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Biomedical Instrumentation (BME420 )

Chapter 1:Basic Concepts of Medical Instrumentation
John G. Webster
4th Edition
Dr. Qasem Qananwah

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Generalized instrumentation system

Control
And
feedback

Power
Sensor source
Perceptible
Primary Variable output
Signal Output
Measurand Sensing Conversion
processing display
element element

Calibration Data Data

signal storage transmission

Radiation,
electric current,
or other applied
energy

Figure 1.1 The sensor converts energy or information from the measurand to another form (usually electric). This
signal is the processed and displayed so that humans can perceive the information. Elements and connections shown
by dashed lines are optional for some applications.
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Measurand: Physical quantity

• Biopotential
• Pressure
• Flow
• Dimensions (imaging)
• Displacement (velocity, acceleration, force)
• Impedance
• Temperature
• Chemical Concentration

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Sensor and Transducer

• Transducer
—Converts one form of energy to another
• Sensor
—Converts a physical measurand to an
electrical output
—Interface with living system
—Minimize the energy extracted
—Minimally invasive
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Signal Conditioning

• Amplification
• Filtering
• Impedance matching
• Analog/Digital for signal processing
• Signal form (time and frequency domains)

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Output Display

• Numerical
• Graphical
• Discrete or continuous
• Visual
• Hearing

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Auxiliary Elements

• Calibration Signal
• Control and Feedback (auto or
manual)
— Adjust sensor and signal conditioning

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1.3 Alternative Operational Modes

• Direct Mode: Measurand is readily accessible
— Temperature
— Heart Beat
• Indirect Mode: desired measurand is measured
by measuring accessible measurand.
— Morphology of internal organ: X-ray shadows
— Volume of blood pumped per minute by the heart:
respiration and blood gas concentration

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1.3 Alternative Operational Modes

• Sampling and collecting data will depend on the following:
— The rate of change in the measurand
— Condition of the patient
• Generating and Modulating Sensors
— Generating sensors produce their outputs from energy taken
from measurand (Photovoltaic cell)
— Modulating Sensors uses the measurand to alter the flow of
energy from an external source (Photoconductive cell)
• Analog and Digital Modes
• Real-Time and Delayed-Time Modes
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1.4 Medical Measurement Constraints

• Magnitude and frequency range of medical
measurand are very low
• Proper measurand-sensor interface cannot
be obtained
• Medical variables are seldom deterministic
• External energy must be minimized to avoid
any damage
• Equipment must be reliable
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1.5 Classification of Medical Instrument

• Quantity that is sensed
— pressure, flow, temp
• Principle of transduction
— resistive, capacitive, electrochemical, ultrasound
• Organ system
— cardiovascular, pulmonary, nervous
• Medicine specialties
— pediatrics, cardiology, radiology

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1.6 Interfering and Modifying Inputs

Desired Inputs: measurands that the instrument is
designed to isolate.

Interfering Inputs: quantities that unintentionally affect

the instrument as a consequence of the principles used
to acquire and process the desired inputs.

Modifying Inputs: undesired quantities that indirectly

affect the output by altering the performance of the
instrument itself.
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1.6 Interfering and Modifying Inputs

Electrodes

vecg
Z1 50-Hz +Vcc
ac magnetic
Zbody
Z2 field

+
Differential
amplifier
vo
-

Displacement
currents Vcc

Desired input: Electrocardiographic voltage Vecg

Interfering input: voltage due to 50-Hz

Figure 1.2 Simplified electrocardiographic recording system Two possible interfering inputs are stray magnetic
fields and capacitively coupled noise. Orientation of patient cables and changes in electrode-skin impedance
are two possible modifying inputs. Z1 and Z2 represent the electrode-skin interface impedances.
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1.7 Compensation Techniques

To eliminate interfering and modifying input:

1. Alter the design of essential instrument
components to be less sensitive to interference.
(preferred)
2. Adding new components designed to offset the
undesired inputs.

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1.7 Compensation Techniques

• Inherent Insensitive
• Negative Feedback to minimize Gd which is effected by the
modifying inputs
(xd – Hfy)Gd = y (1.1)
xdGd = y(1 + HfGd) (1.2)
Gd
y xd
1  H f Gd (1.3)

• Signal Filtering (electric, mechanical, magnetic)

• Opposing Inputs
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1.8 Biostatistics

Applications of Statistics to medical data

- Design experiment
- Clinical Study: summarize, explore, analyze
- Draw inference from data: estimation,
hypothesis
- Evaluate diagnostic procedures: assist clinical
decision making

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Statistical Measurements
Measures of the mean and central tendency
- Mean X
X 
i

- Median: Middle value

- Mode: is the observation that occurs most frequently
- Geometric Mean: used with data on a logarithmic
scale
GM  n X 1 X 2 X 3    X n

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Statistical Measurements
Measure of spread or dispersion of data
Range: Difference between the largest and smallest observation
Standard deviation: is a measure of the spread of data about the
mean
 X 
2
-X
s
i

n -1

Coefficient of variation: standardize the variation to compare

data measured in different scales.
 s
CV   100%
X

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Statistical Measurements
Percentile: gives the percentage of a distribution that is
less than or equal to the percentile number.
Standard error of the mean (SEM): Express the variability
to be expected among the mean in future samples.
Correlation Coefficient r: is a measure of a linear
relationship between numerical variables x and y for
paired observations
r
 X i 
- X Yi - Y 
 X   Y - Y 
2 2
i -X i

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Characteristics of Instrument Performance

Two classes of characteristics are used to

evaluated and compare new instrument
• Static Characteristics: describe the performance
for dc or very low frequency input.
• Dynamic Characteristics: describe the
performance for ac and high frequency input.

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1.9 Generalized Static Characteristics

Parameters used to evaluate medical instrument:
• Accuracy: The difference between the true value and the
measured value divided by the true value
• Precision: is the degree to which repeated measurements
under unchanged conditions show the same results.
• Resolution: The smallest increment quantity that can be
measured with certainty
• Reproducibility: The ability to give the same output for
equal inputs applied over some period of time.

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1.9 Generalized Static Characteristics cont.

Parameters used to evaluate medical instrument:
• Statistical Control: Systematic errors or bias are
tolerable or can be removed by calibration.
• Statistical Sensitivity(DC gain): the ratio of the
incremental output quantity to the incremental input
quantity, Gd.
— To perform calibration between output and input
— For linear calibration
y  mxd  b
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y  mxd  b

n xd y -  xd  y   y  x  -  x y  x 

2

m b
d d d

n x -  xd  n x -  x 
2 2 2
2
d d d

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Zero Drift: all output values increase or decrease by the

same amount due to manufacturing misalignment,
variation in ambient temperature, vibration,….
Sensitivity Drift: Output change in proportion to the magnitude
of the input. Change in the slope of the calibration curve.

Figure 1.3 (b) Static sensitivity:

zero drift and sensitivity drift.
Dotted lines indicate that zero
drift and sensitivity drift can be
negative.

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x1 y1 (x1 + x2) (y1 + y2)

Linearity Linear
system
Linear
system

and and
x2 y2 Kx1 Ky1
Linear Linear
Independent nonlinearity system
(a)
system

- A% deviation of the reading Least-squares

straight line
- B% deviation of the full scale y (Output)
B% of full scale

Figure 1.4 (a) Basic definition of linearity for a A% of reading

system or element. The same linear system or
element is shown four times for different inputs.
(b) A graphical illustration of independent
nonlinearity equals A% of the reading, or B%
of full scale, whichever is greater (that is, Overall tolerance band
whichever permits the larger error).
xd (Input)

Point at which
Input Ranges (I): (b)
A% of reading = B% of full scale

Minimum resolvable input < I < normal linear operating range

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Input Impedance:
• disturb the quantity being measured.
• Xd1 : desired input (voltage, force, pressure)
• Xd2 : implicit input (current, velocity, flow)
• P = Xd1.Xd2 :Power transferred across the tissue-sensor interface
• Generalized input impedance Zx

2
X effort variable X d1
Z x  d1  P  X d1  X d2   Z x X d2
2
X d2 flow variable Zx
•Goal: Minimize P, when measuring effort variable Xd1, by
maximizing Zx which in return will minimize the flow variable Xd2.
•Loading effect is minimized when source impedance Zs is much
smaller then the Zx
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1.10 Generalized Dynamic Characteristics

Most medical instrument process signals that are functions of time.
The input x(t) is related to the output y(t) by
dny dy d mx dx
an n
     a1  a 0 y (t )  bm m
     b1  b0 x(t )
dt dt dt dt
ai and bi depend on the physical and electrical parameters
of the system.
a D
n
n
 
     a1 D  a0 y(t )  bm D m      b1 D  b0 x(t ) 
Transfer Functions
The output can be predicted for any input (transient, periodic, or
random)
y ( D) bm D      b1 D  b0
m

x( D) a n D n      a1 D  a0
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Frequency Transfer Function

Can be found by replacing D by j

y ( D) bm D m      b1 D  b0

x( D) a n D n      a1 D  a0
Y ( jω) bm ( jω) m      b1 ( jω)  b0
H ( j )  
X ( jω) an ( jω) n      a1 ( jω)  a0

Example:
If x(t) = Ax sin ( t)
then y(t) = |H()| Ax sin ( t + /_H())

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Zero-Order Instrument

a0 y(t) = b0 x(t)
y( D) Y ( jω) b0
  K
x( D) X ( j ) a0
K: static sensitivity

Figure 1.5 (a) A linear potentiometer, an

example of a zero-order system. (b) Linear
static characteristic for this system. (c)
Step response is proportional to input. (d)
Sinusoidal frequency response is constant
with zero phase shift.

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First-Order Instrument
dy(t )
a1  a0 y (t )  b0 x(t )
dt
τD  1y(t )  Kx(t ) 
yt   K 1 - e -t /  
 
a1
K 
b0 Where  is the time constant
a0 a0

y ( D) K

x( D) 1  τD
Y  jω K

X  jω 1  jωτ
Y  jω
  arctan - ωτ/1
K

X  jω 1  ω2 τ 2

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First-Order Instrument Output y(t)

+ +
dy (t )
RC  y (t )  x(t ) x(t) C y(t)
Slope = K = 1
dt
- -

  RC K  1 x(t )  1
Input x(t)
(a) (b)

x(t) Log Y (j

y ( D) K scale X (j

x( D) 1  τD 1 1.0
0.707 S


yt   K 1 - e -t / 
 L
L
S Log scale 
t
(c) (d)

y(t) 

1 0°
S Log scale 
0.63 L
- 45°

-90°
S L t

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Second-Order Instrument
Many medical instrument are 2nd order or higher
d 2 yt  dyt   D 2 2ζD 
a2  a1  a0 yt   b0 xt   2   1 yt   Kxt 
dt 2
dt  ωn ωn 
b0
K  static sensitivity, output units defined by input units
a0 a
ζ 1
 damping ratio, dimensionl ess
a0 2 a0 a2
ωn   undamped natural frequency, rad/s
y D 
a2
K
 2
Operational Transfer Function x D  D 2ζD
 1
ωn
2
ωn
Frequency Transfer Function
Y  jω K

X  jω  jω / ωn 2  2ζjω / ωn   1
Y  jω K 2ζ
   arctan
X  jω 1 - ω / ω    4ζ ω
n
2 2 2 2
/ω
2
n
ω / ωn - ωn / ω

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2nd order mechanical force-measuring Instrument

Output Input
displacement Force x(t)
0
Ks = spring constant
y(t)
Output y(t)
Figure 1.7 (a) Force-
measuring spring scale, an 1
Slope K =
example of a second-order Ks

instrument. (b) Static (a)

(b)
Input x(t)

sensitivity. x(t)
Log
Y (j
X (j
Resonance
scale
(c) Step response for 1 K

overdamped case  = 2, 2 0.5

1

critically damped case  = 1, n Log scale 

underdamped case  = 0.5.
t
(c) (d)
 n
(d) Sinusoidal steady-state y(t)
0°
Log scale 

frequency response,  = 2,  =
yn yn + 1 0.5
2
1,  = 0.5.
1 1
Ks -90°

0.5
1
2 -180°
t

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Design Criteria and Process

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Commercial Medical Instrumentation

Development Process
•Prototype development
•Testing on animals or human subjects
•Final design review (test results for, specifications, subject feedback,
cost)
•Production (packaging, manual and documents)
•Technical support

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