducted to observe demographic differ-
The assistance with fitting provided by the sales staff .93 21.79
The level of personal service provided b ences within the population as a whole. As indicated in Table 5, the
chi-square test was statistically significant for all demographic vari-
CFA model fit indices: χ2 = 225.32, df = 142, GFI = .90, CFI = .96, TLI = .96, RMSEA = .052.
a Item was fixed to 1 to set the scale. ables, indicating that there were significant differences on these
b Item was deleted after running CFA as a result of low factor loading or high mod- characteristics within the sample population.
ification indices. A chi-square test for independence was then performed to test
for differences between segments of shoppers in terms of age, time
of last fitting, number of fashion magazines read, number of bras
clustering. In this case, as recommended by Mitchell (1994), the orig- purchased per year, and monthly expenditure on clothing. The chi-
inal four factors were used to assess the membership of each cluster. square test was statistically significant for all demographic variables
To test the validity of the discriminant function, a two-step approach except for monthly expenditure on clothing.
was employed. First, we split the sample randomly into a 60/40 anal- As further detailed in Table 5, over 66% of females in the Enthu-
ysis sample and hold-out sample which yielded the result of 97.8% siasts segment were under 40 years old. This group also constituted
vs 96.4% of correctly classified cases. In the subsequent entire sample, the highest proportion (25.6%) across all clusters of young females
the discriminant function correctly classified 96.8% cases (see Table 3). aged between 18 and 24 years. The Pragmatists segment is domi-
The three clusters were then subjected to further profiling as in- nated by a more mature age group with 57.4% of respondents over
dicated in Table 4. Segment 1 was labelled Enthusiasts given its high 40 years of age, whereas the majority of Dilettantes (78.1%) are
scores across hedonic value, competency, interest in bras, and per- between 25 to 54 years.
ception of bras as a projection of one’s identity. Segment 2, the The proportion of women who had never been fitted for a bra
Dilettantes, exhibited low scores on all factors except a strong in- or were last fitted more than three years ago was highest among
Pragmatists (58%) compared to 50% for Dilettantes and 36% for En-
thusiasts. The proportion of women purchasing the largest quantity
Table 3
of bras (more than 5) per year is highest among Enthusiasts (15.9%)
Classification results.
compared to 0% and 1.3% for Dilettantes and Pragmatists segments
Actual group Predicted group membership Total respectively. In contrast, Pragmatists (48%) represented the highest
Highly Moderately Minimally proportion of women who do not read fashion magazines, con-
involved involved involved trasting with 26% for each of the other clusters.
Enthusiasts Dilettantes Pragmatists

Enthusiasts 77 (93.9%) 2 (2.4%) 3 (3.7%) 82 4.3. Segment profiles and product attributes
Dilettantes 0 63 (98.4%) 1 (1.6%) 64
Pragmatists 0 1 (1.3%) 74 (98.7%) 75
One-way ANOVA was next employed to examine the differ-
Note: 96.8% of original grouped cases correctly classified.
ences across the three segments in terms of product attributes.

Table 4
Profile of respondents.

Variable Highly involved Enthusiasts Moderately involved Dilettantes Minimally involved Pragmatists F-ratio Different sets

Hedonic 4.95 2.89 2.68 131.98*** E > D and P

Competency 4.84 2.94 5.08 154.17*** E and P > D
Interest in bras 5.47 4.40 3.84 58.80*** E and D > P
Projected identity 4.77 2.97 2.87 67.10*** E > D and P

*** p < .001.

72 Y. Tsarenko, C.J. Lo / Australasian Marketing Journal 25 (2017) 67–75

Table 5
Demographic characteristics of the three consumer segments.

Demographic information χ2 one-sample test Highly involved Moderately involved Minimally involved χ2 test of independence
for goodness of fit Enthusiasts (E) Dilettantes (D) Pragmatists (P) across segments

N = 221 (%) N = 82 (%) N = 64 (%) N = 75 (%)

Age 43.60*** 22.281***

18–24 14.5 25.6 9.4 6.7
25–39 42.1 41.5 50.0 36.0
40–54 27.6 24.4 28.1 30.7
Over 55 15.8 8.5 12.5 26.7
Last fitted time 20.36*** 16.0*
Never 21.4 12.2 29.7 24.3
Within last month 10.5 17.1 7.8 5.4
2–12 months 25.9 28.0 29.7 20.3
1–2 years 15.9 18.3 12.5 16.2
3 years or longer 26.9 24.4 20.3 33.8
Bras purchased per year 114.58*** 35.203***
1–2 44.8 43.9 53.1 49.3
3–5 40.7 30.5 26.6 14.7
More than 5 10.9 15.9 0.0 1.3
none 3.6 9.8 30.3 34.7
Fashion magazines read per month 35.92*** 13.151*
1 32.6 37.1 40.6 26.7
2–3 24.9 30.5 21.9 21.3
More than 3 8.6 11.0 10.9 4.0
None 33.9 26.8 26.6 48.0
Monthly spend on clothing 229.20*** 13.14ns
0–50 28.5 22.0 28.1 36.0
51–150 47.5 45.1 51.6 46.7
151–300 17.6 20.7 18.8 13.3
301–500 5.0 8.5 1.6 4.0
More than 501 1.4 3.7 0.0 0.0

Note: ***p < .001; *p < .01; ns = non-significant.

Results in Table 6 indicate that there are no significant differences
across segments defined by degree of involvement in terms of bra
style and design. This suggests that female consumers generally con-
sider these characteristics to be critical (as evidenced by high mean
values) for their decision-making. However, as anticipated, signif-
icant differences emerge across groups regarding the importance
attached to brand names where the highly involved Enthusiasts con-
siders brands to be important when purchasing a bra compared to
the other segments (p < .001). This finding highlights the increas-
ing importance of branding for products such as intimate apparel
where purchase decisions may be associated with higher levels of
risk, particularly among highly involved consumers.
In addition to measuring brand attitude, respondents were asked
to recall brand names. In all, over 50 brands were named with the
following constituting the most recalled brands (i.e. by 50% of re-
spondents): Berlei (33%), Elle MacPherson (27%), Bonds (15%), Bendon
(8%), and Lovable (8%). Notably, many of these brands have been
represented or endorsed by celebrities or popular figures includ-
ing Elle McPherson, Kylie Minogue or Heidi Klum. In line with past
literature (e.g. Seno and Lukas, 2007), this finding supports that brand
recall becomes more effective when accompanied by endorse-
ments from aspiration figures. Having favourable associations
between brand and celebrities helps reduce search costs, and even
risks, for consumers (Spry et al., 2011), making the lingerie shop-
ping experience a more targeted and less uncertain one. Adding to
a strong and memorable brand, product designers should also ensure
that designs and styles reflect values such as functionality, comfort,
and simplicity.
4.4. Segment profiles and service attributes
Certain attributes of a service are pivotal in delivering value to
consumers and can be collectively referred to as service attributes
which include the general store environment, ambience of the lin-
gerie department, and availability of professional advice from service
personnel. Results from the one-way ANOVA test indicated no sig-
nificant differences across the groups regarding general store
environment. This finding suggests that most outlets already provide
adequate atmospherics. Hence, general store attributes such as
signage, in-store displays and sales staff courtesy and speed of service
may no longer be distinguishing features across retailers.

Table 6
Profiling segments based on product and service attributes.

Highly involved Moderately involved Minimally involved F-ratio Group differences

Enthusiasts (E) Dilettantes (D) Pragmatists (P)

N = 82 N = 64 N = 75

Product attributes
Bra style and design 5.81 5.70 5.45 2.37 ns
Attachment to brands 4.45 3.68 3.44 13.76*** E > D and P
Service attributes
Store environment 5.26 5.20 4.86 2.35 ns
Ambience of bra department/section 4.69 4.08 3.79 14.07*** E > D and P
Importance of advice 4.38 4.23 3.53 8.94*** E>P

Note: ***p < .001; *p < .01; ns = non-significant.

 Y. Tsarenko, C.J. Lo / Australasian Marketing Journal 25 (2017) 67–75
The importance attached, however, to ambience in the lingerie
section or department differs significantly across groups (p < .001).
Enthusiasts, particularly more so than the Dilettantes and Pragma-
tists, consider ambience to be important. This finding holds
pertinence to retailers as customers’ shopping experiences in terms
of section layout and the comfort of fitting rooms are factors as-
sociated with consumer satisfaction and further patronage (Otieno
et al., 2005).
Finally, there is a significant difference between Enthusiasts and
Pragmatists (p < .001) in their appreciation of professional advice pro-
vided by service personnel. Given that Pragmatists perceive
themselves as highly competent bra consumers, it is plausible that
this segment perceives themselves as sufficiently knowledgeable
and independent, and therefore requires little assistance when choos-
ing the garment. However, Enthusiasts, who are also highly competent
in bra shopping, prefer to seek advice from sales staff. In the absence
of standardized sizes (Honey and Olds, 2007), their need for assis-
tance might be considered as an attempt to seek assurance when
making a risky purchase or a way of affirming the consumer’s se-
lected choice. Retailers would benefit from having experienced,
empathetic, and tactful sales staff. To fully appreciate the impor-
tance of this finding, it is imperative to acknowledge that purchasing
a bra can be a stressful and tedious process due to reasons includ-
ing privacy-related issues during the fitting process, inconsistent
sizes across brands, and uncertainty or even intimidation when ven-
turing to a new brand or bra style.
5. Discussion and managerial implications
This study has two main goals: (1) to explore whether female
shoppers fall into distinctive segments when purchasing bras, and
(2) to determine how these profiles differ across product and service
attributes. The present research paints a dynamic portrait of con-
sumers according to their involvement profiles. The results of this
study and the associated literature review (Amy-Chinn et al., 2006;
Hart and Dewsnap, 2001; Tsarenko and Strizhakova, 2015) indi-
cate that the drivers of interest in bra purchases are understood only
anecdotally. The three segments emerging from this study clearly
indicate the scope for specifically tailored retail services and advice
that can address the varying degrees of consumer involvement with
the product.
Enthusiasts are strongly attached to the idea that purchasing a
bra is a special and hedonic, rather than routine, shopping expe-
rience. Their high score on projected identity further suggests that
their interest in the product extends beyond enjoyment and indul-
gence to encapsulate the possibility of enhancing individual identity
and self-image. In contrast, the Dilettantes segment views bra con-
sumption as an important practice, but by the same token lack
competence in bra shopping. While they display personal interest
in the product, they generally find little pleasure in the purchase
experience, possibly due to their perceived lack of knowledge and
experience in finding an ideal bra. In contrast, Pragmatists hold a
functional perspective of buying bras and consider themselves as
competent lingerie shoppers, allowing us to speculate that the he-
donism appreciated by highly involved younger females who actively
purchase bras transitions with age from enjoyment into purchase
competence. As women get older, they may derive less pleasure from
their lingerie consumption experience, lending to a decreased in-
terest in bras and weaker consideration of the garment as a
projection of their identity. Over time, many women also develop
strong preferences for certain styles of bra, habitually purchasing
the same bra cut and size without realizing that their shape and
size goes through several changes over their lifetime due to factors
such as pregnancy, weight fluctuations, gravity and menopause
(Hodgekiss, 2015).
73
These observations should be considered by retailers and de-
signers when developing marketing strategies so that product
offerings, communication tools, and distribution channels could then
be configured to cater to the needs of each segment. One notewor-
thy finding is that female consumers generally have high expectations
of the functional attributes of the bra irrespective of their fashion
orientation or degree of bra involvement. Hence, regardless of the
importance that female shoppers attach to certain aspects of the
bra purchase experience, they are largely unwilling to compro-
mise on the qualities of this product. Because bra styles and designs
are highly desirable and sought-after attributes, the implication for
brands is to ensure that their offerings fundamentally provide
comfort and fit for women of different sizes, shapes and ages. Brands
and retailers should also highlight the purposes or occasions be-
fitting each bra style and accentuate the benefits of different bra
designs for both physical well-being and overall appearance.
Given the significantly higher attachment Enthusiasts have with
bra brands, highly involved female shoppers may prefer bras from
well-known, reputable brands as their way of gaining access to better
styles and designs. Because this segment constitutes a majority of
females under 40 who hold high levels of interest and compe-
tence in making bra purchases, brands should invest in memorable
campaigns that resonate with this demographic so as to increase
brand awareness and recall and enhance their engagement with the
product and purchase experience. This could include using celeb-
rity endorsers in their advertisements, partnering with well-
known, relatable figures in launching specific product lines, and
creating marketing messages that facilitate a deeper understand-
ing of the purposes of different bra styles. Further, the high
importance attached to professional advice and assistance sug-
gests that retailers invest in the quality of training sales staff. Sales
assistants who provide discerning recommendations during the bra
fitting and selection process can add significant value to the core
product. Taken together, these implications suggest that, of the three
segments, Enthusiasts constitute not only an exciting and dynamic
market segment, but also potentially represent a more demand-
ing group of consumers. Therefore, retailers targeting this segment
should position themselves as offering a broad range of products
from well-established brands, quality service, and attractive
ambience.
In view that the Dilettantes perceive themselves as incompe-
tent bra shoppers, brands and retailers should explore opportunities
for educating and informing this segment. This could include placing
in-store displays that attractively depict the functions of different
bra types, ensuring that product racks contain sufficient informa-
tion to reduce guesswork and subsequent unsatisfactory purchases,
and launching targeted, short online clips on social media plat-
forms demonstrating how to select a suitable product and ensure
appropriate fit.
Brands and retailers seeking to target the Pragmatists should
realize that older women could actually be more vulnerable to the
bra purchasing process since they may require refitting in finding
a product suitable for their stage in life, but might be hesitant or
unaware of the need to do so. Since this segment may not pur-
chase bras frequently, retailers and brands should position
themselves as having quality product lines and classic styles de-
veloped for the needs of their changing body in order to encourage
customer loyalty. Moreover, retailers should be aware that Prag-
matists may not value in-store assistance as compared to the other
segments.
In general, with respect to store-related service attributes, man-
agers should pay significant attention to the selection, training and
employment of customer-friendly staff who are able to provide ap-
propriate, supportive, and attentive assistance to reduce the stress
and intimidation that may accompany what is viewed as a person-
al and sensitive process of intimate apparel shopping. Retail
74 Y. Tsarenko, C.J. Lo / Australasian Marketing Journal 25 (2017) 67–75
managers should invest in designing, locating, and furnishing fitting
rooms that provide adequate privacy within a pleasant environ-
ment where women can try and assess bras. Findings further suggest
monitoring the ambience of the lingerie department to ensure an
appealing environment which may become a source of customer
satisfaction and competitive advantage.
6. Theoretical implications
This work makes several distinct contributions to the litera-
ture. Within the context of intimate apparel, this exploratory
segmentation study focuses on the differences between female con-
sumers in the product category of the bra. While segmentation is
a widely-known basic marketing concept, few studies have under-
taken a segmentation approach in understanding consumer
behaviour of fashion apparel (e.g. Birtwistle et al., 1998; Quinn et al.,
2007; Yoo et al., 1999), much less in the area of highly gendered
and discreet apparel products. In taking the first step towards a
clearer understanding of intimate apparel shoppers, we employed
the powerful theoretical construct of involvement as the basis for
segmenting female consumers. More specifically, the focus on four
facets of involvement and use of clustering techniques provided a
more nuanced profile of three consumer segments and their cor-
responding involvement dimensions. Although some brands such
as Victoria’s Secret and La Senza have branched out using more cre-
ative marketing strategies (e.g. attitudes towards the ideal self), an
overview of the lingerie industry suggests that the bra, as a
commodity-like product, (1) is still primarily and commonly sought
for fit and comfort (Rupp, 2015; Salfino, 2014), and (2) purchase
behaviour would be better discerned through the lens of involve-
ment theory as well as practical attributes such as age, purchase
frequency, and product and service attributes.
More broadly, while postmodernist views assert that decreas-
ing constraints and boundaries in consumption are blurring the
differences between gender (femininity and masculinity) (Firat and
Venkatesh, 1995), our research attests that gender matters and, in
some instances, consumption practices cannot converge. Taken to-
gether, this study contributes to the limited dialogue on segmentation
for gendered apparel, extends the use of consumer involvement as
a segmentation tool in the context of intimate apparel, and comple-
ments existing research on the product category of the bra.
7. Limitations and future research
Intimate apparel as a product category has been evolving along-
side changes in social attitudes and may be a fertile area for further
research in a dynamic environment. Purchasing a bra is a sensi-
tive retail transaction that can be conducted in a stressful and often
uncomfortable environment, possibly accounting for the signifi-
cant number of women with poorly fitted bras. Research highlights
that 70–80% of women wear the wrong size bra, placing them at
risk of various health problems including back and shoulder pain
and saggy breasts (Hodgekiss, 2015). As such implications receive
more attention, these physical concerns could prove a useful lead
for future studies to investigate the effects of bra-fitting aware-
ness on purchase decisions and consumer involvement.
More generally, we noted that the lack of standardization of sizes
and designs represents challenges for females who cannot assume
that a previously well-fitted bra will perform as well in another style,
much less another product line or brand. This problem is further
compounded by the continuous changes in women’s shapes and sizes
with advancing age. These factors imply that women may need to
obtain regular advice on bra size and fitting from qualified person-
nel and retailers. Existing literature can be enhanced by examining
these unique aspects of bra purchasing and their impact on the early
teen and mature women market, expanding literature which ex-
amines consumer behaviour from an age-related perspective.
As an exploratory study, we focused on involvement as a basis
for segmentation, with demographic and other attributes provid-
ing supporting characteristics of each segment. Future studies should
expand on these findings by employing other segmentation vari-
ables including psychographic characteristics such as values, attitudes
and personality traits in order to obtain a more nuanced distinc-
tion between female shoppers.
Other questions that may be of interest to practitioners, but which
have not been investigated in our study, relate to the specificity of
the consumer-brand relationship. Previous research indicates that
even customers with a strong commitment to a particular brand
are inclined to experiment with other brands. Thus, it would be
useful to test whether brand loyalty or variety-seeking behaviour
holds relevance in this context. Our study used the number of bras
purchased per year as a self-reported measure of actual behaviour;
however, this variable can be complemented by an estimation of
the average monetary expenditure on lingerie purchases.
Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge Andrea Fenton for her as-
sistance with the data collection. The authors also thank Dr Dewi
Tojib for her insights and comments during the development of this
paper.
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