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High-Paleolatitude Environmental Change During the Early To Middle

Devonian: Insights from Emsian–Eifelian (Lower–Middle Devonian) Siliciclastic
Depositional Systems of the Ceres S...
Article in Journal Of Sedimentary Research · September 2018

DOI: 10.2110/jsr.2018.53
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Journal of Sedimentary Research, 2018, v. 88, 1040–1075
Research Article
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.2110/jsr.2018.53
HIGH-PALEOLATITUDE ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE DURING THE EARLY TO MIDDLE DEVONIAN:

INSIGHTS FROM EMSIAN–EIFELIAN (LOWER–MIDDLE DEVONIAN) SILICICLASTIC DEPOSITIONAL
SYSTEMS OF THE CERES SUBGROUP (BOKKEVELD GROUP) OF SOUTH AFRICA
CAMERON R. PENN-CLARKE,1,2 BRUCE S. RUBIDGE,1,2 AND ZUBAIR A. JINNAH2

1
Evolutionary Studies Institute, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
2
School of Geosciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
e-mail: cpennclarke@gmail.com
ABSTRACT: Re-evaluation of the sedimentology of the Emsian–Eifelian part of the Bokkeveld Group, the Ceres
Subgroup, in the Clanwilliam Sub-basin of South Africa indicates that sedimentation occurred in an array of
paleoenvironments that are related to three broad siliciclastic depositional systems in a marginal- to shallow-marine
setting. These are: storm- and wave-dominated shallow marine depositional systems; transgressive barrier-island–
lagoon depositional systems; and wave-influenced deltaic depositional systems. Storm- and wave-dominated shallow
marine depositional systems comprise offshore, offshore transition zone to distal lower shoreface, proximal lower
shoreface, and upper shoreface–beach complex paleoenvironments. This depositional system is present in the Gydo–
Gamka and Voorstehoek–Hex River Formation intervals. A transgressive barrier-island–lagoon depositional system is
present in the lower to middle Tra-Tra Formation and comprises back-barrier tidal-flat and lagoon and transgressive
beach-barrier paleoenvironments. The wave-influenced deltaic depositional system is restricted to the top Tra-Tra–
Boplaas Formation interval and comprises prodelta to distal delta-front and proximal delta-front paleoenvironments.
The presence of these depositional systems and their constituent paleoenvironments provides an alternative
explanation to existing storm- and wave-dominated delta and mixed wave- and tide-dominated delta models. High
levels of variability in depositional environments along this coastal system constrain the effects of major changes in
Devonian terrestrial environments on marginal and shallow marine sedimentation at high paleolatitudes. Application
of sequence stratigraphy to the Ceres Subgroup has enabled recognition of environmental and relative sea-level
change at high paleolatitudes during the Emsian–Eifelian.
INTRODUCTION 1987; Melo 1988; Theron and Loock 1988). Emsian and Eifelian aged
deposits from these successions typically comprise a highly endemic and
Intercalary events between Earth and the biosphere during the Devonian cold-water-associated fossil fauna of Malvinokaffric Realm invertebrates
Period fundamentally changed terrestrial and aquatic environments and and fish (Boucot 1985, 1988; Meyerhoff et al. 1996; Penn-Clarke et al.
ecosystems, altering and creating new biogeochemical feedback systems, 2018). Biostratigraphically important conodonts, goniatite ammonoids,
as well as influencing geomorphology and climate (Copper and Scotese and graptolites are absent in the Malvinokaffric Realm, thus complicating
2003; Selden 2003; Godderis and Joachimski 2004; House and Gradstein interbasinal and intrabasinal correlation with regional and international
2004; Kenrick and Davies 2004; van Geldern et al. 2006; Joachimski et al. events during the Emsian–Eifelian (Boucot 1985, 1988; Meyerhoff et al.
2009; Becker et al. 2012, 2016; Gibling and Davies 2012). Compared to 1996; Penn-Clarke et al. 2018). In recent years, only a handful of papers
low to middle paleolatitudes (0–608) time-equivalent successions, have been published documenting paleoenvironments and paleoenviron-
knowledge of paleoenvironmental change during the Devonian Period at mental change in the Malvinokaffric Realm in Antarctica and South
high southern polar to subpolar (60–908) paleolatitudes is poorly America (Bradshaw et al. 2002; O’Toole 2010; Bradshaw 2013; Bosetti et
understood (Becker et al. 2016). As southwestern Gondwana was located al. 2011, 2012; Troth et al. 2011; Zabini et al. 2012; Horodyski et al. 2014;
at high southern paleolatitudes during this period (Boucot 1988; Scotese Marshall 2016).
and Barrett 1990; Scotese et al. 1999; Boucot et al. 2013; Torsvik and Rocks of the Early to Middle Devonian (Emsian–Givetian) Bokkeveld
Cocks 2013) it provides an area of interest for investigation. Group that crop out over a substantial area of the Cape Fold Belt (CFB) in
Devonian-age successions are well represented in Antarctica, Argentina, the Northern, Western, and Eastern Cape Provinces yield well preserved
Bolivia, Brazil, South Africa, and the Falkland–Malvinas Islands with sedimentary structures as well as Malvinokaffric Realm fossils, providing
suspected elements present in Guinea-Bissau, Ghana, and Senegal (Saul et an ideal opportunity to study high-latitude paleoenvironmental change
al. 1963; Anderson et al. 1966; Barrett and Isaacson 1988; Boucot 1985, (Fig. 1A). In outcrop, the Bokkeveld Group comprises five or six upward-
1988, 1990; Boucot et al. 1963, 1969; Theron 1970, 1972; Drot and coarsening successions with each upward-coarsening succession broadly
Villeneuve 1985; Isaacson and Sablock 1988; McCartan and Bradshaw representative of alternating allocyclically controlled progradational storm-
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JSR PALEOENVIRONMENTAL HISTORY OF THE DEVONIAN CERES SUBGROUP OF SOUTH AFRICA 1041
FIG. 1.—A) Geographic extent of the Bokkeveld Group within the Cape Fold Belt in the Clanwilliam and Aghulas sub-basins (redrawn and modified after Theron and
Johnson 1991). B) Simplified geological map of the Cederberg region highlighting northern (Fig. 3A), central (Fig. 3B), and southern (Fig. 3C) study sectors.
and wave-dominated deltaic depositional systems (Fig. 2) (Swart 1950; scale studies on the sedimentology and paleoenvironmental genesis of the
Csaky 1969; Csaky et al. 1969; Theron 1970, 1972; Johnson 1976; Bokkeveld Group have been undertaken despite progressive developments
Tankard and Barwis 1982; Theron and Loock 1988). Allocyclicity is
in facies analysis and integrative paleontologic and sequence stratigraphic
considered to be controlled either by Gondwanan tectonic controls that led
methods. This study presents a reassessment of the sedimentology and
to local basin instability (Theron 1972; Tankard et al. 1982; Theron and
Loock 1988 and Tankard et al. 1995, 2009, 2012) or by global eustasy paleoenvironmental successions of the lowermost (Emsian–Eifelian) Ceres
during the Devonian Period (Cooper 1986). Since the 1980s, no basinal- Subgroup in the Clanwilliam Sub-basin.

1042 C.R. PENN-CLARKE ET AL. JSR
FIG. 2.—A) Lithostratigraphy of the Bokkeveld Group at its type locality, Klipbokberg, Grootrivierhoogte, Cederberg, Western Cape Province. Note the laterally
continuous nature of alternating arenaceous and argillaceous lithologies that form the basis for lithostratigraphy. B) Summary of the lithostratigraphy and chronostratigraphy
of the Bokkeveld Group in the Clanwilliam and Aghulas sub-basins with respect to expected major lithologies, thicknesses, paleoenvironments, and stacking patterns (Penn-
Clarke 2017).

BASIN HISTORY AND PREVIOUS PALEOENVIRONMENTAL Individual upward-coarsening successions, furthermore, were described as
INTERPRETATIONS OF THE BOKKEVELD GROUP having a high degree of uniformity of representative lithofacies and
paleoenvironments. A typical upward-coarsening succession, according to
Lithostratigraphy
Csaky (1969) and Csaky et al. (1969), ideally comprises basal deposits of
In outcrop, the Bokkeveld Group comprises several along-tectonic- distal delta-front or offshore paleoenvironments that grade upwards into
strike continuous arenaceous and argillaceous lithologies that form the proximal delta-front or lower to middle-shoreface paleoenvironments. These
basis for a well-established lithostratigraphy of 14 formations and 3 deposits pass upwards into those equated with proximal-most nearshore
subgroups (South African Committee for Stratigraphy 1980) (Fig. 2). delta-front, tidal, or beach–shoreface paleoenvironments.
These lithologies alternate and are apparently conformable and are This deltaic paleoenvironmental model was subsequently advocated and
considered to be arranged as a series of five or six (continuing into the modified by later workers. Currently, two broad paleoenvironmental
overlying Witteberg Group) upward-coarsening successions in the Aghulas models exist: a storm- and wave-dominated deltaic model (Theron 1970,
and Clanwilliam sub-basins, respectively (Swart 1950; Csaky 1969; Csaky 1972; Johnson 1976; Theron and Loock 1988); and a mixed wave- and
et al. 1969; Theron 1970, 1972; Johnson 1976; Tankard and Barwis 1982). tide-dominated deltaic model (Tankard and Barwis 1982). Both models
Each upward-coarsening succession ideally comprises lower mudstones suggest that upward-coarsening successions of the Bokkeveld Group are
and shales that coarsen upward into siltstones, quartz wackes, and finally regressive and represent a series of reworked deltas that prograded into the
into quartz arenites. Cape Basin during relative base-level lows preceding allocyclic tectonics-
driven transgressive phases. Lithofacies and paleoenvironments in each
Paleogeography upward coarsening succession were assumed to be repeated and uniform
for successive transgressive–regressive (T-R) cycles.
The Bokkeveld Group thickens southward and eastward, being thinner
overall in the western Clanwilliam Sub-basin and thicker in the eastern Storm- and Wave-Dominated Delta Model
Aghulas Sub-basin (Csaky 1969; Csaky et al. 1969; Theron 1970, 1972;
Johnson 1976; South African Committee for Stratigraphy 1980; Theron This model, first proposed by Theron (1970, 1972), supposes that
and Johnson 1991). In both sub-basins, arenaceous units generally tend to predominantly arenaceous and along-tectonic-strike continuous lithologies
thicken northwards whilst argillaceous units thicken southwards (Csaky of the Bokkeveld Group accumulated by storm and wave reworking and
1969; Csaky et al. 1969; Theron 1970, 1972; Johnson 1976; South African amalgamation of delta-plain and delta-front deposits as beach-barrier spit
Committee for Stratigraphy 1980; Theron and Johnson 1991). Unidirec- and dune environments (beaches, distributary-mouth bars, point bars, and
tional paleoflow vectors suggest a south-to-southwestward- and eastward- delta channels). Towards the proximal margins of the Cape Basin
directed paleoflow for the Clanwilliam Sub-basin and a south-to- sandstone-rich beach-barrier, spit, and dune deposits may be interbedded
southeastward directed paleoflow for the Aghulas Sub-basin (Csaky with shales and mudstones and are interpreted to represent sheltered
1969; Csaky et al. 1969; Theron 1970, 1972; Johnson 1976; Tankard and lagoonal, tidal-flat, and bay paleoenvironments (Theron 1970, 1972).
Barwis 1982). From these data, Theron (1972) suggested that the shoreline Predominantly argillaceous and laterally continuous lithologies are
of the Cape Basin roughly approximated the trend of the CFB and that reasoned to be representative of distal offshore or prodelta paleoenviron-
sediment was sourced from four large catchment areas to the north and the ments where finer-grained sediment accumulated below wave base (Theron
east and transported southwards. He proposed that the Clanwilliam Sub- 1970, 1972).
basin formed an embayment bounded to the north and the west by Later work by Theron and Loock (1988) reconciled these paleoenviron-
highboard non-orogenic source areas and deepened towards the south and ments and their corresponding lithofacies in each upward-coarsening
southeast towards the present-day Ceres–Tanqua region (~ 218E). The succession into three geographic facies zones (distal, medial, and proximal)
Aghulas Sub-basin received sediment from a northern source area, based on the proportion of sandstone to mudrock. The distal facies zone,
communicated with the Clanwilliam Sub-basin along its northwestern restricted to the southern outcrop limits of the Bokkeveld Group,
margin and deepened south-to-southeastwards, where it was thought to comprises mudstones and is representative of prodelta–shelf paleoenviron-
have been continuous with the Paleo–Pacific Ocean (Theron 1972). Recent ments. This facies zone grades northwards into the medial facies zone
detrital-zircon geochronology by Fourie (2010), Fourie et al. (2011), and comprising mixed siltstones and graywackes representative of delta-front
Vorster (2013) support these broad paleoshoreline trends for the Bokkeveld and distributary-bay environments. The proximal facies zone comprises
Group and suggest a sediment source to the north from the (Neo- lithic arenites with minor granule sandstone and conglomerate stringers
proterozic–Cambrian) Pan-African–Brasiliano and (Mesoproterozoic) Na- and grades northwards from the medial facies zone. This facies zone was
maqua–Natal belts. Additional sediment sourcing from the west is thought deposited in a mixed shallow-marine to deltaic setting representative of
to have been derived from the Middle Ordovician North Patagonia Massif storm- and wave-reworked delta-front deposits encompassing beach,
whilst the Silurian–Devonian Deseado Massif of Patagonia and the distributary mouth bar and point bar, barrier lagoon, and delta channel
Ordovician Ross Orogen of Antarctica may have been potential southern paleoenvironments. The absence of backshore and delta-plain paleoenvi-
source areas (Vorster 2013). ronments was considered to be the result of transgressive erosion with
initiation of successive transgressive–regressive cycles (Theron and Loock
Previous Paleoenvironmental Interpretations 1988).
Swart (1950), Csaky (1969), and Csaky et al. (1969) provide the earliest Mixed Wave- and Tide-Dominated Delta Model
detailed insights into facies variation and paleoenvironmental genesis of the
Bokkeveld Group, promoting an essentially marginal- to shallow-marine This model, proposed by Tankard and Barwis (1982), is a modification
interpretation. Csaky (1969) and Csaky et al. (1969) suggested a dissected of Theron’s (1970, 1972) storm- and wave-dominated deltaic paleoenvi-
shoreline for the Cape Basin during Bokkeveld Group sedimentation, ronmental model. It also purports that the continuity of arenaceous
comprising offshore and nearshore paleoenvironments in both deltaic lithologies of the Bokkeveld Group, along tectonic strike, is due to lateral
(major) and shoreface–beach (minor) depositional systems. Both studies amalgamation and reworking of delta-front and delta-plain deposits by
suggest that upward-coarsening successions in the Bokkeveld Group are storm and wave activity, but differs in the recognition of tidally associated
cyclic, regressive, and progradational in a southward-deepening basin. paleoenvironments. Delta-front deposits are considered to have been

reworked by tidal channels and inlets that erosionally overlie distributary- LITHOFACIES ANALYSIS
mouth-bar or delta-plain deposits. Delta-plain deposits were extensively
Eight lithofacies associations (A–H) were defined in the Ceres Subgroup
reworked by storm, wave, and tidal processes as washovers, tidal channels
in the study area and are summarized in Tables 1 and 2. A detailed
and estuaries. Within a regressive and upward-coarsening succession, five
discussion of the lithofacies and lithofacies associations is presented by
major facies associations are recognized by Tankard and Barwis (1982):
Penn-Clarke (2017). The lithofacies associations recognized in the Ceres
Shelf–Prodelta, Distributary Mouth Bar, Tidal Flat, Interdistributary Bay,
Subgroup compare well with those reported from both modern and ancient
and Beach–Shoreface Complex (the latter encompassing washover,
marginal-marine and shallow-marine siliciclastic depositional systems.
estuarine, and tidal-inlet environments) facies associations.
Lithofacies associations A–D represent deposits akin to those from storm-
This model is problematic for several reasons. The first is the lack of
and wave- dominated shallow marine depositional systems and respec-
data as to where specific observations were made both geographically and
tively comprise offshore (Os), offshore transition zone to distal lower
within stratigraphy. Secondly, this model assumes that each upward-
shoreface (OTZ-dLSF), proximal lower shoreface (pLSF), and upper
coarsening succession in the Bokkeveld Group is the same in its succession
of paleoenvironments. Further problems concern the description of the shoreface–beach (USF-beach) paleoenvironments. This depositional sys-
‘‘Beach–Shoreface Complex’’ facies association and how it might be tem is restricted to the Gydo–Gamka and Voorstehoek–Hex River
recognized in the field. A key tenet of demonstrating whether a delta was intervals. Lithofacies associations E and F, present in the lower to middle
wave-dominated at the time of sedimentation is the demonstration of Tra-Tra Formation, represent sedimentation in a transgressive barrier-
reworking of delta-plain and delta-front deposits as beach and shoreface island–lagoon depositional system and comprise deposits from back-
deposits as is expected in wave-dominant conditions (Johnson and Baldwin barrier tidal flat and lagoon (cTF-lagoon) and transgressive beach-barrier
1996; Bhattacharya 2006, 2010; Bhattacharya and Giosan 2003). All given (tBB) paleoenvironments, respectively. Sedimentation in the upper Tra-
lithofacies descriptions and interpreted paleoenvironmental interpretations Tra–Boplaas interval is interpreted to have occurred in a wave-influenced-
are of sedimentary environments not associated with either beach or delta depositional system. Here lithofacies associations G and H are
shoreface environments, namely of washover and tidal inlets and tidal representative of deposits in prodelta to distal delta front (prodelta-dDF)
channels. ‘‘estuarine channels’’ are additionally mentioned by the authors and proximal delta front (pDF) paleoenvironments. All lithofacies
in their figured diagrams (Tankard and Barwis 1982, their fig.12, p. 969) associations are constrained by conformable vertical and lateral relation-
but no descriptions are given nor is their relationship with the Beach– ships and can be reliably traced north–south along the down depositional
Shoreface Complex facies association made clear. dip direction in the study area with little variance among individual areas.
STUDY AREA AND METHODS Lithofacies Association A: Offshore Paleoenvironment (Os)
The area of study is situated along an ~ 65 km N–S transect in the east- Description.—This lithofacies association comprises laterally extensive
dipping fold limb of the open antiformal Cederberg monocline, Western planar-laminated to locally massive claystones that coarsen upward into
Cape Province, South Africa, traversing the Cederberg and Wupperthal planar-laminated to ripple laminated siltstones and very fine grained
conservancies between the farm Zonderwater in the south (GPS: 328 sandstones (Fig. 5A). Stratabound coarse-grained carbonate nodules are
47.267 0 S; 198 26.817 0 E) and the town of Wupperthal in the north (GPS: common, internally may be homogenous, laminated, or possess radial
328 16.581 0 S; 198 13.015 0 E) (Fig. 1B). The Cederberg monocline was calcite precipitate cracks (Fig. 5B). Soft-sediment-deformation features
selected as an area of study due to the low degree of structural deformation (slump and pillow structures) are rare. Disarticulated fossils (preserved as
and metamorphism in this part of the CFB, in addition to the near casts, molds, or in nodules) of marine invertebrates and rare jawed fish are
unbroken lateral continuity of lithostratigraphic units. Along this transect, most common in claystones, decreasing in diversity and abundance in
strata of the Bokkeveld Group dip eastwards and have an average siltstones (Fig. 5C). Allochthonous fragmentary and coalified plant-
orientation (given as strike, dip, and dip direction) of 1658/288/E. For this compression fossils are rare. Surface pascichnia of Palaeophycus isp. or
study, the area was divided into three sectors (northern, central, and Planolites isp. are present in places on upper bedding planes throughout
southern) that served as focused study areas (Fig. 3A–C). Stratigraphic lithofacies association A (Fig. 5D). Lenticular sharp and erosionally based
profiles of the Ceres Subgroup were measured using a Jacob’s staff and an coquinites (Fig. 5E) and quartz-wacke-filled scours (Fig. 5F) are locally
Abney level at each study sector, and their lithology was described in terms present. In claystones, 1–5-cm-thick coquinites are well sorted, monospe-
of petrologic composition, bedding-plane relationships, bounding surfaces, cific, and bioclast supported in a clay-rich matrix. Bioclasts of marine
sedimentary structures, architectural features, paleoflow vectors and trends, invertebrates are almost always the same size with little to no damage or
color (according to the Munsell color system), ichnofossils, bioturbation preferential orientation. In siltstones, 5–15-cm-thick quartz-wacke-filled
index (BI) (semiquantitatively after Droser and Bottjer 1986), and scours are present, often mantled with intraclastic and bioclastic material
paleontology. From these data, three composite stratigraphic sections were along a scour plane.
created (Fig. 4A–C). Photographs and photomosaics of select outcrops
were taken to document sedimentary structures, ichnofossils, and Interpretation.—We interpret planar-laminated laminated clay and
architectural geometry. Measured paleocurrent vectors included both siltstones to represent suspension settling of pelagic muds in a low-energy
unidirectional current indicators (cross-bedded dune foresets, asymmetric environment. Ripple-laminated siltstones and silt to very fine sandstones
ripple foresets, and rib-and-furrow structures), and bidirectional flow-trend suggest minor upper-stage-plane-bed subaqueous transport of sediment as
indicators (parting lineations, wave-ripple crests, gutter casts). Owing to ripples with minor water disturbance. Deposits forming under these
structural influence, these vectors were corrected for and have been hydrodynamic conditions in shallow marine settings are recognized to
presented as a series of rose diagrams with a class size of 158 using accumulate in subtidal Os environments below storm-wave base (Potter et
Rose.NET 0.10.0 and are presented on measured stratigraphic sections. al. 1980, 2005; Johnson and Baldwin 1996; Stow et al. 1996; Walker and
!
FIG. 3.—A) Detailed geological map of the northern study sector. B) Detailed geological map of the central study sector. C) Detailed geological map of the southern study
sector. Abbreviations: BK, Bakkrans; BL, Beukes Kraal; EB, Eselbank; JH, Jonkershoek; KBF, Keurbosfontein; MC, Mount Ceder; MR, Matjiesrivier; NP, Nieuweplaas;
OMR, Onder Martiensrus; PW, Perdewater; RV, Rietvlei; VF, Vaalfontein; VH, Voorstehoek; VK, Varkkloof; VV, Vöelvlei; WUP, Wupperthal; ZW, Zonderwater.


FIG. 4.—Detailed composite stratigraphic profiles of the Ceres Subgroup. A) Northern study sector. B) Central study sector. C) Southern study sector.

FIG. 4.—Continued.
Plint 1997; Clifton 2006; Plint 2010). This interpretation is supported by mudstones and/or silty sandstones that become increasingly sharply
the presence of marine fossil taxa in lithofacies association A. Occasional intercalated by lenses of erosionally based, non-amalgamated, poorly
sorted and immature, silt to very fine grained sand-size hummocky cross-
sharp and erosionally based monospecific coquinites and quartz-wacke-
stratified (HCS) quartz wacke up succession (Fig. 6 A, B). In the Gamka
filled scours are interpreted to be return-flow storm-surge deposits. These
Formation, non-amalgamated fine- to medium-grained wave-ripple-
deposits form from storm-wave orbitals which may extend below storm-
laminated quartz arenite lenses may sharply intercalate with heterolithic-
wave base or transport sediment to the Os from the shoreface (Duke 1990;
laminated sandstones and mudstones, especially in the middle portion of
Potter et al. 2005). Return-flow storm surges in Os environments have been
the formation. Heterolithic-laminated sandstones and mudstones comprise
documented to transport muddy sediment in high-density mudflows that alternating upward-fining millimeter- to centimeter-scale very thin bedsets
may migrate for hundreds of kilometers (Duke 1990; Potter et al. 2005). and lamina-sets of lower sharp-based siltstone to fine-grained sandstone
Fossils in these deposits are often complete with little damage (Potter et al. grading upward into mudstone. These are arranged into 10–15-cm-thick
2005). Transportation of shelly bioclasts in high-density mudflows has bedsets with lower bedsets typically being lenticular bedded, passing
been used to explain the high degree of sorting as well as lack of damage of upwards into more sandstone-rich wavy- and flaser-bedded sandstones.
bioclasts in monospecific coquinites. The locally massive nature of Sandstone flasers are typically wave- or current ripple-laminated. Silty
claystones may indicate pervasive bioturbation, if not continuous rapid sandstones may be thin ripple-laminated, planar-laminated, and low-angle
sedimentation (Potter et al. 1980, 2005). In an idealized upward-shoaling to HCS in places (Fig. 6C). Non-amalgamated HCS quartz wacke co-sets
succession, siltstones are interpreted to be the proximal equivalent of are typically 0.2–0.4 m thick but may be as thick as 1.0–1.2 m and up to
claystones owing to their coarser grain size. 9.0 m in lateral extent. Upper bedding planes of HCS quartz-wacke bedsets
and co-sets may be wave-, current-, or interference-ripple-laminated or
Lithofacies Association B: Offshore Transition Zone to Distal Lower possess parting lineations. Ripple indices (RI) and ripple symmetry indices
Shoreface Paleoenvironment (OTZ-dLSF) (RSI) of wave ripples associated with non-amalgamated HCS quartz
wackes from the Voorstehoek Formation (n ¼ 6) range from 3.8 to 19.0
Description.—Lithofacies association B gradationally coarsens up- (avg ¼ 11.6) and 1.0 to 2.4 (avg ¼ 1.3) respectively. Non-amalgamated
wards from lithofacies association A and is marked by an overall increase quartz arenite co-sets range in thickness from 0.1to 0.23 m and can be
in content of silt to very fine-grained sand. This lithofacies association traced in outcrop over several meters as distinct lensoids that are tens of
comprises lower, laterally extensive heterolithic-laminated sandstones and centimeters to meters in width.

TABLE 1.—Characteristics of lithofacies associations A–D of the Ceres Subgroup.
Lithofacies Lithology and Sedimentary Paleontology

Association Structures and Ichnology
A Lower laterally extensive lower planar-laminated to locally massive clay-rich Marine fossils of Malvinokaffric Realm invertebrates and fish are
shales that coarsen upward into lower planar-laminated to ripple-laminated common in clay-rich shales, decreasing in abundance and diversity
siltstones and very fine-grained sandstones. in silt and sand-rich shales.
Stratabound coarse-grained carbonate nodule horizons common. Allochthonous fragmentary and coalified plant compression fossils are
Soft-sediment deformation is rare, confined to sandstone slump and pillow rare.
structures. Surface passichnia of: Palaeophycus isp., Planolites isp.
5–15 cm thick intra- and bioclastic mantled quartz-wacke-filled scour beds
and 1–5-cm-thick mud matrix-supported, well-sorted, monospecific
bioclastic coquinites may be present.
B Lower heterolithic-laminated sandstone and mudstone beds and/or silty Heterolithic silty sandstones and mudstones may be extensively
sandstones that become increasingly sharply intercalated by erosionally- bioturbated in places (BI ¼ 2–4).
based non-amalgamated, poorly sorted and immature, silt- to very fine- Fossils scarce, restricted to genus- and species-specific brachiopods
grained sand size HCS quartz wacke lenses up succession. Upper bedding and bivalves, crinoid ossicles, and tentaculitiids.
planes of HCS quartz wackes may be wave-, current-, or interference- Allochthonous plant-compression and impression fossils are rare.
ripple-laminated or may have parting lineations. Cubichnia of: Rusophycus isp.
In the Gamka Formation, non-amalgamated, poorly sorted and sub mature Domichnia and fodinichnia of: Diplocraterion isp., Skolithos isp.
fine- to medium-grained wave-ripple- laminated quartz arenite lenses may Passichnia of: Planolites isp., Palaeophycus isp.
intercalate with heterolithic-laminated sandstone and mudstones. Repichnia of: Cruziana isp.
Polyspecific, sand-supported, poorly sorted, bioclast- and
intraclast-rich coquinites with high levels of damage may be present.
C Amalgamated, poorly sorted and immature, very fine- to fine-grained sand Fossils restricted to genus- and species-specific brachiopods, crinoid
HCS and SCS quartz wackes. Upper bedding planes of HCS quartz wackes ossicles, and tentaculitiids.
may be wave-, current-, or interference-ripple-laminated or may have Wave-ripple-laminated quartz arenites:
parting lineations. Domichnia and fodinichnia of: Chondrites isp., Diplocraterion isp.,
In the Gamka Formation, amalgamated, moderately sorted and sub mature, Skolithos isp., Zoophycos isp.
fine- to medium-grained wave-ripple-laminated quartz arenites and SCS Passichnia of: Palaeophycus isp.
quartz arenites sharply overlie amalgamated HCS and SCS quartz wackes. Domichnia–fodinichnia of: Phoebichnus isp.
Upper bedding planes of SCS quartz arenites characteristically associated with SCS quartz arenites:
mudstone intraclast and sandstone intrabreccia lags, conical and meandering Domichnia and fodinichnia of: Diplocraterion isp., Skolithos isp.
rill erosion marks, sandstone concretions, and possible plant prod marks.
D Interbedded moderately well sorted and sub mature fine- to medium-grained Body fossils rare, restricted to certain brachiopods and allochthonous
tabular- and trough-cross-bedded quartz arenites and planar-bedded quartz plant compressions.
arenites. Plant rhizoliths may be present.
Upper bedding planes of cross-bedded quartz arenites may be thin-ripple, or Fodinichnia of: Asterosoma isp.
wave-ripple-laminated. Repichnia of: Cochlichnus isp., Planolites isp.
May be locally slumped, recumbent cross-bedded or massive. Domichnia and fodinichnia of: Rosselia isp., Zoophycos isp.
Upper bedding planes of planar-bedded quartz arenites may be thin-ripple, or
current-ripple-laminated or possess parting lineations.
Fossils are restricted to incomplete and disarticulated crinoid ossicles, transition between the shoreface and offshore environments. The dLSF
certain brachiopods (Australospirifer sp., Australocoelia sp., Derbyina sp., represents the most distal environment of the shoreface and is situated
Schuchertella sp.), bivalves (Nuculites sp.), and tentaculitiids (Tentaculites just above storm-wave base. At this water depth, both environments are
sp.) (Fig. 6D–F). Brachiopod, bivalve, and tentaculitiid valves, further, may subjected to periodic storm-generated oscillatory and unidirectional
show signs of damage and abrasion. These fossils are usually concentrated current flow hydrodynamic processes during storm-weather conditions
in centimeter-scale polyspecific sand-supported coquinite beds within (Dott and Bourgeois 1982; Leckie and Krystinik 1989; Duke et al.
heterolithic sandstones and mudstones (Fig. 6F) or mantling the lower 1991; Cheel and Leckie 1993; Reading and Collinson 1996; Walker and
bedding planes of HCS quartz-wacke co-sets with mudstone intraclasts as Plint 1997; Hampson and Storms 2003; Dumas and Arnott 2006; Clifton
lag deposits (Fig. 6D, E). Where coquinite beds are present, overlying beds 2006; Cummings et al. 2009; Charvin et al. 2010; Plint 2010; Quin
are moderately bioturbated with a BI of 2–4. Disarticulated plant 2011).
compressions and impressions are rare. Ichnotaxa are restricted to the Expected sedimentary structures in OTZ environments include HCS,
cubichnia of Rusophycus isp., domichnia of Diplocraterion isp. and planar-laminated and/or wave- and current-ripple-laminated heterolithic
Skolithos isp. and repichnia of Cruziana isp., Palaeophycus isp., and sandstones and mudstones. Here sharp-based sandstone laminae indicate
Planolites isp. These ichnotaxa are variably present in all comprising traction and saltation sedimentation from high-energy storm-weather
lithofacies. currents. Mudstone laminae are reflective of waning storm or background
fair-weather suspension sedimentation. Planar lamination, wave-ripple-
Interpretation.—In idealized regressive storm- and wave-dominated laminated sandstone flasers and low-angle to HCS silty sandstones suggest
shorefaces, OTZ environments are situated at storm-wave base at the sedimentation from oscillatory to combined oscillatory and unidirectional

TABLE 1.—Extended.
Lithofacies Vertical and Lateral Paleoenvironmental

Association Relationships Process Interpretation Interpretation
A Laterally continuous in outcrop. Claystones and siltstones: Offshore (Os)

Conformable. Coarsens upwards into Slow suspension settling of clay- and silt-sized grains in a
Lf. B, marked by an increase in content of silt to low-energy environment. Occasional upper-stage plane bed
very fine-grained sand, heterolithic bedding and frequency subaqueous transport of sediment as ripples with minor
of scour beds and non-amalgamated water disturbance.
HCS quartz wackes. Sand- and intraclast-filled scour beds and coquinites:
Deposition and transport of bioclasts and sediment by
episodic sub-tidal storm-event surges.
B Laterally continuous in outcrop. Heterolithic-laminated sandstone and mudstones: Offshore transition

Conformable. Contact with Lf. C is sharp Pulsatory or episodic storm-related saltation and traction zone (OTZ) to distal
and gradational and is marked by an increase in transport of sediment followed by suspension deposition, or lower shoreface
amalgamation of HCS and SCS wackes and decrease in saltation and traction sedimentation against continuous (dLSF)
heterolithic-laminated sandstone and mudstone beds and/or suspension deposition during fair-weather conditions.
silty sandstones. Contact is marked by a coarsening in grain HCS quartz wackes and wave-ripple-laminated quartz
size to very fine- to fine-grained sand. arenites:
Deposition from storm-generated oscillatory flows and/or
combined unidirectional and oscillatory flows at storm-
weather wave base.
C Laterally continuous in outcrop. HCS quartz wackes and wave-ripple-laminated Proximal lower
Conformable. Contact with Lf. D sharp and erosional with quartz arenites: shoreface (pLSF)
wavy to planar geometry Lf. D overlies amalgamated HCS Deposition from storm-generated oscillatory flows and/or
and SCS quartz wackes or is conformable and gradational combined unidirectional and oscillatory flows between
where Lf. D interbeds with wave-ripple-laminated quartz storm-weather and fair-weather wave base with minor
arenites. Contact is marked by a coarsening in grain size to reworking during fair-weather conditions.
fine- to medium-grained sand and an increase in sorting SCS quartz wackes and quartz arenites:
and maturity. Aggrading anisotropic HCS bedforms with low
aggradational and migration rates and high sediment
transport rates that form from deposition by storm-generated
unidirectional dominant combined-flow conditions.
D Laterally continuous in outcrop. Cross-bedded quartz arenites: Upper shoreface–beach

Conformable. Lf. E onlaps Lf. D along a sharp and planar Deposition and down-current migration of 2D and 3D complex (USF-
contact. dunes in response to low to moderate velocity alongshore beach)
and/or offshore-directed currents and waves above fair-
weather wave base.
Planar-bedded quartz arenites:
Transport and deposition of sediment under high flow
velocity above fair-weather wave base.
flows. Current-ripple lamination is suggestive of sedimentation from Cheel and Leckie 1993; Walker and Plint 1997; Hampson and Storms
unidirectional flow or combined flow. The deposits of dLSF paleoenviron- 2003; Charvin et al. 2010; Plint 2010).
ments are characterized by sharp-based and non-amalgamated silt to very The incomplete, disarticulated and damaged nature of fossils from
fine grained HCS and wave-ripple-laminated sandstone lenses that lithofacies association B supports local transportation and reworking by
intercalate with heterolithic sandstones and mudstones (Kalkreuth and turbid, high-energy flows that operated in the OTZ and dLSF. The highly
Leckie 1989; Van Wagoner et al. 1990; Cheel and Leckie 1993; Kamola diverse ichnofaunal assemblage of lithofacies association B is typical of the
and Van Wagoner 1995; Walker and Plint 1997; Hampson and Storms spread of ethologies representative of the Cruziana ichnofacies. Typically,
2003; Charvin et al. 2010; Plint 2010). HCS sandstones are thought to be the Cruziana ichnofacies is associated with deposits occurring in OTZ and
storm-generated beds related to oscillatory, unidirectional, or combined dLSF paleoenvironments, grading into Skolithos ichnofacies associated
with pLSF paleoenvironments (Pemberton et al. 1997; Miller 2007;
flow currents at storm wave base during storm-weather conditions
Seilacher 2007; MacEachern et al. 2010; Buatois and Mangano 2011).
(Nottvedt and Kriesa 1987; Kalkreuth and Leckie 1989; Van Wagoner et
al. 1990; Cheel and Leckie 1993; Kamola and Van Wagoner 1995; Walker
Lithofacies Association C: Proximal Lower Shoreface
and Plint 1997; Hampson and Storms 2003; Dumas and Arnott 2006;
Paleoenvironment (pLSF)
Charvin et al. 2010; Plint 2010). Intercalated heterolithic silty sandstones
and mudstones are interpreted to represent traction, saltation, and Description.—Lithofacies association C comprises amalgamated,
suspension deposition with conditions of waning-storm-flow energy and poorly sorted, and immature, very fine- to fine-grained HCS quartz
calmer background fair-weather wave base (Kalkreuth and Leckie 1989; wackes (Fig. 7A) and swaly cross-stratified (SCS) quartz wackes (Fig. 7B).

TABLE 2.—Characteristics of lithofacies associations E–H of the Ceres Subgroup.
Lithofacies Lithology and Sedimentary Paleontology

Association Structures and Ichnology
E Lower heterolithic-laminated sandstones and mudstones intercalated by sharp Body fossils absent.
and erosionally-based, poorly sorted and immature, silt- to very fine-grained Upper heterolithic-laminated sandstones and mudstones generally
sand size compound-cross-bedded quartz wackes and rhythmically intensely bioturbated (BI ¼ 4–6).
laminated quartz wackes. Quartz wackes may be reworked as low-angle Domichnia of: Diplocraterion isp. are present in compound-cross-
cross-laminated or wave-ripple- or current-ripple-laminated quartz wackes. bedded quartz wackes.
Intercalated quartz wackes decrease in frequency as the succession fines
upwards into heterolithic-laminated sandstones and mudstones. Upper
heterolithic-laminated sandstones and mudstones become increasingly
bioturbated (BI ¼ 4–6) and well homogenized up succession.
F Lower massive to intensely bioturbated (BI ¼ 5–6), poorly sorted and Fragmentary allochthonous plant thalli fossils preserved as carbonized
immature, silt- to very fine-grained sand-size quartz wackes which may be compressions, impressions, and mudstone casts.
wave-ripple- and thin-ripple-laminated, or planar- to low angle-bedded and Mudstone-in-filled rhizoliths present in places.
hummocky cross-stratified in places. Lower quartz wackes grade upwards Casts and molds of autochthonous spiriferid brachiopods present in
into intensely bioturbated (BI ¼ 4–6) silty sandstones. places.
Domichnia and fodinichnia of: Gastrochaenolites isp., Skolithos isp.,
Cylindrichnus isp., Psilonichnus isp., Thalassinoides isp.
Passichnia and repichnia of: Aulichnites isp., Planolites isp.,
Palaeophycus isp.
G Lower heterolithic-laminated sandstones and mudstones sharply intercalated Body fossils and ichnofossils absent.
by erosionally-based, non-amalgamated, poorly sorted and immature silt- to
very fine-grained sand size channel-fill and laminated quartz wacke lenses.
Towards the top of the succession, quartz wacke lenses become increasingly
amalgamated. Quartz wacke lenses may be thin-, wave-, or current-ripple-
laminated. This is coincident with a decrease in intercalated heterolithic-
laminated sandstone and mudstone and increase in grain size to very fine-
to fine-grained sand.
H Sharply interbedded, moderately well-sorted and submature fine- to medium- Fragmentary coalified plant body and compression fossils are
grained tabular- and trough-cross-bedded quartz arenites and planar- bedded common.
quartz arenites. Quartz arenites typically arranged as channel-fill associated Domichnia and fodinichnia of: Diplocraterion isp., Skolithos isp.
sandy bedforms. Discontinuous heterolithic-laminated sandstones and
mudstones form prominent partings among quartz arenites.
The contact between lithofacies associations B and C is conformable, and lineations. Similarly, lower bedding planes may be mantled with mudstone
gradational, and is marked by an increase in amalgamation of non- intraclasts and bioclastic lag material of incomplete, fragmented plant
amalgamated HCS quartz wackes and decrease in intercalated heterolithic- debris, disarticulated crinoid ossicles, brachiopods, bivalves, and tentacu-
laminated sandstones and mudstone (Fig. 8). Amalgamation of HCS and litiids. The near absence of ichnofossils in amalgamated HCS and SCS
SCS quartz wackes is accompanied by a gradual increase in grain size to quartz arenites can be explained by high aggradation rates and reworking
very fine to fine-grained sand. In lithofacies association C of the Gamka by storm activity.
Formation, amalgamated HCS and SCS quartz wackes are sharply overlain Upper bedding planes of amalgamated wave-ripple-laminated quartz
by amalgamated, moderately sorted and submature fine- to medium- arenites are interference-rippled with no dominant ripple-crest trend,
grained amalgamated wave-ripple-laminated quartz arenites (Fig. 7C) and giving these beds an ‘‘egg-box’’ topography. Morphology of rounded
SCS quartz arenites (Fig. 7D). HCS and SCS quartz wacke co-sets range in ripple crests varies from transverse catenary out-of-phase to linguloid.
thickness from 0.5 to 1.5 m with bedset thicknesses of 0.2 to 0.35 m. As in Amalgamated wave-ripple-laminated quartz arenite co-sets range in
lithofacies association B, upper bedding planes of HCS quartz wackes may thickness from 0.6 to 2.0 m and comprise numerous 0.01 to 0.23-m-thick
be wave-, current-, or interference-ripple-laminated or possess parting bedsets with ripple crests variably stacked in phase to out of phase.

TABLE 2.—Extended.
Lithofacies Vertical and Lateral Paleoenvironmental

Association Relationships Process Interpretation Interpretation
E Laterally continuous in outcrop. Lower heterolithic-laminated sandstones and Back-barrier tidal flat
Conformable. Upper contact with Lf. F is sharp and mudstones: (cTF) to lagoon
erosional with a planar geometry. Alternating traction and suspension sedimentation
associated with cyclical tidal ebb and flood conditions.
Compound cross-bedded and rhythmically laminated
quartz wackes:
Deposition and down-current migration of 2D and 3D
dunes in tidal channels, or as planar-laminated beds as
tidal–levee deposits under ebb and flood conditions.
Mudstone drapes representative of suspension sedimentation
under slack-water conditions with waning energy.
Upper heterolithic-laminated sandstones and mudstones:
Episodic traction and suspension sedimentation conditions.
High BI (4–6) suggests a generally calm water lagoonal
environment.
F Laterally continuous in outcrop. Lower massive to intensely bioturbated quartz Transgressive
Conformable. Contact with Lf. G is gradational and is wackes: beach-barrier (tBB)
marked by an increase in intercalating, non-amalgamated Transgressive reworking of beach-barrier deposits
channel-fill and laminated quartz wacke lenses. as LSF-associated deposits (low-angle to HCS and
wave-ripple- lamination) by shoreface retreat. The
preservation of plant rhizoliths and Gastrochaenolites isp.
in places suggests remnant preservation of relict marsh
plant communities that were not transgressively reworked as
LSF-deposits with beach-barrier retrogradation.
Upper intensely bioturbated silty sandstones:
Uncertain owing to intense bioturbation. Assumed to have
culminated under storm-weather-related conditions expected
in OTZ or calmer water Os associated conditions expected
with transgression.
G Laterally continuous in outcrop. Channel-fill quartz wackes: Prodelta to distal delta
Conformable. Contact with Lf. H sharp and erosional with Sedimentation in wave-influenced terminal distributary front (prodelta-dDF)
a wavy to planar geometry. Contact is marked by a channels.
coarsening in grain size to fine- to medium-sand and an Laminated quartz wackes:
increase in sorting and maturity. Sedimentation as subaqueous levees.
Heterolithic-laminated sandstones and mudstones:
Sedimentation as subaqueous overbank deposits that formed
in response to alternating traction and suspension flow
conditions.
H Laterally continuous in outcrop. Cross-bedded quartz arenites and planar-bedded quartz Proximal delta front
Conformable. Contact with Lf. B of the Waboomberg arenites: (pDF)
Formation is erosional with a sharp and planar geometry. Sandy bedforms in subaqueous channels as distributary-
mouth bars.
Heterolithic-laminated sandstones and mudstones:
Sedimentation as subaqueous overbank deposits that formed
in response to alternating traction and suspension flow
conditions.
Where out of phase, wave-ripple-laminated quartz arenites may Formation. Here, this bed is expressed as a single prominent 1.5–2.0-
superficially resemble anisotropic HCS. The RI and RSI of wave- m-thick co-set that can be traced throughout the field study area. The
ripple-laminated quartz arenites (n ¼ 24) range from 3 to 15.5 (avg ¼ 9.8) upper bedding plane of this co-set characteristically has an undulose
and 1.0 to 2.1 (avg ¼ 1.3), respectively. Animal body fossils are absent, geometry giving it a ‘‘whale’s back’’ appearance (Figs. 7D, 10A). Within
but allochthonous coalified plant fragments are present in places, often swales, red-yellow hematitic mudstone intraclast lags and sandstone
accompanied by mudstone intraclasts. Ichnofossils include domichnia intrabreccias are present as lag deposits often with sandstone concretions
and fodinichnia of Diplocraterion isp., Chondrites isp., Skolithos isp., (Fig. 10B). Intrabreccias typically have impacted upper bedding planes
and Zoophycos isp. in addition to repichnia of Palaeophycus isp. (Fig. (Fig. 10C). Conical and meandering rill erosion marks, sandstone
9A–C, E, F). Putative domichnia–fodinichnia complexes ascribed to concretions and dubious plant prod marks are concentrated on swale
Phoebichnus isp. have also been identified in amalgamated wave-ripple- margins (Fig. 10D, E). SSW-directed current ripples may additionally be
laminated quartz arenites (Fig. 9D). present on upper bedding planes, with crests oriented orthogonal to SCS
Amalgamated SCS quartz arenites are found in close association with crests. Ichnofossils are rare and are restricted to domichnia of
amalgamated wave-ripple-laminated quartz arenites in the Gamka Diplocraterion isp. and Skolithos isp.

FIG. 5.—Select characteristics of lithofacies association A of the Ceres Subgroup. A) Outcrop character. Gydo Formation at Lelikkloof. Jacob’s staff for scale ¼ 1.5 m. B)
Carbonate nodule, Gydo Formation. Scale ¼ 15 cm. C) Modes of fossil preservation as nodules (trilobite exuviae, white stippled line), molds (brachiopod valve, white arrow)
or as casts (bivalve valve, black arrow). Gydo Formation at Lelikkloof. Scale in cm. D) Repichnion of Palaeophycus isp. (Pa.). Voorstehoek Formation at Wupperthal. Scale ¼
15 cm. E) Monospecific, bioclast-supported coquinite comprising brachiopod bioclasts. Gydo Formation at Grootberg. Scale ¼ 15 cm. F) Erosionally based quartz wacke
scour trough. Gydo Formation at Moordenaarsgat. Scale ¼ 15 cm.


FIG. 7.—Selected characteristics of lithofacies association C of the Ceres Subgroup. A) Amalgamated HCS quartz wacke. Gamka Formation at Lelikkloof. Scale ¼ 1.0 m.
B) Amalgamated SCS quartz wacke. Gamka Formation at Wupperthal. Scale ¼ 15.0 cm. C) Amalgamated wave-ripple-laminated quartz arenites. Gamka Formation at
Lelikkloof. Jacob’s staff for scale ¼ 1.5 m. D) Amalgamated SCS quartz arenite. Gamka Formation at Lelikkloof. Scale ¼ 1.0 m.
FIG. 6.—Selected characteristics of lithofacies association B of the Ceres Subgroup. A) Outcrop expression showing numerous erosionally based quartz wacke lenses in
heterolithic laminated sandstones and mudstones. Gamka Formation at Blinkberg. Scale ¼ 1.0 m. B) Detail of a non-amalgamated HCS quartz wacke lens. Gamka Formation
at Blinkberg. Scale ¼ 1.0 m. C) HCS silty sandstone. Gydo Formation at Wupperthal. Jacob’s staff for scale ¼ 1.5 m. D) Intraclastic (white arrow) and bioclastic (black arrow)
mantling the lower bounding surface of a non-amalgamated HCS quartz wacke lens. Gydo Formation at Lelikkloof. Clutch pencil for scale ¼ 12.0 cm. E) Detail of the lower
bounding surface of a non-amalgamated HCS quartz wacke showing numerous damaged and incomplete bioclast fossils and intraclasts. Gamka Formation at
Vaalheuningberg. F) Polyspecific coquinite comprising numerous damaged and disarticulated crinoid stems and ossicles (white arrows) and brachiopod valves (black arrows).
Gydo Formation at Lelikkloof. Clutch pencil for scale ¼ 12.0 cm.

FIG. 8.—Contact relationships among lithofacies association B, C, and D between the Voorstehoek and Hex River formations at Moordenaarsgat. Notice increasing
amalgamation of non-amalgamated HCS quartz wacke lenses (blue) between lithofacies association B and C.
Interpretation.—The pLSF is located above the dLSF, is between Lithofacies Association D: Upper Shoreface–Beach Paleoenvironment
storm-wave base and fair-weather-wave base, and is subjected to storm- (USF-Beach)
related oscillatory, unidirectional, or combined flow as in dLSF and OTZ
Description.—Lithofacies association D comprises sharply interbedded
environments (Dott and Bourgeois 1982; Leckie and Krystinik 1989; Duke
moderately well-sorted and submature fine to medium-grained tabular- and
et al. 1991; Cheel and Leckie 1993; Reading and Collinson 1996; Walker
trough-cross-bedded quartz arenites and planar-bedded quartz arenites
(Fig. 11A, B). In the Hex River Formation, the contact between lithofacies
Clifton 2006; Cummings et al. 2009; Charvin et al. 2010; Plint 2010).
association D and the underlying lithofacies association C is conformable,
Deposits associated with pLSF paleoenvironments manifest as amalgam-
sharp and erosional with a wavy to planar geometry (Fig. 11C). This
ated silt to fine-grained sandstone HCS and SCS beds and wave-ripple-
contact is marked by an increase in grain size and sorting. In the Gamka
laminated sandstones (Kalkreuth and Leckie 1989; Van Wagoner et al.
Formation, the contact between lithofacies association C and D is
1990; Cheel and Leckie 1993; Kamola and Van Wagoner 1995; Walker
conformable and gradational where wave-ripple-laminated quartz arenites
of lithofacies association C are interbedded with lithofacies D over a few
Charvin et al. 2010; Plint 2010). Coarse grained wave-ripple-bedded meters (Fig. 11D). Tabular- and trough-cross-bedded quartz arenites
sandstones may be present but are rare (Leckie 1988; Cummings et al. manifest as 0.2–1.0-m-thick bedsets arranged as thick to very thick-bedded
2009). At this water depth, aggradation rates are high, as storm beds are 1.0–2.0-m-thick co-sets with tabular to bar-form geometries. Both tabular-
not reworked by fair-weather wave processes, thus encouraging amalgam- and trough-cross-bedded quartz arenite bedsets and co-sets can be traced
ation (Walker and Plint 1997; Dumas and Arnott 2006; Charvin et al. laterally in outcrop along the down depositional dip and dune-form growth
2010; Plint 2010). The disarticulated, incomplete, and damaged nature of trajectory for tens of meters. Top bedding planes may be thin-ripple or
fossils in lithofacies association C supports a turbid, high-energy, storm- wave-ripple-laminated. Soft-sediment deformation is rare, here tabular- and
dominated paleoenvironment, as do the presence of impacting sandstone trough-cross-bedded quartz arenites may be slumped or massive bedded or
intrabreccias, mudstone intraclast lags, and erosion marks in SCS quartz recumbent cross-bedded. Planar-bedded quartz arenites are characterized
arenites. Ichnofossils from lithofacies association C are known only from as 0.2–0.4-m-thick tabular bedsets composed of numerous centimeter-thick
wave-ripple-laminated and SCS quartz arenites of the Gamka Formation. beds. The upper bedding planes of these quartz arenites may be variably
The ichnoassemblage represents a Skolithos ichnofacies inasmuch as it is thin-ripple- or current-ripple-laminated or possess parting lineations.
dominated by a low-diversity ichnoassemblage of vertical, cylindrical, or Bounding surfaces among tabular- and trough-cross-bedded quartz arenites
‘‘U’’ shaped ichnotaxa whilst horizontal repichnia are rare. This ichnofacies and planar-bedded quartz arenites are sharp and erosional with planar to
is usually associated with high-energy deposits with ichnofauna of curved surfaces.
domichnic and fodinichnic ethologies and is associated with pLSF to Body fossils in lithofacies association D are rare and are restricted to
USF paleoenvironments in storm- and wave-dominated shallow marine casts and molds of the brachiopod Australospirifer sp. and possible
depositional systems (Pemberton et al. 1997; Miller 2007; Seilacher 2007; allochthonous plant-compression fossils in the Hex River Formation.
MacEachern et al. 2010; Buatois and Mangano 2011). Ichnofossils are scant in lithofacies association D and have been found in

FIG. 9.—Ichnofossils associated with lithofacies association C of the Ceres Subgroup. A) Fodinichnion of Chondrites isp. (Ch.), Gamka Formation at Grootberg. Scale ¼
15.0 cm. B) Domichnion of Diplocraterion isp. (Di.) and repichnion of Palaeophycus isp. (Pa.). Gamka Formation at Grootberg. C) Domichnia and fodinichnia of Skolithos
isp. (Sk.) and Zoophycos isp. (Zo.). Gamka Formation at Ou Werf. D) Domichnion–fodinichnion complexes of Phoebichnus isp. (Ph.). Gamka Formation at Ou Werf. Scale ¼
15.0 cm. E) Domichnia and fodinichnia of Skolithos isp. (Sk.). Gamka Formation at Ou Werf. Scale ¼ 15.0 cm. F) Domichnion and fodinichnion of Zoophycos isp. (Zo.).
Gamka Formation at Ou Werf. Scale ¼ 15.0 cm.

FIG. 10.—Selected features associated with the top bedding planes of SCS quartz arenites of lithofacies association C from the Gamka Formation at Blinkberg. A) Color
map showing the distribution of red-yellow hematitic mudstone intraclast lags, sandstone concretions, and sandstone intrabreccias with respect to the swale crest of an SCS
quartz arenite. Jacob’s staff for scale ¼ 1.5 m. B) Sandstone intrabreccia and red-yellow hematitic mudstone intraclasts. Scale ¼ 8.0 cm. C) Detail of sandstone intrabreccia
impacting upper bedding plane. Scale ¼ 8.0 cm. D) Detail of sandstone concretion with domichnia of Diplocraterion isp. (black arrows). Scale ¼ 15.0 cm. E) Detail of rill
erosion marks on SCS swale crest. Scale ¼ 15.0 cm.


upper-plane-bedded quartz arenites in the Hex River Formation from the constrain these planar-bedded quartz arenites as backshore beach sub-
central and northern study sectors. These comprise suspected curved to environments.
straight bifurcational rhizoliths, in addition to fodinichnia of Asterosoma
isp., repichnia of Cochlichnus isp. and Planolites isp., and domichnia and Lithofacies Association E: Back-Barrier Tidal Flat and Lagoon
fodinichnia of Rosselia isp. and Zoophycos isp. (Fig. 12A–F). Paleoenvironment (cTF-Lagoon)
Interpretation.—In storm- and wave-dominated shallow-marine depo- Description.—Lithofacies association E comprises lower heterolithic-
sitional systems, the USF is situated above the pLSF and is between fair- laminated sandstones and mudstones intercalated with sharp and
weather-wave base and the intertidal zone (Johnson and Baldwin 1996; erosionally-based poorly sorted and immature, silt to very fine-grained
Reading and Collinson 1996; Walker and Plint 1997; Clifton 2006; Plint compound-cross-bedded and rhythmically laminated quartz wacke beds
2010). These environments are subject to a variety of fair-weather (Fig. 13A–C). Intercalated quartz wackes decrease in frequency as the
(longshore drift, shoaling, surf and breaker, wave currents and rip currents) succession overall fines upwards into heterolithic-laminated sandstones
and storm-weather (oscillatory wave) processes (Johnson and Baldwin and mudstones. Concomitantly, heterolithic-laminated sandstones and
1996; Reading and Collinson 1996; Walker and Plint 1997; Hampson and mudstones become increasingly bioturbated and are expressed as well-
Storms 2003; Clifton 2006; Dumas and Arnott 2006; Plint 2010). homogenized sandy siltstones (BI ¼ 4–6) up succession. Lithofacies
Typically, tabular- and trough-cross-stratified sandstone deposits are association E onlaps lithofacies association D along a conformable, sharp,
associated with USF paleoenvironments (Van Wagoner et al. 1990; and planar contact. This contact delineates the boundary between the Hex
Kamola and Van Wagoner 1995; Johnson and Baldwin 1996; Reading and River and the Tra-Tra formations.
Collinson 1996; Walker and Plint 1997; Hampson and Storms 2003; Heterolithic-laminated sandstones and mudstones are characterized as
Clifton 2006; Charvin et al. 2010; Plint 2010). Tabular-cross-bedded millimeter to centimeter-scale upward-fining very thin bedsets and
sandstones are thought to be the product of large, slow-migrating dunes lamina-sets. Compound cross-bedded quartz wacke co-sets range in
that are not reformed or reworked between storm events, whilst smaller thickness from 2–4 cm to more than 0.6–1.5 m. Co-sets are erosionally
trough cross-bedded sandstones are migrating dunes that form during based and internally comprise several 1–4-cm-thick upward-fining
storm events (Walker and Plint 2010). SCS, wave-ripple-laminated, coarse- trough cross-bedded or ripple-laminated bedsets with foresets that are
grained ripple-bedded and planar-bedded sandstones may additionally be typically mudstone draped (Fig. 13B). Upper bedding planes of
present in distal reaches of USF paleoenvironments that receive more compound cross-bedded quartz wacke co-sets fine upwards into
intense oscillatory wave action (Leckie 1988; Duke et al. 1990; Walker and heterolithic-laminated sandstones and mudstones and may possess
Plint 1997; Hampson and Storms 2003; Clifton 2006; Dumas and Arnott mudstone-draped current-ripple or wave ripple-laminae (Fig. 13B).
2006; Cummings et al. 2009; Plint 2010). The ichnoassemblage of certain These ripple laminae are superimposed upon lee master foresets of
upper-plane-bedded quartz arenites in the Hex River Formation suggests mudstone-draped trough cross-bedded duneforms. Lee foresets of ripple
affinity towards the Cruziana ichnofacies as opposed to Skolithos laminae may dip either counter to, or in the same direction as dune
ichnofacies ichnotaxa expected in USF paleoenvironments or Psilonichnus master foresets. Domichnia of Diplocraterion isp. may be present in
ichnofacies as is expected in beach paleoenvironments. It is well compound cross-bedded quartz wackes, often oriented in the lee master
documented that ichnofacies and depositional environments are not always foreset direction of these beds. Rhythmically laminated quartz wacke co-
correlative, as ichnofacies reflect a complex interplay of environmental sets are 5–25 cm thick and internally comprise several 0.2–1-cm-thick
factors that influence organismal behavior (Buatois and Mangano 2011). upward-fining and mudstone-draped planar-laminated lamina-sets and
The rarity of ichnofossils in lithofacies association D is probably because bedsets (Fig. 13C). Upper bedding planes of rhythmically laminated
of high aggradation rates within the USF due to high wave and storm quartz wacke co-sets may be low-angle cross-laminated, or wave-ripple-,
activity. or current-ripple-laminated, again with mudstone drapes (Fig. 13D). As
Beach environments are located in the intertidal zone and comprise observed in compound cross-bedded quartz wacke co-sets, rhythmically
foreshore and backshore sub-environments (Johnson and Baldwin 1996; laminated quartz wacke co-sets fine upward into heterolithic-laminated
Reading and Collinson 1996; Walker and Plint 1997; Hampson and Storms sandstones and mudstones.
2003; Clifton 2006; Charvin et al. 2010; Plint 2010). The intertidal
foreshore is affected by surf and swash zone (swash and backwash) in Interpretation.—The repetition of mudstone drapes associated with
addition to tidal processes whilst the supratidal backshore is affected by dune and ripple forms in compound-cross-bedded quartz wackes and
eolian and by swash zone and tidal processes to a lesser extent (Johnson planar laminae in rhythmically laminated quartz wackes are formed by
and Baldwin 1996; Reading and Collinson 1996; Walker and Plint 1997; cyclical variation in flow velocity (Rubin 1987a, 1987b; Hunter and Rubin
Hampson and Storms 2003; Clifton 2006; Charvin et al. 2010; Plint 2010). 1983; Ashley 1990). In lithofacies association E these bedforms possibly
Deposits from these environments are manifested as upper-plane-laminated formed in response to variations in tidal (ebb and flood flow and slack
sandstones with low-angle dips (2–38) (Johnson and Baldwin 1996; water) conditions in tidal channels. This suggests that coarser sand-rich
Reading and Collinson 1996; Walker and Plint 1997; Hampson and Storms beds and laminae were deposited by traction and saltation under ebb and
2003; Clifton 2006; Charvin et al. 2010; Plint 2010). Thin-ripple flood conditions and that finer mud-rich drapes were deposited by
lamination in this environment is interpreted to have formed by winnowing suspension settling with waning current energy under slack-water
of sediment by wind action or with decaying flow energy. Fragmentary conditions (Allen 1980; Visser 1980; Dalrymple and Choi 2007; Bridge
plant-compression fossils and plant rhizoliths in the Hex River Formation and Demicco 2008; Davis 2012; Flemming 2012). In tidal channels,
FIG. 11.—Selected features associated with lithofacies association D of the Ceres Subgroup. A) Thick- to very thick-bedded trough-cross-bedded quartz arenite bedsets and
co-sets. Hex River Formation at Ou Werf. B) Interbedding between tabular-cross-bedded quartz arenites (PCS) and upper planar-laminated quartz arenites (PL). Hex River
Formation at Wupperthal. Jacob’s staff for scale ¼ 1.5 m. C) Wavy to planar, sharp and erosional contact relationship between amalgamated HCS quartz wackes of lithofacies
association C (Lf. C) and interbedded tabular- and trough-cross-bedded quartz arenites and upper planar-laminated quartz arenites of lithofacies association D (Lf. D). Hex
River Formation at Blinkberg. Jacob’s staff for scale ¼ 1.5 m. D) Interbedding between wave-ripple-laminated (WRL) quartz arenites and tabular-cross-bedded (PCS) quartz
arenites in the gradational contact between lithofacies associations C and D. Gamka Formation at Ou Werf. Scale ¼ 15.0 cm.

FIG. 12.—Ichnofossils associated with lithofacies association D of the Ceres Subgroup. A) Fodinichnion of Asterosoma isp. (Ast.). Hex River Formation at Oom Martiens
se Kloof. Scale ¼ 8.0 cm. B) Repichnion of Cochlichnus isp. (Co.). Hex River Formation at Oom Martiens se Kloof. Scale ¼ 8.0 cm. C) Fodinichnion of Asterosoma isp.
(Ast.), repichnion of Planolites isp. (Pl.) and domichnion and fodinichnion of Rosselia isp. (Ro.) and Zoophycos isp. (Zo.). Hex River Formation at Oom Martiens se Kloof.
Scale ¼ 8.0 cm. D) Detail of Zoophycos isp. (Zo.) domichnion and fodinichnion. Hex River Formation at Oom Martiens se Kloof. Scale ¼ 8.0 cm. E) Possible plant rhizoliths
(black arrows). Hex River Formation at Ou Werf. Scale ¼ 15.0 cm. F) Bedding-plane aspect of Part E showing multiple depressions (black arrows) atop rhizoliths where plants
are inferred to have been located in life. Hex River Formation at Ou Werf. Scale ¼ 15.0 cm.
erosionally based compound cross-bedded sandstone deposits are usually Rhythmically laminated quartz wackes are considered to be levee
interpreted to represent laterally accreted dunes (Allen 1980; Visser 1980; deposits associated with tidal channels owing to their resemblance to
Reading and Collinson 1996; Reinson 1997; Dalrymple and Choi 2007; element LV as described by Miall (2006) in fluvial depositional systems.
Bridge and Demicco 2008; Davis 2012; Flemming 2012). The bimodality of superimposed current-ripple foresets in compound


cross-bedded quartz wackes is interpreted to be a product of sediment casts (Fig. 16A). Plant thalli of single or branched axes may be oriented
transport under alternating ebb and flood conditions. Wave-ripple concordant or discordant to bedding. Suspected bifurcational mudstone-
lamination in certain compound cross-bedded and rhythmically laminated infilled rhizoliths are present in places in distinct bedsets and co-sets (Fig.
quartz wackes is interpreted to have formed in response to periodic 16B). Along the upper and lower bedding planes of certain quartz wacke
oscillatory wave action and reworking of dune deposits during slack-water bedsets and co-sets, casts and molds of autochthonous marine-associated
conditions or during the initiation of low-tide conditions (Bridge and spiriferid brachiopod communities are present (Fig. 16C). These fossils
Demicco 2008; Flemming 2012). Intercalated heterolithic-laminated have preserved internal brachidia and spiralia (Fig. 16D). Ichnofossils in
sandstones and mudstones in the lowermost portion of lithofacies quartz wackes are numerous and comprise penetrative and surface traces.
association E are rhythmical deposits of abandoned tide-channels and Penetrative ichnofossils are of sandstone-infilled domichnia and fodinich-
tidal flats. In tidal-flat environments, these deposits form in response to nia Gastrochaenolites isp. and Skolithos isp. and mudstone-infilled
alternating traction and suspension sedimentation conditions with cyclical domichnia and fodinichnia of Cylindrichnus isp. or Psilonichnus isp.
tidal ebb and flood (Reading and Collinson 1996; Dalrymple and Choi and Thalassinoides isp. (Fig. 16E–H). Surface ichnofossils are restricted to
2007; Bridge and Demicco 2008; Dalrymple 2010; Davis 2012; Flemming pascichnia and repichnia of Aulichnites isp., Palaeophycus isp., and
2012). Planolites isp.
The upper component of lithofacies association E represents deposits of
lagoonal environments that graded from a channelized tidal-flat environ- Interpretation.—Lithofacies association F is a transgressive beach-
ment. These essentially calm-water depositional environments are typified barrier paleoenvironment. In modern environments, beach-barrier
by suspension-deposited mudstones interbedded with sandstones associ- complexes are common geomorphological features that form in wave-
ated with washover fans or flood tidal deltas (Schwartz 1975; Heward dominated microtidal shorelines under transgressive or regressive
1981; Reading and Collinson 1996; Reinson 1997; Bridge and Demicco regimes (Heward 1981; Reading and Collinson 1996; Reinson 1997;
2008). Owing to the highly bioturbated (BI ¼ 4–6) and homogenized Boyd 2010). Beach-barrier complexes are commonly accompanied by
nature of this component of lithofacies association E, the presence of these back-barrier environments (estuaries, lagoons, tidal channels, tidal flats,
associated deposits is unknown. The expected calm-water condition in a
and marshes), sheltering them from wave reworking and modification
lagoon environment encouraged bioturbation, removing evidence for
(Heward 1981; Dalrymple et al. 1992; Reading and Collinson 1996;
washover deposits.
Reinson 1997; Dalrymple and Choi 2007; Boyd 2010; Flemming 2012).
Idealized beach-barrier complexes comprise shoreface (dLSF, pLSF,
Lithofacies Association F: Transgressive Beach-Barrier USF) and beach environments in addition to backshore eolian and
Paleoenvironment (tBB) washover-fan and sand-flat environments (Schwartz 1975; Heward 1981;
Description.—Lithofacies association F comprises lower massive to Reading and Collinson 1996; Reinson 1997; Boyd 2010). These deposits
intensely bioturbated (BI ¼ 5–6) poorly sorted and immature, silt- to very are typically preserved in progradational and regressive beach-barrier
fine sand-size quartz wackes that grade upwards into intensely bioturbated complexes (Schwartz 1975; Heward 1981; Reading and Collinson 1996;
(BI ¼ 4–6) silty sandstones. Lower massive to intensely bioturbated quartz Reinson 1997; Boyd 2010). Transgressive beach-barrier complexes
wackes are characteristically expressed as a prominent positive-relief- typically are highly modified by transgressive erosion and sediment
weathering and tabular single (Fig. 14A) or double sandstone (expressed as bypassing as they retrograde landward, usually over back-barrier
two upward-fining successions) (Fig. 14B, C) towards the upper two-thirds environments (Reinson 1997).
of the Tra-Tra Formation. This prominent sandstone thickens from ~ 30 m Retrogradation of beach-barrier complexes under transgression occurs
in the southern study sector to ~ 42 m in the northern study sector. Where either by in-place drowning or shoreface retreat (Rampino and Sanders
bioturbation has not completely homogenized these quartz wackes (Fig. 1980; Heward 1981; Nummedal and Swift 1987; Reading and Collinson
15A), sedimentary structures include wave- and thin-ripple lamination, 1996; Reinson 1997; Boyd 2010). The latter model is favored among
planar- to low-angle lamination or HCS (Fig. 15D, E). Partings among workers and accounts for what is observed in lithofacies association F. This
bedsets and co-sets are sharp and truncational with wavy to parallel model suggests that with transgression, storm-wave currents increasingly
geometries, often mantled with mudstone intraclast lags (Fig. 15C). Quartz encroach upon and intersect USF and beach environments of the beach-
wacke co-sets are 1.0–3.5 m thick and composed of numerous 0.1–0.3-m- barrier complex while fair-weather-wave currents intersect the top of the
thick bedsets. (Fig. 15B). Lower quartz wackes of lithofacies association F beach–barrier complex. Sediment is eroded from these environments and
sharply overlie upper heterolithic-laminated sandstones and mudstones of transported to lower shoreface and offshore environments as storm beds
lithofacies association E along a sharp and erosional contact with a planar and to the back-barrier as washover deposits. With continued transgression,
geometry. storm-wave base and fair-weather-wave base migrate into back-barrier
Lithofacies association F has body fossils and ichnofossils attributable environments, eroding, reworking, and transporting this sediment (along
to organisms from both marine and subaerial terrestrial environments. with the remainder of the beach-barrier complex) to the lower shoreface
These fossils and ichnofossils are restricted to lower massive to intensely and offshore as storm beds. As such, most, if not all, of the beach-barrier is
bioturbated quartz wackes of lithofacies association F. Terrestrial- reworked as lower-shoreface-type storm deposits that overlie older and
associated fossils comprise fragmentary plant thalli fossils preserved more proximal environments along a sharp time-transgressive wave
variably as carbonized compressions, impressions, and internal mudstone ravinement surface.
FIG. 13.—Selected features associated with lithofacies association E of the Ceres Subgroup. A) Outcrop expression showing numerous erosionally based quartz wacke
lenses in heterolithic laminated sandstones and mudstones. Tra-Tra Formation at Blinkberg. Jacob staff for scale ¼ 1.5 m. B) Detail of bedding relationships between
compound-cross-bedded quartz wackes (CCB) and heterolithic laminated sandstones and mudstones (HL). Note mudstone drapes in CCBs as well as sharp and erosional
lower bedding planes and gradational and upward-fining nature of upper bedding planes. Tra-Tra Formation at Blinkberg. Scale ¼ 15.0 cm. C) Detail of interlamination
between quartz wacke and mudstone in a rhythmically laminated quartz wacke. Tra-Tra Formation at Ou Werf. Scale ¼ 15.0 cm. D) Detail of upper planar-lamination (PL),
low-angle cross bedding (LCS), and wave-ripple-lamination (WR) that may be associated with rhythmically laminated quartz wackes. Tra-Tra Formation at Oom Martiens se
Kloof. Scale ¼ 8.0 cm.

JSR

PALEOENVIRONMENTAL HISTORY OF THE DEVONIAN CERES SUBGROUP OF SOUTH AFRICA
FIG. 14.—Characteristic habit of lower massive to intensely bioturbated quartz wackes of lithofacies association F in the upper two-thirds of the Tra-Tra Formation. A) Expression as a single laterally continuous
sandstone. Tra-Tra Formation at Oom Martiens se Kloof. B) Expression as a double laterally continuous sandstone. Tra-Tra Formation at Blinkberg. C) Detail of Part B showing expression of this sandstone as two upward-
fining successions. Abbreviations: BP, Boplaas Formation; HR, Hex River Formation; TT, Tra-Tra Formation; VH, Voorstehoek Formation; WBB, Waboomberg Formation; WUP, Wupperthal Formation.
1063

Where sedimentary structures are preserved in massive to intensely sandstones and mudstone. Where amalgamated and laterally extensive,
bioturbated quartz wackes of lithofacies association F, these are typically this is taken to be at the base of the Boplaas Formation. The contact
low-angle to HCS and wave-ripple-lamination. These sedimentary between lithofacies association F and G is conformable and gradational and
structures are suggestive of a lower shoreface, storm-wave origin as would is marked by an increase in heterolithic lamination and the appearance of
be expected to be preserved in transgressive beach-barriers that form by intercalating channel-fill and laminated quartz wacke lenses. Channel-fill
shoreface retreat. This further suggests that the lowermost sharp contact of co-sets range in thickness from 0.15 to 0.9 m, rarely thickening to 1.0 m,
lithofacies association F is the wave ravinement surface that truncated and with widths of 1.5 m to in excess of 10.0 m. Internally channel-fill co-sets
possibly partially reworked back-barrier deposits of lithofacies association comprise lower tabular- to trough-cross-stratified bedsets that grade
E as well as the beach–barrier complex as a laterally continuous lower- upward into upper planar-laminated and ripple-laminated bedsets or
shoreface-type deposit by shoreface retreat. lamina-sets (Fig. 17B). Upper ripple lamination may variably be thin-
The bulk ichnoassemblage of these quartz wackes comprises ichnotaxa ripple, wave-ripple, or current-ripple-laminated. In certain exposures,
typically associated with a mixed Skolithos–Cruziana ichnofacies. This laminated quartz wacke co-sets are adjacent to channel-fill quartz wacke
ichnofacies is associated with high-energy conditions in the pLSF and USF co-sets where they grade laterally from upper planar-laminated or trough-
in storm- and wave-dominated shallow marine settings (Pemberton et al. cross-stratified bedsets (Fig. 17C). This association of both channel-fill and
1997; Miller 2007; Seilacher 2007; MacEachern et al. 2010; Buatois and laminated quartz wacke co-sets give both lithofacies a winged, ‘‘ribbon-
Mangano 2011). Intense bioturbation in these quartz wackes is considered form’’ geometry in outcrop. Both channel-fill and laminated quartz wackes
to be a result of delivery of nutrient-rich sediment from the beach-barrier to fine upward into heterolithic-laminated sandstones and mudstones. No
the lower shoreface. Preservation of autochthonous spiriferid communities body fossils or ichnofossils are present in lithofacies association G.
lends further support for a lower-shoreface interpretation for lower quartz
wackes of lithofacies association F. Their preservation as intact Interpretation.—We interpret lithofacies association G to represent the
communities with fine-detail preservation suggests sudden burial and high deposits of a prodelta paleoenvironment that grades upwards into a distal
accumulation rates by these quartz wacke deposits. Rare occurrences of delta front (dDF). Both prodelta and dDF paleoenvironments are
Gastrochaenolites isp.-rich horizons in quartz wackes of lithofacies subaqueous, but their morphology is influenced by the relative interplay
association F probably represent remnant preservation of the original of a continuum of basinal (tide, wave, and storm) processes (Reading and
beach-barrier complex that were buried during transgression. This Collinson 1996; Bhattacharya and Walker 1997; Bhattacharya and Giosan
ichnotaxon is usually associated with semiconsolidated, compacted, or 2003; Bhattacharya 2006, 2010). Heterolithic-laminated sandstones and
dewatered firmgrounds or hardgrounds of beachrock and reefs (Pemberton mudstones are interpreted to represent prodelta deposits. These deposits
et al. 1997; Miller 2007; Seilacher 2007; MacEachern et al. 2010; Buatois show similarity to those expected in river-dominated prodelta environ-
and Mangano 2011). These deposits can be interpreted to represent ments where alternating sandstone and mudstone laminae are thought to
depositional hiatuses or periods of sediment starvation in protected back- represent changes in flow energy and sediment supply at river mouths with
barrier environments (Pemberton et al. 1997; Miller 2007; Seilacher 2007; periodic changes in river discharge (Bhattacharya and Walker 1997; Olariu
MacEachern et al. 2010; Buatois and Mangano 2011). et al. 2005; Bhattacharya 2006; Olariu and Bhattacharya 2006;
The occurrence of both plant-rhizolith horizons and the en masse Bhattacharya 2010). Non-amalgamated channel-fill quartz wackes are
concentration of plant fossils in lower quartz wackes of lithofacies interpreted to be terminal subaqueous distributary channels in the delta
association F probably represent the remnants of relict marsh plant front, whilst their laterally equivalent laminated quartz wackes have been
communities in the back-barrier that were not transgressively reworked as interpreted to be subaqueous levees (Bhattacharya and Walker 1997;
lower-shoreface-type deposits with retrogradation. The exact paleoenvi- Olariu et al. 2005; Bhattacharya 2006, 2010; Olariu and Bhattacharya
ronmental genesis of upper intensely bioturbated silty sandstones in 2006). Intercalated heterolithic-laminated sandstones and mudstones,
lithofacies association F is unknown due to lack of internal sedimentary therefore represent subaqueous overbank deposits from these distributary
structures but is inferred to be representative of either OTZ or Os channels. Amalgamation of quartz wackes in lithofacies association G is
paleoenvironments expected with transgression. considered indicative of overall regression and upward shoaling with
progradation of the delta front. The presence of wave-ripple lamination on
Lithofacies Association G: Prodelta to Distal Delta Front (Prodelta- the top bedding planes of channel-fill and laminated quartz wackes is
dDF) interpreted to represent some degree of wave influence on sedimentation in
the delta front paleoenvironment.
Description.—Lithofacies association G comprises lower laterally
extensive heterolithic-laminated sandstones and mudstones that become Lithofacies Association H: Proximal Delta Front (pDF)
sharply intercalated by erosionally based, non-amalgamated, poorly sorted
and immature silt- to very fine-grained sand channel-fill and laminated Description.—Lithofacies association H comprises sharply interbedded
quartz wacke lenses (Fig. 17A). Towards the top of the succession, moderately well-sorted and submature fine- to medium-grained tabular-
channel-fill and laminated quartz wacke lenses become increasingly and trough-cross-bedded quartz arenites and planar-bedded quartz arenites
amalgamated. This is coincident with coarsening grain size to very fine- to (Fig. 18A–C). These quartz arenites both grade upward into and sharply
fine-grained sand and decrease in intercalated heterolithic-laminated intercalate with heterolithic-laminated sandstones and mudstones that form
FIG. 15.—Selected features associated with lower quartz wackes of lithofacies association F of the Ceres Subgroup. A) Characteristic intensely bioturbated nature of quartz
wackes that has homogenized most primary bedding. Tra-Tra Formation at Blinkberg. Scale ¼ 15.0 cm. B) Sharp and truncational bounding surfaces among intensely
bioturbated quartz wacke co-sets. Tra-Tra Formation at Oom Martiens se Kloof. Scale ¼ 1.0 m. C) Detail of mudstone–intraclast–conglomerate lag at the lower bounding
surface of an intensely bioturbated quartz wacke co-set. Tra-Tra Formation at Oom Martiens se Kloof. Scale ¼ 8.0 cm. D) Outcrop exposure of rarely preserved low-angle
cross stratification to planar lamination and wave-ripple lamination in a quartz wacke co-set. Tra-Tra Formation at Oom Martiens se Kloof. Scale ¼ 8.0 cm. E) Interpretive
sketch of Part D highlighting low-angle cross stratification (LCS), planar lamination (PL), and wave-ripple lamination (WRL). Attention is to be drawn towards the similarity
of LCS as HCS.


prominent partings among bedsets and co-sets (Fig. 18D). Heterolithic- Bhattacharya 2006, 2010; Olariu and Bhattacharya 2006; Schomacker et
laminated sandstone and mudstone co-sets among quartz arenites are al. 2010). Schomacker et al. (2010) alludes to the ‘‘ribbon-like’’
discontinuous and are 0.1–1.0 m thick. Although quartz arenites of geometry of distributary-mouth-bar sandstones in delta-front environ-
lithofacies association H are superficially similar to those of lithofacies ments, similar to what is observed in lithofacies association H in this
association D, these differ in that they are associated as channel fill. The study. Heterolithic-laminated sandstones and mudstones in lithofacies
contact between lithofacies association H and the underlying lithofacies association H are interpreted to be overbank deposits or channel-fill
association G is conformable, sharp, and erosional with a wavy to planar features associated with distributary channels in the pDF. The presence
geometry. Heterolithic-laminated sandstones and mudstones characteristi- of numerous fragmentary coalified plant fossils suggests a nearby source
cally are dark gray to black in color and typically they are wavy to area of vegetation, most likely from a more proximal delta-plain
lenticular laminated, comprising numerous alternating upward-fining environment to the north of the field study area.
millimeter to centimeter-scale lamina-sets of lower sharp-based silt- to
fine-grained sandstone and upper mudstone. These beds often grade DISCUSSION
laterally into inclined heterolithic-laminated equivalents, especially in
inferred channel thalwegs (Fig. 18A, B). Tabular- and trough-cross-bedded Depositional Systems of the Ceres Subgroup
quartz arenites manifest as distinct erosionally based, thick to very thick-
A variety of paleoenvironments from both marginal and shallow-marine
bedded, 1.0–2.0 m thick, laterally continuous co-sets with bar-form
settings has been observed in the Ceres Subgroup. These paleoenviron-
geometries (Fig. 18A, B). Tabular-cross-bedded quartz arenite co-sets
ments record the evolution from storm- and wave-dominated shallow-
comprise numerous erosionally-based 0.5–1.0 m thick bedsets, while
marine depositional systems (lithofacies associations A–D: Gydo–Gamka
trough-cross-bedded quartz arenite bedsets are slightly thinner, ranging in
and Voorstehoek–Hex River intervals), to a transgressive barrier-island–
thickness from 0.2 to 0.9 m. Planar-bedded quartz arenite bedsets are
lagoon depositional system (lithofacies E and F: lower to middle Tra-Tra
erosionally based, range in thickness from 0.1 to 0.5 m, and comprise
Formation), and finally to a wave-influenced deltaic depositional system
numerous upward-fining beds. Upper bedding planes of planar-bedded and
(lithofacies G and H: upper Tra-Tra–Boplaas interval) (Fig. 4). The
tabular- and trough-cross-bedded quartz arenite bedsets may be thinly
findings of this study provide an alternative explanation for sedimentation
rippled in places (Fig. 18C). Similar to what has been observed for the
in the Bokkeveld Group with respect to existing storm- and wave-
geometry of channel-fill features in lithofacies association G, planar-
dominated deltaic and mixed wave- and tide-dominated deltaic deposi-
bedded quartz arenites grade laterally from tabular- and trough-cross-
tional models proposed by Csaky (1969), Csaky et al. (1969), Theron
bedded quartz arenites. This association of lithofacies has a winged or (1970, 1972), Johnson (1976), Tankard and Barwis (1982), and Theron and
‘‘dish-like’’ appearance in outcrop that consecutively stack together within Loock (1988).
well-defined channels that are tens of meters thick and laterally continuous
in outcrop (Fig. 18E).
Sequence Stratigraphy of the Ceres Subgroup
Fragmentary coalified plant-body and compression fossils are common
throughout lithofacies association H, increasing in relative abundance Vertical relationships among lithofacies associations has allowed for
towards the northern study sector (Fig. 18F). Ichnofossils are rare and are the delineation of sequence stratigraphic surfaces (NRS, within trend
restricted to domichnia of Diplocraterion isp. and Skolithos isp. normal regressive surface; TS, within trend transgressive surface;
RSME, regressive surface of marine erosion; cc, correlative conformi-
Interpretation.—Lithofacies association H is interpreted to be sandy ty; SU, subaerial unconformity; MRS, maximum regressive surface;
bedform elements (Element SB), sensu Miall (2006). Element SB is MFS, maximum flooding surface and TRS; transgressive ravinement
characterized by vertically aggraded and interbedded trough- and surface) that compartmentalize depositional systems into systems tracts
tabular-cross-bedded dunes, planar-bedded beds, washed-out and (LST, lowstand systems tract; TST, transgressive systems tract; HST,
humpback dunes, and ripple marks (Miall 2006). These deposits, highstand systems tract; FSST, falling stage systems tract; RST,
furthermore, cannot be conclusively diagnosed as either laterally or regressive systems tract) and form the basis for subdivision of the
downstream-accreted elements (Miall 2006). In the field study area, Ceres Subgroup into sequences (Figs. 4, 19). This has been used to
lithofacies association H has been interpreted to represent delta channel make inferences on depositional trends and fluctuations in shoreline
deposits presented as distributary-mouth-bar deposits in a proximal- shifts. This study uses the model-independent method of Catuneanu et
delta-front (pDF) paleoenvironment. Lithofacies association H is equated al. (2011) to describe the succession as a series of second-, third- and
as a proximal equivalent of terminal mouth bars from lithofacies fourth-order transgressive–regressive sequences because MRSs are the
association G owing to an increase in grain size, sorting, and most reliably traced sequence stratigraphic surfaces in the field study
aggradation. Owing to the lack of wave-, storm-, and tide-associated area (Fig. 19).
depositional features, this pDF environment is considered to have Second-order T-R sequences involve the largest fluctuations in shoreline
accumulated in a river-dominated deltaic depositional system. In these shifts and are characterized as sharp changes in lithology and
settings, distributary-mouth-bar deposits in river-dominated pDF envi- paleoenvironment. These shifts in lithology and paleoenvironment are
ronments are typified as comprising current-ripple-laminated, cross- often apparently unconformable across the sequence boundary. Second-
bedded, and planar-laminated sandstones that may be accompanied by order sequence boundaries, in this study, are expressed as composite MRS-
turbidite deposits (Bhattacharya and Walker 1997; Olariu et al. 2005; TRS sequence stratigraphic surfaces above which TST deposits occur. Two
FIG. 16.—Body fossils and ichnofossils associated with lower quartz wackes of lithofacies association F of the Ceres Subgroup. A) Internal cast of a bifurcating plant
thallus fragment. Tra-Tra Formation at Grootberg. Scale ¼ 15.0 cm. B) Possible plant rhizoliths. Tra-Tra Formation at Grootberg. Scale ¼ 15.0 cm. C) Numerous brachiopod
pedicle-valve molds, clustered together within an interpreted community. Tra-Tra Formation at Grootberg. Scale ¼ 15.0 cm. D) Detailed preservation of internal anatomical
features of a brachiopod brachial valve. Tra-Tra Formation at Grootberg. Scale in cm. Abbreviations: BV, Brachial valve; Br., Brachidium; Sp., Spiralia. E) Domichnia of
Skolithos isp. (Sk.). Tra-Tra Formation at Grootberg. Scale in cm. F) Possible domichnia of Psilonichnus isp. (Ps.) or Cylindrichnus isp (Cy.). Tra-Tra Formation at Ou Werf.
Scale in cm. G) Domichnia and fodichnia of Gastrochaenolites isp. (Ga.). Tra-Tra Formation at Oom Martiens se Kloof. Scale ¼ 8.0 cm. H) Domichnia and fodichnia of
Thalassinoides isp. (Th.). Tra-Tra Formation at Grootberg. Scale ¼ 15.0 cm.

FIG. 17.—Selected features associated with lithofacies association G of the Ceres Subgroup. A) Typical outcrop expression of lithofacies association H showing upward
amalgamation of non-amalgamated channel-fill (CH) and laminated sand (LS) quartz wackes between the Tra-Tra and Boplaas formations. Attention is to be drawn towards
the upward decrease in heterolithic laminated sandstone and mudstone (HL) at this contact. Tra-Tra–Boplaas Formation contact at Wupperthal. Jacob’s staff for scale ¼ 1.5 m.
B) Detail of a non-amalgamated channel-fill quartz wacke lens. Tra-Tra Formation at Wupperthal. Scale ¼ 15.0 cm. C) Detail of a non-amalgamated laminated sand quartz
wacke lenses. Tra-Tra Formation at Wupperthal. Jacob’s staff for scale ¼ 1.5 m.

FIG. 18.—Selected features associated with lithofacies association H of the Ceres Subgroup. A) Oblique, down depositional-dip-profile of numerous stacked tabular- (PCS)
and trough- (TCS) cross-stratified quartz arenite bedsets and co-sets associated as channel-fill or sandy bedforms sensu Miall (2006). Note sharp interbedded nature with
heterolithic-laminated (HL) and inclined heterolithic-laminated (IHL) sandstones and mudstones. Boplaas Formation at Ou Werf. Jacob’s staff for scale ¼ 1.5 m. B) Exposure
showing numerous channel-form interbedded tabular- (PCS) and trough- (TCS) cross-stratified quartz arenite bedsets and co-sets arranged as channel-fill or sandy bedforms
sensu Miall (2006). Boplaas Formation at Ou Werf. Jacob’s staff for scale ¼ 1.5 m. C) Detail showing a lateral profile of a tabular-cross-bedded quartz arenite bedset (PCS)
with upper thin-ripple lamination (TRL). Boplaas Formation at Ou Werf. Scale ¼ 15.0 cm. D) Detail of heterolithic laminated sandstones and mudstones associated with
channel-fill quartz arenites in lithofacies association H. Boplaas Formation at Wupperthal. Scale ¼ 15.0 cm. E) Typical outcrop expression of lithofacies association H as a
series of amalgamated cross-bedded and planar-bedded bedforms associated as channel-fill. Boplaas Formation near Nieweplaas. Person for scale ¼ 1.6 m. F) Coalified plant
fossils present in quartz arenites of lithofacies association H. Boplaas Formation at Wupperthal. Scale ¼ 15.0 cm.
second-order T-R sequences are recognized in the Ceres Subgroup (A and T-R Sequence A
B) (Fig. 19). Third-order T-R sequences describe fluctuations within
T-R sequence A comprises the Gydo–Gamka and Voorstehoek–Hex
second-order T-R sequences. These sequences are bounded by third-order
River intervals as well as the uppermost argillaceous interval representative
T-R sequence boundaries, which may be shared with second-order MRSs.
of OTZ-dLSF deposits of the Rietvlei Formation that precede Os deposits
Three third-order T-R sequences are recognized within the Ceres Subgroup
of the Gydo Formation. The lower MRS-TRS surface of T-R sequence A is
(A 1, A 2, and B 1) (Fig. 19). These T-R sequences culminate at or near the
defined as a bedding plane in the Rietvlei Formation separating lower RST
tops of the Gamka, Hex River, and Boplaas formations. Fourth-order T-R USF-beach deposits from upper OTZ-dLSF deposits (Fig. 19). These OTZ-
sequences are the smallest observed depositional trends recording dLSF deposits grade upwards into Os deposits of the Gydo Formation and
shoreline shifts within third-order T-R sequences and are bounded by are considered to represent the TST of T-R sequence A 1 (Fig. 19). The
fourth-order MRSs; again these may be shared with second- and third- upper MRS-TRS surface of T-R sequence A is defined as the surface
order MRS-TRS and MRS sequence boundaries. Three fourth-order T-R separating RST USF-beach deposits of T-R sequence A 2 of the Hex River
sequences are observed in T-R sequence A 2, namely T-R sequence A 2.1, Formation from cTF-lagoon deposits of T-R sequence B 1 of the Tra-Tra
A 2.2, and A 2.3 (Fig. 19). Formation.

FIG. 19.—Sequence stratigraphy of the Ceres Subgroup in the Clanwilliam Sub-basin with second-, third- and, fourth-order T-R curves inferred from paleoenvironmental
shifts and stacking patterns relative to lithostratigraphy and chronostratigraphy.
The MRS separating T-R sequence A 1 and A 2 is drawn at the MRS at thought that with future work these T-R cycles may be found. NRS and TS
the top of a particular succession of upward-coarsening quartz arenite beds cyclicity is, however, present within this FSST.
in the upper Gamka Formation that is thought to represent sedimentation T-R sequence A 2 comprises three fourth-order T-R cycles that explain
during LST conditions (Figs. 4, 19). The LST is interpreted to comprise an depositional trends in the uppermost Gamka, Voorstehoek, and Hex River
upward-coarsening succession of wave-ripple-laminated quartz arenites formations (Fig. 19). T-R sequence A 2.1 is characterized as having a TST
representative of OTZ-dLSF and pLSF paleoenvironments that may be comprising pLSF deposits that retrograde upwards into OTZ-dLSF and
interbedded with NRS quartz arenite USF-beach deposits in the northern finally into Os deposits. The RST of T-R sequence 2.1 is expressed as non-
study sector (Fig. 4). These deposits directly overlie a SCS quartz arenite in amalgamated HCS quartz wackes and silty sandstones (interpreted to be
the Gamka Formation at a surface that is associated with sandstone OTZ-dLSF deposits) in the southern and central study sectors, whilst in the
intrabreccias, mudstone intraclasts, and meandering and rill erosion marks northern study sector it is represented by amalgamated HCS quartz wackes
(Figs. 7D, 10). Owing to the extensive nature of this particular bed, and the that are interpreted to be associated with pLSF paleoenvironments. T-R
sequence A 2.2 is located in the middle Voorstehoek Formation. In the
artifacts of prolonged erosion associated with it, it is thought to be
southern and central study sectors, the TST of this sequence is manifested
representative of a cc in the basin associated with a SU in the proximal
as OTZ-dLSF deposits that grade upward into Os deposits. In the northern
extent of the basin.
study sector, OTZ-dLSF deposits are absent and the TST of T-R sequence
The upper contact of the first amalgamated HCS and SCS quartz wacke
A 2.2 is represented by Os deposits only. The RST of T-R sequence A 2.2
beds of the Gamka Formation is variable (Fig. 4). In the southern study
differs as well across the study area. In the southern and central study
sector, they are sharply overlain by amalgamated wave-ripple-laminated sectors it is manifested as OTZ-dLSF deposits; however, in the northern
quartz arenites (interpreted to be associated with pLSF deposits) whereas study sector it is a pLSF deposit. T-R sequence A 2.3 is uniform across the
in the central and northern study sectors, similar lithofacies are sharply field study area. The TST of this sequence is manifested as a OTZ-dLSF
overlain by tabular- and trough-cross-bedded quartz arenites and upper deposit that grades upward into OS deposits. The RST comprises OTZ-
planar-bedded quartz arenites (interpreted to be USF-beach deposits). This dLSF deposits that grade upward into pLSF and USF-beach deposits. The
contact is interpreted to be a RSME and marks the lower boundary of the RST of T-R sequence A 2.3 has tentatively been subdivided into a lower
FSST of T-R sequence A 1. The increased frequency of more USF-beach HST and upper FSST on the basis of features observed in USF-beach
deposits in the central and northern study sectors suggests that the Gydo– deposits of the Hex River Formation. With reference to the Hex River
Gamka interval shallowed towards the north of the Clanwilliam Sub-basin. Formation in the central study sector (Fig. 4B), plant rootlets have been
No fourth-order T-R cyclicity is detectable in T-R sequence A 1; it is observed in upper planar-laminated quartz arenites towards the base of

USF-beach deposits. This is interpreted to possibly represent sedimentation deltas (Van Wagoner et al. 1990; Zaitlin et al. 1994; Boyd et al. 2006;
during backshore beach conditions. This suggests that these deposits Dalrymple 2006).
accumulated during forced regressive FSST conditions in as much as these In the Ceres Subgroup, FSST USF-beach deposits of the Hex River
beach deposits sharply overlie pLSF deposits. The surface separating these Formation (T-R sequence A) can be reasoned to represent sediment bypass
deposits is interpreted to be the RSME. Lateral facies changes in this to the shoreline during the early valley-incision phase of the incised-valley
quartz-arenite stratigraphic succession are interpreted to represent NRS system. cTF-lagoon and tBB deposits of the lower to middle Tra-Tra
and TS conditions during this forced-regressive phase. These deposits are Formation are interpreted to be representative of sedimentation under TST
composed variably of foreshore, backshore, and upper shoreface quartz conditions during the transgressive phase of T-R sequence B. The MRS-
arenites. The HST of T-R sequence A 2.3 thus is interpreted to be deposits TRS composite surface separating T-R sequence A and B is therefore
of the OTZ-dLSF and pLSF that accumulated under normal regressive equivalent with the predicted SU-FS surface in incised-valley-fill systems.
conditions. LST deposits that should overlie FSST deposits of T-R Transgression, or the subaerial unconformity that preceded it, is thought to
sequence A 2 (and A 2.3) are noticeably absent in the Hex River have removed LST deposits (and perhaps some FSST deposits) that would
Formation. These deposits are interpreted to have been transgressively have been present at the top of the Hex River Formation. dDF-prodelta and
eroded with initiation of T-R sequence B. pDF deposits of the upper Tra-Tra–Boplaas interval accumulated during
the subsequent regressive phase of T-R sequence B. These deposits are
T-R Sequence B interpreted to be the manifestation of a progradational inner-estuary bay-
head delta. Under this assumption, the tBB can be interpreted to be have
T-R sequence B comprises all deposits that accumulated in the Tra-Tra accumulated in the outer estuary of a wave-dominated estuarine
and Boplaas formations (Figs. 4, 19). The lower MRS-TRS surface of T-R depositional system and formed under the transgressive phase of T-R
sequence B is defined as the bedding plane separating lower RST USF- sequence B. Retrogradation of the tBB is thus interpreted to have either
beach deposits of the Hex River Formation from TST cTF-lagoon and tBB removed the middle and inner estuarine environments and/or that these
deposits from the lower to middle Tra-Tra Formation. dDF-prodelta and environments may be present north of the field study area.
pDF deposits from the upper Tra-Tra-Boplaas interval is interpreted to
have accumulated under RST conditions. The upper MRS-TRS surface of Towards a Relative Sea-Level Curve for the Emsian–Eifelian of South
T-R sequence B is defined as the bedding plane separating RST pDF Africa
deposits of the Boplaas Formation from TST OTZ-dLSF deposits of the
The magnitude and cyclicity of second-, third-, and fourth-order T-R
Waboomberg Formation (see Penn-Clarke 2017). No smaller third- and
sequences and paleoenvironmental shifts recorded in the rocks of the Ceres
fourth-order cyclicity has been observed in T-R sequence B.
Subgroup permit for inferences to be made about relative sea-level change
The stratigraphic ordering of cTF-lagoon, tBB, dDF-prodelta and pDF
in the Clanwilliam Sub-basin during the Emsian–Eifelian. T-R sequences
deposits as a complete T-R cycle in T-R sequence B overlying FSST
record shifts in paleoenvironment at the shoreline that largely may equate
deposits of T-R sequence A is interpreted to have accumulated in a coastal-
to relative base-level trends and are offset from relative sea-level trends for
plain incised-valley-fill system (Fig. 20). Sedimentation in incised-valley-
the duration of normal regressions during LST and HST (Catuneanu 2002,
fill systems typically occur in two phases in an erosional topographic
2006; Catuneanu et al. 2009, 2011; Embry 2009). In the Ceres Subgroup
feature, such as a valley (Van Wagoner et al. 1990; Zaitlin et al. 1994; Boyd
the largest shifts in shoreline, thus the largest relative base-level
et al. 2006; Dalrymple 2006). The earliest phase occurs under forced transgressions and regressions, are recorded by second-order T-R
regression (FSST conditions) and involves fluvial incision and formation sequences. With reference to the constructed second-order curve (Fig.
of a valley as well as sediment bypass to the shoreline (Van Wagoner et al. 19), this suggests that the largest transgressive events and periods of
1990; Zaitlin et al. 1994; Boyd et al. 2006; Dalrymple 2006). Typically the extreme relative base-level rise are associated with the MFS in T-R
surface that demarcates the base of the incised valley is manifested as a sequences A and B and thus culminate in the Gydo and Tra-Tra
subaerial unconformity (SU) in the proximal extent of a basin and as a formations. These transgressions are interesting in that they are manifested
correlative conformity (cc) in the distal reaches of a basin. Late-stage either as Os (Gydo) or tBB (Tra-Tra) paleoenvironments. The third-order
sedimentation occurs under rising base-level (LST-TST conditions) in the T-R curve suggests that three smaller transgressive events occurred in the
valley followed by regression (RST conditions) (Van Wagoner et al. 1990; Clanwilliam Sub-basin (Fig. 19). The largest of these culminate in MFSs in
Zaitlin et al. 1994; Boyd et al. 2006; Dalrymple 2006). The sedimentary the Gydo (T-R sequence A 1) and Tra-Tra formations and are shared with
fill in this late stage generally occurs atop the SU/cc and is manifested as the T-R sequences A and B. T-R sequences A 1 and A 2 are similar in that
an abrupt shift in sedimentary environments, generally as more distal their MFS and TST are manifested in Os paleoenvironments (Figs. 4, 19).
depositional environments atop more proximal environments (Van T-R sequences A 1 and A 2, however, differ in that TST Os
Wagoner et al. 1990; Zaitlin et al. 1994; Boyd et al. 2006; Dalrymple paleoenvironments in T-R sequence A 1 comprise clayshales, whereas in
2006). The SU/cc thus represents a flooding surface (FS) and is more T-R sequence A 2 the TST Os paleoenvironments are represented by
correctly referred to as a composite SU-FS surface. Typically estuarine slightly coarser-grained lithofacies and comprise siltshales (Fig. 4). The Os
depositional environments typify this later sedimentation phase in incised- paleoenvironment T-R sequence A 2 is therefore interpreted to be more
valley-fill systems (Van Wagoner et al. 1990; Zaitlin et al. 1994; Boyd et al. proximal than that of T-R sequence A 1. The MFS of T-R sequence A 2 is
2006; Dalrymple 2006). In the proximal regions of the incised-valley, inner thus interpreted to have manifested under shallower water conditions than
estuarine and tidally modified braided-stream and fluvial environments that of T-R sequence A 1. Fourth-order T-R sequences suggest that MFS
may be present, in addition to coastal plains. Distal regions of incised that occurred at peak transgression associated with T-R sequences A 2.1
valleys may additionally be occupied by beaches, tidal-flats, and lowstand and A 2.2 were of smaller magnitude than that of A 2.3, as these culminate
!
FIG. 20.—Model of coastal-plain incised-valley-fill systems explaining sedimentation in the A, B) Hex River, C) lower to middle Tra-Tra, and D) upper Tra-Tra to Boplaas
formations. Abbreviations: FSST, Falling-stage systems tract; LST, Lowstand systems tract; TST, Transgressive systems tract; HST, Highstand systems tract; RST, Regressive
systems tract.


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the African Origins Platform (DST-NRF AOP), the Centre of Excellence in
CATUNEANU, O., 2002, Sequence stratigraphy of clastic systems: concepts, merits and
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High-Paleolatitude Environmental Change During the Early To Middle

Article in Journal Of Sedimentary Research · September 2018

Cameron Penn-Clarke Bruce S Rubidge

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HIGH-PALEOLATITUDE ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE DURING THE EARLY TO MIDDLE DEVONIAN:

CAMERON R. PENN-CLARKE,1,2 BRUCE S. RUBIDGE,1,2 AND ZUBAIR A. JINNAH2

Published Online: September 2018

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STUDY AREA AND METHODS Lithofacies Association A: Offshore Paleoenvironment (Os)

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TABLE 1.—Characteristics of lithofacies associations A–D of the Ceres Subgroup.

Lithofacies Lithology and Sedimentary Paleontology

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Lithofacies Vertical and Lateral Paleoenvironmental

A Laterally continuous in outcrop. Claystones and siltstones: Offshore (Os)

B Laterally continuous in outcrop. Heterolithic-laminated sandstone and mudstones: Offshore transition

D Laterally continuous in outcrop. Cross-bedded quartz arenites: Upper shoreface–beach

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TABLE 2.—Characteristics of lithofacies associations E–H of the Ceres Subgroup.

Lithofacies Lithology and Sedimentary Paleontology

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Lithofacies Vertical and Lateral Paleoenvironmental

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by Univ of the Witwatersrand Technical Services user

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