Assignment No.1-Tr Soils

Arba Minch University
School of Graduate Studies [Institute of Technology]

Civil Engineering Department
PG2-Summer in Geot.Engg
Assignment No.1
Date of submission-1-08-2017
Q.1. what is a mineral? Define. Also write, at least, eight or more such
physical properties of a mineral which may help to identify it.
Q. 2. Select any six rocks from each of Igneous, sedimentary and

metamorphic rocks.
Describe their main characteristics which may help you to identify it
practically. Write
prime mineral or minerals for each of the rock selected, with their chemical
composition
and crystalline structure. Give some description of each mineral. Use
figures where ever necessary.
3. What are the basic structural units of clay minerals and how these
combine to form various clay minerals? Describe giving their charges.
4. Describe the following clay minerals giving their structure, specific

surface, cation exchange capacity and chemical composition: Kaolinite,
Illite, [Na, K,,Mg] Montmorillonites, Gibbsite, Holloysite, Pyrophyllite, mica,
Hydroxy-Interlayered, Vermiculite and Semectite, Chlorite,
Palygorskite,Zeolite, Allophane.
Note- You must carefully notice the combination of basic units to form
various clay minerals.
5. What is Base Exchange capacity and CEC? Define with their units.
Describe how these affect the clay properties. Give examples.
6. Write the various bonding forces acting on a clay particle? Describe with
neat
sketches
7. What is the roll of clay- structure in their behavior? Describe in details.
8. Describe separately the various modern techniques for identifying the

clay
minerals. Draw neat sketches where ever necessary to make your answer
clear and
understandable.
9. What are the factors which are responsible for the formation of lateritic
soils in tropical zones only?
10. List the various factors which affect the swelling pressure in expansive
soils. Also describe fully how each of them takes place.
11. How will you estimate the lateral pressure behind a retaining wall if
expansive soil is used as a backfill material?
Q.1 . what is a mineral? Define. Also write, at least, eight or
more such physical properties of a mineral which may help to identify it.
What is a mineral?
What is a mineral? These are the characteristics of minerals followed by a brief explanation of
each characteristic. Remember minerals have a different definition than rocks. (see What Is a
Rock)
A mineral:
 Is naturally occurring
 Is a solid (at room temperature)
 Is inorganic (mostly)
 Has a fixed chemical formula
 Has an orderly crystalline structure
Let’s look at these one at a time.
Naturally Occurring
To be considered a mineral it must have
been formed by natural geologic processes. Laboratory created gems (synthetic diamonds,
rubies, etc.) don’t count.
A Solid
By definition, minerals are solid within the normal temperature ranges of the earth’s surface.
Inorganic
Generally, a mineral is a naturally occurring solid with a crystalline structure.
This is where it gets a little tricky.
Halite or table salt is a mineral. Sugar is a crystalline solid but comes from plants, sugar cane or
sugar beets. This classifies it as an organic compound and so is not a mineral. Coal on the other
hand also comes from plants (organic) and is generally considered a mineral.
There are also marine animals that make their shells from calcite (calcium carbonate). Calcite is
a mineral but since it is secreted by animals to form shells it is inorganic. Geologists generally
consider this inorganic calcite a mineral.
What is a mineral? It has a fixed chemical formula

Each mineral has a particular chemical make up. While most minerals are compounds of two or
more elements, some minerals are made up of a single element. Gold, silver and copper are
called native elements and occur in nature in relatively pure form.
The vast majority of minerals are compounds or mixtures of elements. These mixtures are
consistent. For halite, the chemical formula is NaCl or sodium chloride. Each sodium atom is
combined with one chlorine atom. The formula for Quartz is SiO2, silicon oxide. For every atom
of silicone, there are two atoms of oxygen.
There are about 4000 known minerals on earth. Each one is a unique substance with its own
chemical formula. Most of these are very rare.
That narrows down the field quite a bit.
There are only eight groups of minerals that are common. They are:
 Native Elements
 Sulfides
 Oxides
 Carbonates
 phosphates
 Sulfates
 Halides
 Silicates
What is a mineral? It Has an orderly crystalline structure

Minerals have an orderly crystalline structure. This means that the atoms or ions that make up a
mineral are arranged in an orderly and repetitive manner.
The Physical properties of minerals are used by Mineralogists to help determine the identity of
a specimen. Some of the tests can be performed easily in the field, while others require
laboratory equipment. For the beginning student of geology, there are a number of simple tests
that can be used with a good degree of accuracy. The list of tests is in a suggested order,
progressing from simple experimentation and observation to more complicated either in
procedure or concept.
Properties of Minerals
The following physical properties of minerals can be easily used to identify a mineral:
1. Color
2. Streak
3. Hardness
4. Cleavage or Fracture
5. Crystalline Structure
6. Diaphaneity or Amount of Transparency
7. Tenacity
8. Magnetism
9. Luster
10. Odor
11. Taste
12. Specific Gravity
Properties of Minerals- A Detailed
Color
Most minerals have a distinctive color that can be used for identification. In opaque minerals, the
color tends to be more consistent, so learning the colors associated with these minerals can be
very helpful in identification. Translucent to transparent minerals have a much more varied
degree of color due to the presence of trace minerals. Therefore, color alone is not reliable as a
single identifying characteristic.
Streak
Streak is the color of the mineral in powdered form. Streak shows the true color of the mineral.
In large solid form, trace minerals can change the color appearance of a mineral by reflecting the
light in a certain way. Trace minerals have little influence on the reflection of the small powdery
particles of the streak.
The streak of metallic minerals tends to appear dark because the small particles of the streak
absorb the light hitting them. Non-metallic particles tend to reflect most of the light so they
appear lighter in color or almost white.
Because streak is a more accurate illustration of the mineral’s color, streak is a more reliable
property of minerals than color for identification.
Hardness
Hardness is one of the better properties of minerals to use for identifying a mineral. Hardness is a
measure of the mineral’s resistance to scratching. The Mohs scale is a set of 10 minerals whose
hardness is known. The softest mineral, talc, has a Mohs scale rating of one. Diamond is the
hardest mineral and has a rating of ten. Softer minerals can be scratched by harder minerals
because the forces that hold the crystals together are weaker and can be broken by the harder
mineral.
The following is a listing of the minerals of the Mohs scale and their rating:
1. Talc
2. Gypsum
3. Calcite
4. Fluorite
5. Apatite
6. Orthoclase Feldspar
7. Quartz
8. Topaz
9. Corundum
10. Diamond
Cleavage & Fracture
Minerals tend to break along lines or smooth surfaces when hit sharply. Different minerals break
in different ways showing different types of cleavage.
Cleavage is defined using two sets of criteria. The first set of criteria describes how easily the
cleavage is obtained. Cleavage is considered perfect if it is easily obtained and the cleavage
planes are easily distinguished. It is considered good if the cleavage is produced with some
difficulty but has obvious cleavage planes. Finally it is considered imperfect if cleavage is
obtained with difficulty and some of the planes are difficult to distinguish.
The second set of criteria is the direction of the cleavage surfaces. The names correspond to the
shape formed by the cleavage surfaces: Cubic, rhombohedral, octahedral, dodecahedral, basal or
prismatic. These criteria are defined specifically by the angles of the cleavage lines as indicated
in the chart below:
Cleavage Type Angles
Cubic Cleaves in three directions @ 90o to one anotherRhombohedral Cleaves in three directions
but not @ 90o to one anotherOctahedral Cleaves in four directionsDodecahedral Cleaves in six
directionsBasal Cleaves in one directionPrismatic Cleaves in two directions
Fracture describes the quality of the cleavage surface. Most minerals display either uneven or
grainy fracture, conchoidal (curved, shell-like lines) fracture, or hackly (rough, jagged) fracture.
Physical Characteristics of Minerals
Return to Table of Contents
1. Introduction
2. Color
Idiochromatism and the Chromophores
Allochromatism
3. Streak
4. Luster
5. Density
6. Hardness
The Mohs Scale
The Diamond Indentation Method
7. Cleavage
8. Fracture
9. Tenacity
10. Habit
1. Introduction
Top
The physical characteristics of minerals include traits which are used to identify
and describe mineral species. These traits include color, streak, luster, density,
hardness, cleavage, fracture, tenacity, and crystal habit.
Certain wavelengths of light are reflected by the atoms of a mineral's crystal
lattice while others are absorbed. Those wavelengths of light which are reflected are
perceived by the viewer to possess the property of color. Some minerals derive their
color from the presence of a particular element within the crystal lattice. The presence
of such an element can determine which wavelengths of light are reflected and which
are absorbed. This type of coloration in minerals is termed idiochromatism; different
samples of an idiochromatic mineral species will all display the same color. Other
minerals are colored by the presence of certain elements in mixture. Different samples
of such a species may exhibit a range of similar colors. Still other mineral species may
usually be colorless, but may display several different and startling colors when trace
amounts of impurities, or elements which are not an integral part of the crystalline
lattice, are present. Coloration which is caused by the presence of an element foreign
to the crystal lattice, whether in mixture or in trace amounts, is termed
allochromatism. Certain elements are strong pigmenting agents and may lend vivid
colors to specimens when they are present, whether as a part of the crystal lattice, in
mixture, or as an impurity. These elements are termed the chromophores.
Streak is the color which a mineral displays when it has been ground to a fine
powder. Trace amounts of impurities do not tend to affect the streak of a mineral, so
this characteristic is usually more predictable than color. Two different specimens of
the same species may be expected to possess the same streak, whereas they may
display different colors.
Minerals are either opaque or transparent. A thin section of an opaque mineral
such as a metal will not transmit light, whereas a thin section of a transparent mineral
will. Typically those minerals which possess metallic bonding are opaque whereas
those where ionic bonding is prevalent are transparent. Relative differences in opacity
and transparency are described as luster. The characteristic of luster provides a
qualitative measure of the amount and quality of light which is reflected from a
mineral's exterior surfaces. Luster thus describes how much the mineral surface
'sparkles'.
The property of density is defined as mass per unit volume. Certain trends exist
with respect to density which may sometimes aid in mineral identification. Native
elements are relatively dense. Minerals whose chemical composition contains heavy
metals, or atoms possessing an atomic number greater than iron (Fe, atomic number
26), are relatively dense. Species which form at high pressures deep within the earth's
crust are in general more dense than minerals which form at lower pressures and
shallower depths. Dark-colored minerals are typically fairly dense whereas light-
colored ones tend to be less dense.
Hardness is defined as the level of difficulty with which a smooth surface of a
mineral specimen may be scratched. Hardness has historically been measured
according to the Mohs scale. Mohs' method relies upon a scratch test to relate the
hardness of a mineral specimen to the hardness of one of a set of reference minerals.
Hardness may also be measured according to the more quantitative but less accessible
diamond indentation method.
Cleavage refers to the splitting of a crystal along a smooth plane. A cleavage
plane is a plane of structural weakness along which a mineral is likely to split. The
quality of a mineral's cleavage refers both to the ease with which the mineral cleaves
and to the character of the exposed surface. Not every mineral exhibits cleavage.
Fracture takes place when a mineral sample is split in a direction which does not
serve as a plane of perfect or distinct cleavage. A mineral fractures when it is broken
or crushed. Fracture does not result in the emergence of clearly demarcated planar
surfaces; minerals may fracture in any possible direction.
The characteristic of tenacity describes the physical behavior of a mineral under
stress or deformation. Most minerals are brittle; metals, in contrast, are malleable,
ductile, and sectile.
The term crystal habit describes the favored growth pattern of the crystals of a
mineral species. The crystals of particular mineral species sometimes form very
distinctive, characteristic shapes. Crystal habit is also greatly determined by the
environmental conditions under which a crystal develops.
2. Color
Top
When different wavelengths of visible light are incident upon the eye they are
perceived as being of different colors. Three different varieties of color receptors in
the eye correspond to light possessing wavelengths of approximately 660 nm (red),
500 nm (green), and 420 nm (blue-violet). The eye then interprets the color of incident
light according to which color receptors have been stimulated. For example, if
monochromatic light which stimulated the red and green color receptors equally and
did not affect the blue-violet receptors was detected, then the eye would interpret this
light as possessing a wavelength halfway between those of red and green light. The
eye would therefore register an incident light wave with a wavelength of
approximately 580 nm and the viewer would percieve the incoming light as yellow.
Incident polychromatic light which stimulated the red and green color receptors
equally and did not affect the blue-violet ones would also be interpreted as yellow
light, regardless whether or not the incoming light actually contained a component
with a wavelength close to 580 nm. The incident polychromatic light might possess
only a red and a green component of equal intensity; it would nevertheless be
interpreted by the eye as yellow light. The phenomenon called color is thus a
description of the differentiation by the eye between various wavelengths and
combinations of wavelengths of visible light.
When light is incident upon a mineral specimen, some wavelengths are absorbed
by the atoms of the crystal lattice while others are reflected. Those wavelengths which
were not absorbed are reflected off of the mineral's surfaces and enter the eye of the
viewer. The color which is perceived by the viewer depends on the wavelengths of
light which are reflected rather than absorbed by the mineral. The property of color in
minerals is thus due to the absorption of particular wavelengths of light and the
reflection of others by the atoms of the crystal lattice.
The color exhibited by certain mineral species may depend upon which
crystallographic axis is transmitting the light. Such species may demonstrate several
different colors as light is transmitted along various different axes. This phenomena of
directionally selective absorption is termed pleochroism.
Idiochromatism and the Chromophores
The color of many mineral species is derived directly from the presence of one or
more of the elements which constitute the crystal lattice. The color of such minerals is
a fundamental property directly related to the chemical composition of the species.
Minerals which exhibit this type of coloration are called idiochromatic minerals.
Idiochromatic coloration is a property possessed by a mineral species as a whole. In
such species color can successfully be utilized as a means of identification.
Ions of certain elements are highly absorptive of selected wavelengths of light.
Such elements are called chromophores; they possess strong pigmenting capabilities.
The elements vanadium (V), chromium (Cr), manganese (Mn), iron (Fe), cobalt (Co),
nickel (Ni), and copper (Cu) are chromophores. A mineral whose chemical formula
stipulates the presence of one or more of these elements may possess a vivid and
distinctive color.
Examples of idiochromatic minerals abound. For instance, the copper carbonate
malachite is consistently green; the copper carbonate azurite and the copper silicate
chrysocolla are each a distinctive and predictable blue. Rhodochrosite is always red or
pink; samples of sulphur are a bright, recognizable yellow. Each of these distinctive
colors is due to the fact that the chemical composition which defines the mineral
species specifies inclusion of one of the chromophores within the lattice structure.
Allochromatism
Photos
Most minerals which are composed entirely of elements other than the
chromophores are nearly colorless. However, certain specimens are sometimes
observed to possess vivid coloration. Color in such instances is due to the presence of
an impurity. If one of the chromophores is present within a mineral whose chemical
formula does not include it, then the foreign element constitutes an impurity or a
defect in the lattice structure. Coloration in minerals which is due to the presence of a
foreign element is termed allochromatism. In such cases the color of the mineral may
differ radically from the nearly colorless shade expected of the species.
Some minerals demonstrate a range of colors due to the presence in mixture of one
of the chromophores. For example, the substitution of a quantity of iron for zinc atoms
within the crystal lattice of sphalerite ( ZnS) implements a change from white to yellow
in the color of the mineral. Proportionally larger inclusions of iron will progressively
result in a brown and eventually a black mineral specimen. In such cases the color of
the sample is directly proportional to the amount of the pigmenting element which is
present in the crystal lattice.
Not all allochromatism in minerals is due to presence of substantial amounts of a
chromophore in mixture, however. The property of color may sometimes be highly
dependent on the inclusion of trace amounts of impurities. The presence of even a
minute quantity of a chromophore within the crystal lattice can cause a mineral
specimen to exhibit vivid color. For example, trace inclusions of chromium ( Cr) in
beryl are responsible for the deep green of emerald, while the purple of amethyst is
due to trace amounts of iron (Fe) in quartz and the pink of rose quartz is due to trace
inclusions of titanium (Ti). Samples of the mineral corundum which include tiny
amounts of chromium are deep red, and the gem is then called a ruby, while samples
containing iron or titanium impurities produce blue gems termed sapphire.
Trace amounts of an impurity do not affect the basic chemical composition or the
chemical formula of a mineral, and thus do not affect its classification as a species.
Trace amounts of the various chromophores, however, can cause several samples of a
single species to differ radically in color. (Beryl, corundum, and quartz provide
examples of this possibility.) Because it varies so widely, color is a property which is
sometimes of little use in identification. However, the idiochromatic minerals are
consistently of distinctive color. The green of malachite, the blue of azurite, the pink
of rhodocrosite, and the yellow of sulphur are easily recognized and are therefore
quite useful in the identification of these species.
3. Streak
Top
Streak is the color of a mineral substance when it has been ground to a fine
powder. Typically an edge of the sample will be rubbed across a porcelain plate,
leaving behind a 'streak' of finely ground material. The material in a streak sample
thus consists of a powder composed of randomly oriented microscopic crystals rather
than a lattice structure containing the uniformly oriented unit cells which compose a
macroscopic crystal.
Although color is a property which may vary widely between two different
specimens of the same mineral, streak generally varies little from sample to sample.
The presence of trace amounts of an impurity may radically affect the property of
color in a macroscopic crystal because each unit cell is aligned within the crystal
structure, thereby forming a diffraction grating. Minute amounts of a strongly
absorptive impurity within the structure may highly affect which wavelengths of light
are reflected from this diffraction grating. This change may greatly modify the
absorption of certain wavelengths of incoming light, altering the percieved color of
the specimen. In a streak sample, however, each of the microscopic crystal grains of
the sample is randomly oriented and the presence of an impurity does not greatly
affect the absorption of incoming light. Because it is not typically affected by the
presence of an impurity, streak is a more reliable identification property than is color.
4. Luster
Top
Minerals may be categorized according to whether they are opaque or

transparent. A thin section of an opaque mineral such as a metal will not transmit
light, whereas a thin section of a transparent mineral will. The absorption index of an
opaque mineral is high. Light which is incident upon an opaque mineral such as a
metal is unable to propagate through the mineral due to this high rate of absorption,
and will thus be reflected. Opaque minerals typically reflect between 20% to 50% or
more of the light incident upon them. In contrast, most of the light which is incident
upon a transparent mineral passes into and through the mineral; transparent minerals
may reflect as little as 5% of the incident light and as much as 20%. Typically those
minerals which possess metallic bonding are opaque whereas those where ionic
bonding is prevalent are transparent.
Relative differences in opacity and transparency are described as luster. The term
luster refers to the quantity and quality of the light which is reflected from a mineral's
exterior surfaces. Luster provides an assessment of how much the mineral surface
'sparkles'. This quality is determined by the type of atomic bonds present within the
substance. It is related to the indices of absorption and refraction of the material and
the amount of dispersion from the crystal lattice, as well as the texture of the exposed
mineral surface.
Minerals are primarily divided into the two categories of metallic and
nonmetallic luster. Minerals possessing metallic luster are opaque and very reflective,
possessing a high absorptive index. This type of luster indicates the presence of
metallic bonding within the crystal lattice of the material. Examples of minerals which
exhibit metallic luster are native copper, gold, and silver, galena, pyrite, and
chalcopyrite. The luster of a mineral which does not quite possess a metallic luster is
termed submetallic; hematite provides an example of submetallic luster.
The property of streak can aid in distinguishing whether a specimen has a metallic
or a nonmetallic luster. Metals tend to be soft, implying that more powdered material
may be obtained from the streak sample of a metal than a nonmetal. Metals are also
opaque, transmitting no light. Minerals which possess a metallic luster therefore tend
to exhibit a thick, dense, dark streak whereas those which possess a nonmetallic luster
tend to produce a thinner, less dense streak which is also lighter in color.
Adjectives such as "vitreous', 'dull', 'pearly', 'greasy', 'silky' or 'adamantine' are
frequently used to describe various types of nonmetallic luster.
Dull or Earthy
Minerals of dull or earthy luster reflect light very poorly and do not shine.
This type of luster is often seen in minerals which are composed of an
aggregate of tiny grains.
Resinous
A surface of resinous luster possesses a sheen resembling that of resin. Such
materials have a refractive index greater than 2.0. Sphalerite ( ZnS)
demonstrates a resinous luster.
Pearly
Pearly luster appears iridescent, opalescent, or pearly. This is typically
exhibited by mineral surfaces which are parallel to planes of perfect cleavage.
Layer silicates such as talc often demonstrate a pearly luster on cleavage
surfaces.
Greasy
A surface which possesses greasy luster appears to be covered with a thin layer
of oil. A light-scattering surface which is slightly rough, such as that of
nepheline, may exhibit greasy luster.
Silky
Silky luster occurs when light is reflected off of an aggregate of fine parallel
fibers; malachite and serpentine may both exhibit silky luster.
Vitreous
Vitreous luster occurs in minerals with predominant ionic bonding and
resembles the reflective quality of broken glass. The refractive index of such
minerals is 1.5 to 2.0. Many silicates possess this type of luster; quartz and
tourmeline both demonstrate vitreous luster.
Adamantine or brilliant
A brilliant luster such as the sparkling reflection of diamond is known as
adamantine. Minerals of adamantine luster have high refractive indices (1.9-
2.6) and are highly dispersive and translucent. Covalent bonding or the
presence of heavy metal atoms or transition elements may result in adamantine
luster.
5. Density
Top
The property of density is defined as mass per unit volume:

m
µ= /V
The geometric structure of the unit cell of a mineral determines the volume which it
occupies. The masses of the atoms which compose the unit cell decree the mass of
each cell. The identity of the atoms which compose the unit cell is specified by the
chemical formula of the mineral. Density is therefore directly related to both the
physical structure of the unit cell and the chemical composition of each species of
mineral.
One method of measuring the density of a sample entails the use of one dense
liquid and another miscible liquid of lower density. A solution of the two substances
is created in which a crystal of the mineral in question remains suspended and neither
sinks nor floats. The weight of a known volume of the solution is then measured, and
the density of the solution and thus the density of the crystal are calculated from this
information. Bromoform (CHBr3, density 2.9 g/cm3), soluble in acetone; di-
iodomethane (CH2I2, density 3.3 g/cm3), soluble in chloroform, CHCl3; and Clerici's
solution (a solution of thallium formate and thallium malonate; density 4.4 g/cm 3),
soluble in water, are some heavy liquids and their solvents which are commonly used
in this process.
Density has historically been equated by mineralogists with the concept of
specific gravity. Specific gravity is a unitless quantity which is defined as the ratio of
the weight of a substance to the weight of an equal volume of water at a temperature
of 4° Celsius. This ratio is equal to the ratio of the density of the substance to the
density of water at 4° Celsius.
G = µ / µwater
Specific gravity has therefore classically been measured by weighing a mineral

specimen on a balance scale while it is submerged first in air and then in water. The
difference between the two measurements is the weight of the volume of water which
was displaced by the sample. The specific gravity of the mineral specimen is thus:
G = mair / [mair - mwater]
Because the density of water at 4° Celsius is 1.00 g/cm 3, the density of a mineral in
units of grams per centimeter cubed (g/cm 3) is equal to its (unitless) specific gravity.
The field geologist sometimes uses a very rough estimation of the density of a
hand-held sample as a clue to identification. Certain rough trends relating mineral
density to various other factors are sometimes useful. Native elements, which contain
only one type of atom and whose molecular structure is that of cubic or hexagonal
closest packing, are relatively dense. Minerals whose chemical composition contains
heavy metals - atoms of greater atomic number then iron ( Fe, atomic number 26) - are
more dense than atoms whose chemical composition does not include such elements.
Minerals which formed at the high pressures deep within the earth's crust are in
general more dense than minerals which formed at lower pressures and shallower
depths. A general trend relating color to density is also prevalent; this trend states that
dark-colored minerals are often fairly heavy whereas light-colored ones are frequently
relatively light. A geologist is thus given cause to remark upon a sample which seems
to reverse this trend. For example, graphite is dark colored but of low density ( C; 2.23
g/cm3) while barite is light in color but unexpectedly heavy ( BaSo4; 4.5 g/cm3). The
noted oddity of unexpectedly high or low density with respect to color provides the
field geologist with a clue as to the identification of such atypical materials.
6. Hardness
Top
Hardness has traditionally been defined as the level of difficulty with which a
smooth surface of a mineral specimen may be scratched. The hardness of a mineral
species is dependent upon the strength of the bonds which compose its crystal
structure. Hardness is a property characteristic to each mineral species and can be very
useful in identification.
Certain trends exist in hardness with respect to mineral class. (For a description of
the various classes of minerals, please refer to the discussion on mineral classification
contained in Section 4.) Native elements are typically soft, although iron ( Fe) and
platinum (Pt) are relatively hard and diamond (C) is exceptionally hard. Compounds
of heavy metals are soft. Sulphides and sulpho-salts, with the exception of pyrite, are
relatively soft; halides are soft; carbonates and sulphates are usually soft. Oxides are
typically hard while hydroxides are softer. Anhydrous silicates tend to be hard, while
hydrous silicates are softer.
The Mohs Scale
The property of hardness has historically been measured according to the Mohs
scale, which was created in 1824 by the Austrian mineralogist Friedrich Mohs. Mohs
based his system for measuring and describing the hardness of a sample upon the
definition of hardness as resistance to scratching. Mohs' method thus relies upon a
scratch test in order to relate the hardness of a mineral specimen to a number from the
Mohs scale.
In order to define his scale, Mohs assembled a set of common reference minerals
of varying hardnesses and labled these in order of increasing hardness from 1 to 10.
The reference minerals of the Mohs scale are as follows:
1. Talc
2. Gypsum
3. Calcite
4. Fluorite
5. Apatite
6. Orthoclase
7. Quartz
8. Topaz
9. Corundum
10.Diamond
Each reference mineral will scratch a test specimen with a Mohs hardness less than or
equal to its own. Each reference mineral can be scratched by a specimen with a
hardness equal to or greater than its own. If a reference mineral both scratches and can
be scratched by a certain test specimen, then the specimen is assumed to possess a
hardness equal to that of the reference mineral in question.
The set of reference minerals of the Mohs' scale can be supplemented by a few
common household items. A fingernail has a Mohs hardness of 2 1/2; a copper penny 3,
window glass 51/2, and a knife blade approximately 6.
The hardness of an unknown sample can be determined to within 1/2 increment by
using the scratch test. Mineral hardnesses determined by the scratch test should never
be given in decimal form, because the Mohs scale does not provide measurements of
such precision.
The hardness of a mineral may vary with direction and crystallographic plane.
This effect is usually small. However, species exist in which the variance in the
hardness along different axes is notable. For example, the mineral kyanite ( Al2OSiO4)
typically forms elongated crystals. The Mohs hardness parallel to the length of a
kyanite crystal is 5, whereas the Mohs hardness perpendicular to the length of such a
crystal is 7. A second example is provided by the mineral halite, which is softer
parallel to its cleavage planes than it is at a 45° angle to the cleavage planes.
The Diamond Indentation Method
Investigations more recent than those completed by Mohs have used the diamond
indentation method to quantitatively determine hardness. According to this method,
a diamond point is pushed into a planar mineral surface under the weight of a known
load. The diameter of the indentation thereby produced is then measured under a
microscope. The diamond indentation hardness of a sample is equal to the mass of the
load applied divided by the surface area of the indentation produced. The units in
which diamond indentation hardness is recorded are therefore kilograms per
millimeter squared (kg/mm2).
Tests utilizing the diamond indentation method have shown that in order for a
point fashioned from a certain material to scratch a surface the hardness of its
constituent material must be 1.2 times that of the surface. Thus on an ideal hardness
scale, each subsequent reference material would have a hardness of approximately 1.2
times that of the material preceeding it. It must be noted that the intervals between
reference points on the Mohs scale are not, in fact, equal. The interval between
subsequent reference points on the scale increases as the hardness of the reference
materials increases. The skill with which Mohs chose his reference materials becomes
apparent when one notes that each of his samples is approximately 1.6 times the
hardness of the last.
The Mohs scale provides a means of testing hardness which is far more readily
available to amateur geologists than the diamond indentation method. It has therefore
remained the standard scale by which hardness is measured.
7. Cleavage
Top
A cleavage plane is a plane of structural weakness along which a mineral is likely
to split smoothly. Cleavage thus refers to the splitting of a crystal between two
parallel atomic planes. Cleavage is the result of weaker bond strengths or greater
lattice spacing across the plane in question than in other directions within the crystal.
Greater lattice spacing tends to accompany weaker bond strength across a plane,
because such bonds are unable to maintain a close interatomic spacing.
Both the positioning of crystal faces in a mineral and the property of cleavage are
derived from the crystalline structure of the species. However, despite the fact that
every mineral belongs to a specified crystal system, not every mineral exhibits
cleavage. A mineral such as quartz may demonstrate beautiful, well-developed
crystals and yet possess no distinct planes of cleavage.
Cleavage planes, if they exist, are always parallel to a potential crystal face.
However, such planes are not necessarily parallel to the faces which the crystal
actually displays. Fluorite, for example, has octahedral cleavage yet forms cubic
crystals. Nonetheless, the property of cleavage, if it is present, can offer important
information about the symmetry and inner structure of a crystal.
The quality of a mineral's cleavage refers to both the ease with which the mineral
cleaves and to the character of the exposed cleavage surface. The quality of a sample's
cleavage is typically described by terms such as 'eminent,' 'perfect,' 'distinct,'
'difficult,' 'imperfect,' or 'indistinct.'
'Eminent' cleavage describes the case in which cleavage always occurs readily and
is in fact difficult to prevent from occurring. The mineral mica, for example, cleaves
readily into thin, flat sheets. A mineral which demonstrates 'perfect' cleavage breaks
easily, exposing continuous, flat surfaces which reflect light. Fluorite, calcite, and
barite are minerals whose cleavage is perfect. 'Distinct' cleavage implies that cleavage
surfaces are present although they may be marred by fractures or imperfections.
'Difficult' or 'indistinct' cleavage produces surfaces which are neither smooth nor
regular; samples possessing such cleavage tend to fracture rather than split.
Cleavage may be determined by the examination of surfaces which have actually
broken. It may also be determined by inspection of the interlacing systems of cracks
which permeate the structure of certain specimens. These systems of cracks are
beautifully apparent within transparent crystals such as fluorite or calcite.
8. Fracture
Top
A mineral fractures when it is broken or crushed. Fracture takes place when a
mineral sample is split in a direction which does not serve as a plane of perfect or
distinct cleavage. In other words, fracture takes place along a plane possessing
difficult, indistinct, or nonexistant cleavage. The difference between fracture and
indistinct cleavage is not clearly delineated.
Unlike perfect or distinct cleavage, fracture does not result in the emergence of
clearly demarcated planar surfaces which run parallel to possible crystal faces.
Fracture is nondirectional: minerals which do not possess distinct cleavage may
fracture in any possible direction.
Fractured surfaces may in some minerals possess a characteristic appearance
which can aid in identification. Examples of distinctive types of fracture are
'conchoidal,' 'irregular,' and 'hackly' fracture.
Conchoidal
Conchoidal fracture results in a series of smoothly curved concentric rings
about the stressed point, generating a shell-like appearance. The familiar ripples
of a broken glass bottle demonstrate this type of fracture. Quartz and olivine are
two mineral species which possess conchoidal fracture.
Irregular
Irregular or uneven fracture results in a rough, rugged surface.
Hackly
The term 'hackly' describes a fractured surface with multiple small, sharp and
jagged irregularities.
9. Tenacity
Top
The property of tenacity describes the behavior of a mineral under deformation. It
describes the physical reaction of a mineral to externally applied stresses such as
crushing, cutting, bending, and striking forces. Adjectives used to characterize various
types of mineral tenacity include 'brittle,' 'flexible,' 'elastic,' 'malleable,' 'ductile,' and
'sectile'.
Brittle
Most mineral species are brittle, and will crumble or fracture under pressure or
upon the application of a blow. Such materials break or powder easily.
Flexible
A mineral which is flexible rather than brittle will flex as opposed to breaking
under the application of stress. However, a mineral which is merely flexible
and not also elastic will be unable to return to its original shape when the stress
is removed. Flakes of molybdenite and scales of talc are two substances which
are flexible but inelastic.
Elastic
An elastic mineral will deform under external stress but will resume its original
shape after the stress is removed. If it is bent, it will flex, but will return to its
previous position when the stress dissappears. The mineral called mica is both
flexible and elastic.
Malleable
Native metals such as copper, silver, and gold are easily flattened with a
hammer. This type of tenacity is termed malleable. Metallic-bonded minerals
tend to be malleable, and may be pounded out into thin, flat sheets.
Ductile
Some malleable materials are also ductile, and may be drawn out into a thin
wire without crumbling.
Sectile
Some minerals may be sliced into smooth sheets with a knife, although these
may possibly still crumble under a blow from a hammer. Materials possessing
this rare type of tenacity are called sectile minerals. The species chlorargyrite
(AgCl) offers an example of a sectile mineral.
10. Crystal Habit

Top
The term crystal habit describes the favored growth pattern of the crystals of a
mineral species, whether individually or in aggregate. It may bear little relation to the
form of a single, perfect crystal of the same mineral, which would be classified
according to crystal system. (Please see the following discussion of crystal system in
Section 3.) Subtle evidence of the crystal system to which a mineral species belongs
is, however, frequently observed in the habit of the crystals which a specimen
displays.
The terminology used to describe crystal habit is not intended to replace the
precise nomenclature of crystallography. Instead, it is intended as a supplement to this
system. Discussions of crystal habit are more descriptive than precise; for this reason
the terminology is suited to the discussion of mineral samples discovered in the field.
Naturally formed specimens are rarely quantitatively perfect.
The crystals of particular minerals species sometimes form very distinctive,
characteristic shapes. Crystal habit is thus often useful in identification.
Although each mineral species typically forms according to a few preferred
shapes, crystal habit is largely determined by the environmental conditions under
which a crystal develops. For example, aqueous solutions near or surrounding a
crystal contain the elemental substances which it needs to continue growth. The
direction from which a growing crystal may obtain such solutions is a factor which
will affect its eventual shape. Higher environmental temperatures during formation
increase ion mobility and aid in crystal formation; the rate at which the environment
cools determines how much time a mineral is allowed to form large crystals. The
amount of space available for a crystal to fill affects its final shape and size. Surface
energy relations are also quite important to the direction of crystal growth; this
process is not yet fully understood.
Adjectives used to describe the habit of individual crystals are 'equant,' 'prismatic,'
and 'tabular.' Aggregates of crystals may also be termed equant or prismatic, while
aggregates of thin, flat, tabular crystals may be 'bladed.' Thin sheets, flakes or scales
are termed 'foliated,' 'micaceous,' and, if feathery or delicate, 'lamellar' or 'plumose.'
Crystal aggregates resembling long, slender needles, hair, or thread are termed
'acicular,' filiform,' 'capillary,' or 'fibrous.' An aggregate of crystals forming a network
or lattice is 'reticulated;' one composed of branches which radiate starlike from a
central point is 'stellated' while a branching and treelike mineral growth is 'dendritic.'
'Colloform' crystal habits termed 'botryoidal,' 'mamillary,' and 'reniform' display
spherical, bulbous or globular lumps. Smaller spherical forms are of 'pisolitic' or
'oolitic' habit; ovoid clusters or formations are 'amygdaloidal.' Tapered, column-like
formations are 'stalactitic' or 'columnar' while concentrically banded formations are of
'concretionary' habit. Minerals whose flat crystal faces are covered with shallow,
parallel grooves are 'striated;' a fine furry layer of crystals growing over a massive
lump constitutes a formation of 'drusy' habit. Following is a list of descriptive terms
which are applied when discussing crystal habit.
Equant
A crystal which is equant or equidimensional possesses approximately the
same side length in every direction. Crystals of garnet are often of equant habit.
Prismatic
A prismatic crystal is elongated in one direction like a prism. The mineral
tourmaline often forms crystals of such habit.
Tabular
Tabular crystals appear tabular or platelike in shape.
Bladed
A specimen displaying bladed habit possesses a collection of elongated, flat
crystals suggestive of knife blades. Gypsum often displays crystals of bladed
habit.
Foliated
Crystals of foliated habit are separable into leafy structures or display leaflike
projections. The word 'foliated' is derived from the Latin term folium, meaning
'leaf.'
Micaceous
Minerals of micaceous habit form as thin, flat sheets or flakes which are easily
peeled or split off the larger mass. Muscovite provides an example of
micaceous habit.
Lamellar or lamelliform
Crystals of lamellar habit form thin scales or plates which may resemble gills
or lamellae. The term is derived from the Latin word lamina, meaning 'thin
plate.'
Plumose
A mineral specimen of plumose habit displays fine, feathery scales resembling
plumes. 'Plumose' is derived from the Latin term pluma, or 'feather.'
Acicular
Photos
The adjective 'acicular' means needlelike in shape. An acicular aggregate of
crystals contains many long, slender crystals which may radiate out like needles
or bristles from a common base. Acicular crystals are typically long and narrow
like a pine leaf and seem to possess a sharp point. The mineral natrolite often
exhibits acicular crystals.
Capillary
An aggregate of crystals of capillary habit resembles an intricate network of
tubules. Capillary crystals appear long, slender, and fine, like delicate hairs.
The term 'capillary' is derived from the Latin word capillus, 'hair.'
Filiform
A mineral possessing crystals of filliform habit exhibits many hairlike or
threadlike filaments. "Filiform' is derived from the Latin word filum, 'thread.'
Fibrous
Specimens possessing fibrous habit exhibit clumps of sinewy, stringy, or
hairlike fibers.
Reticulated
A mineral specimen of reticulated habit seems to display a lattice, net, or
network of small crystals. The word 'reticulated' is derived from the Latin term
rete, or 'net.'
Stellated
A mineral of stellated habit possesses several branches which radiate outwards
from the center in a pattern resembling a star. The word 'stellated' stems from
the Latin term stella, or 'star.'
Dendritic
Dendritic crystals form a divergent branching structure reminiscent of an
arborescent, organic growth such as a tree or a dendrite. Native copper
sometimes exhibits this habit.
Colloform
Photos
Specimens of colloform habit exhibit spherical, rounded, or bulbous shapes.
Botryoidal, reniform, and mammillary habits are subsets of this category.
Botryoidal
The word 'botryoidal' means 'resembling a bunch of grapes,' or globular.
Specimens of malachite frequently provide examples of botryoidal crystals.
The Greek word botrus, 'bunch of grapes,' provides the linguistic root of
botryoidal.
Mammillary
Samples possessing mammillary crystal habit display soft, rounded curves.
Reniform
Reniform crystal habit displays the shape of a kidney. The mineral species
hematite provides samples which exemplify both mammillary and reniform
habit. 'Reniform' is derived from the Latin renes, 'kidney.'
Oolitic
Crystals of oolitic habit form small spheres or grains which resemble fish roe.
Oolites are often found in limestones.
Pisolitic
A mineral of pisolitic habit develops round, pea-shaped forms. These are larger
and slightly more uneven than an oolite and are usually composed of calcium
carbonate. The word 'pisolitic' is derived from the Greek term pisos, 'pea.'
Amygdaloidal
A mineral of amygdaloidal crystal habit demonstrates small almond-shaped
nodules called amygdules. The term stems from the Latin word amygdala, or
'almond.'
Stalactitic
Photos
Stalactitic or columnar crystal habit refers to the tall, tapered, columlike
appearance of an icicle or a limestone stalactite. Such formations are built up
by the dripping of mineral-laden solution. The minerals calcite and aragonite
(CaC03) typically form stalactites. The term is derived from the Greek word
stalaktos, 'dripping.'
Concretionary
A concretion develops when mineral matter is concentrically deposited around
a nucleus and colored and banded layers are build up. Malachite often exhibits
such formations.
Striated
Photos
Minerals whose crystals are of striated habit display shallow parallel grooves
or lines along flat crystal faces. Pyrite often demonstrates square, striated
crystals.
Drusy
A sample exhibiting drusy habit displays a surface covered with a fine furry
layer of tiny crystals.
Massive
Massive or earthy habit describes a large, lumpy mass which has no apparent
crystal form. In such a sample the crystals are too tiny to be observable by the
eye and are interlocked and mingled; the specimen lacks visible crystals.
Crystalline Structure
Mineral crystals occur in various shapes and sizes. The particular shape is determined by the
arrangement of the atoms, molecules or ions that make up the crystal and how they are joined.
This is called the crystal lattice. There are degrees of crystalline structure, in which the fibers of
the crystal become increasingly difficult or impossible to see with the naked eye or the use of a
hand lens. Microcrystalline and cryptocrystalline structures can only be viewed using high
magnification. If there is no crystalline structure, it is called amorphous. However, there are very
few amorphous crystals and these are only observed under extremely high magnification.
Transparency or Diaphaneity
Diaphaneity is a mineral’s degree of transparency or ability to allow light to pass through it. The
degree of transparency may also depend on the thickness of the mineral.
Tenacity
Tenacity is the characteristic that describes how the particles of a mineral hold together or resist
separation. The chart below gives the list of terms used to describe tenacity and a description of
each term.
Magnetism
Magnetism is the characteristic that allows a mineral to attract or repel other magnetic materials.
It can be difficult to determine the differences between the various types of magnetism, but it is
worth knowing that there are distinctions made.
Luster
Luster is the property of minerals that indicates how much the surface of a mineral reflects light.
The luster of a mineral is affected by the brilliance of the light used to observe the mineral
surface. Luster of a mineral is described in the following terms:
Metallic The mineral is opaque and reflects light as a metal would.Submettalic The mineral is
opaque and dull. The mineral is dark colored.Nonmettalic The mineral does not reflect light like
a metal.
Nonmetallic minerals are described using modifiers that refer to commonly known qualities.
Waxy The mineral looks like paraffin or wax.Vitreous The mineral looks like broken
glass.Pearly The mineral appears iridescent, like a pearl.Silky The mineral looks fibrous, like
silk.Greasy The mineral looks like oil on water.Resinous The mineral looks like hardened tree
sap (resin).Adamantine The mineral looks brilliant, like a diamond.
Odor
Most minerals have no odor unless they are acted upon in one of the following ways: moistened,
heated, breathed upon, or rubbed.
Taste
Only soluble minerals have a taste, but it is very important that minerals not be placed in the
mouth or on the tongue. You should not test for this property in the classroom.
Specific Gravity
Specific Gravity of a mineral is a comparison or ratio of the weight of the mineral to the weight
of an equal amount of water. The weight of the equal amount of water is found by finding the
difference between the weight of the mineral in air and the weight of the mineral in water.
Knowing the properties of minerals will help you to identify minerals in the field.
Q. 2. Select any six rocks from each of Igneous,
sedimentary and metamorphic rocks.

Describe their main characteristics which may help you to identify it
practically.
Write prime mineral or minerals for each of the rock selected, with their
chemical composition and crystalline structure.
Give some description of each mineral.
Use figures where ever necessary.
1. Igneous Rock
Igneous Rocks:
Basalt, Diabase, Diorite, Gabbro, Granite, Obsidian, Pumice, Rhyolite,
Scoria
Igneous Rock is formed when a magma cools underground and

crystallizes or when it erupts unto the surface of the ground, cools and
crystallizes. Magma that erupts onto the surface is called lava. When
magma cools slowly underground the crystals are large enough to see.
When it cools quickly on the surface, the crystals are very small and you
would need a magnifier or a microscope to see them. Sometimes, when the
magma cools very quickly, it forms a kind of black glass that you cannot
see through.
1. obsidian
2. pumice
3. rhyolite
4.andesite
5. basalt
6. granite
7. diorite
8. gabbro
9. porphyry
10. pegmatite
These rocks can be identified by their textures, mineral content, and color.
Refer to Igneous Rocks Photos for more visual examples of each of these
igneous rock types.
glassy texture
RHYOLITE (rye'-o-lite)
What Type of Rock Is It? Igneous
What Minerals Make Up the Rock? quartz, feldspars; Sometimes

contain: biotite, diopside, hornblende, zircon
What Does It Look Like? Usually light colored; light gray, tan, reddish,
greenish, brown. Fine grained, but often contains scattered larger crystals.
May contain small pockets that were gas bubbles. Sometimes shows flow
lines or bands.
How Was It Formed? Rhyolite is a volcanic rock. It forms from the rapid
cooling of a magma or lava that contains a lot of silica (quartz). The molten
material often contains gas bubbles which freeze into the rock. Pumice is a
kind of rhyolite that has really a lot of tiny gas bubbles in it.
Compare To: pumice, basalt
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30.
GRANITE (gran'-it)
What Minerals Make Up the Rock? quartz, feldspars (microcline,

orthoclase, albite), biotite, muscovite; Sometimes contain: hornblende,
augite, magnetite, zircon
What Does It Look Like? The feldspars give granite most of its color,
which may be white to light gray, yellowish, or pink. The quartz is usually
smoky gray or white. Black specks of biotite, or sometimes hornblende, are
common. So is silvery to brownish muscovite. Granite is coarse grained to
very coarse grained. The crystals are randomly arranged (unlike gneiss
where they are in lines or layers).
How Was It Formed? Granite forms deep in the earth's crust from
cooling magma. The magma contains a lot of silica (quartz). Slow cooling
produces the large crystals in granite.
Compare To: gneiss diorite

31.
DIORITE (die'-or-ite)
What Minerals Make Up the Rock? Dark colored plagioclase,

hornblende, pyroxene, and sometimes a little quartz. May contain: light
colored plagioclase feldspars, but only a little.
What Does It Look Like? Mostly it looks like a dark colored granite. The
dark colored plagioclase feldspars and pyroxenes give it a darker color. It is
usually medium to dark gray. Unlike granite, diorite has no mica, or very
little, and those are dark colored. It is coarse grained (larger than rice).
How Was It Formed? Diorite forms deep in the earth's crust from cooling
magma - just like granite. But, the magma does not contain a lot of quartz
or the light colored minerals that make up the granite. Instead it contains
only dark colored minerals.
Compare To: granite, diabase

32.
BASALT (buh-salt')
What Does It Look Like? Basalt is dark gray to black. When exposed to
the weather, it may turn yellow or brown on its surface. Basalt is fine
grained rock You may or may not be able to see crystals with a hand
magnifier. The crystals are often microscopic. Basalt is a hard, tough rock.
It is difficult to break. Sometimes, basalt contains gas bubbles. It is then
called vesicular basalt.
What Minerals Make Up the Rock? plagioclase feldspars, augite,
hypersthene, olivine
How Was It Formed? Basalt is a volcanic rock. It is formed from a

magma that is rich in iron and magnesium, and poor in silica (quartz). The
magma erupts from a volcano or a fissure (a crack in the earth's surface)
as lava. Because the lava cools rather quickly, basalt is fine grained. there
is not time enough for the grains to become larger.
Compare To: rhyolite, diabase, gabbro

33.
DIABASE (die'-uh-base)
What Does It Look Like? Diabase is dark green to black, sometimes with
some white crystals scattered through it. When exposed to the weather its
surface often turns brown. It has a medium grain size (you can see them
without a magnifier, but they are smaller than rice). It is a tough, hard rock.
What Minerals Make Up the Rock? plagioclase feldspars, augite;

Sometimes contains: hornblende, magnetite, olivine, glass
How Was It Formed? Diabase forms from a magma that is rich in iron
and magnesium, and poor in silica (quartz). The magma is forced into
cracks or between layers of rock near the earth's surface. Diabase is from
the same kind of magma as basalt, but because it cools more slowly, it
develops slightly larger crystals.
Compare To: basalt, gabbro, diorite, serpentinite

34.
GABBRO (gab'-row)
What Does It Look Like? Gabbro is dark green to black. When exposed
to the weather its surface often turns brown. It has a large grain size (most
of the rock is grains larger than rice).
What Minerals Make Up the Rock? plagioclase feldspars, augite,

hypersthene, olivine; Sometimes contains: magnetite, chromite, titanite,
ilmenite.
How Was It Formed? Gabbro forms from a magma that is rich in iron and
magnesium, and poor in silica (quartz). The magma cools and crystallizes
deep below the earth's surface. Gabbro is from the same kind of magma as
basalt and diabase, but because it cools more slowly, it develops larger
crystals.
Compare To: basalt, diabase, serpentinite

35.
PUMICE (pum'-iss)
What Does It Look Like? Pumice is very light gray to a medium gray in
color. It contains a large number of gas bubbles, each surrounded by a thin
layer of volcanic glass. Pumice looks something like a sponge. It is very
light in weight. Most pieces of pumice will float on water. Flow lines or
bands may show.
What Minerals Make Up the Rock? glass, any mineral grains are
unusual.
How Was It Formed? Pumice is explosively blown out of volcanoes. It

comes from a highly silicic magma that is thick and sticky. The gases that
are trapped in the bubbles are the same that cause the explosive eruption.
It is the same kind of magma which would form rhyolite or granite.
Compare To: scoria, rhyolite

36.
SCORIA (score'-ee-uh)
What Does It Look Like? The color is usually black, dark gray, brown, or
dark green. Scoria is glassy, smooth to rough, and contains gas bubbles.
Unlike pumice, it has many fewer, usually larger bubbles, and is moderately
heavy.
What Minerals Make Up the Rock? mainly a glass
How Was It Formed? Scoria usually is from the top of a lava flow, so it is
volcanic. It forms from a somewhat sticky lava. Because it is on the top of
the flow, it cools rather quickly, before many crystals start to form.
Compare To: pumice, basalt

37.
OBSIDIAN (obb-sid'-ee-an)
What Does It Look Like? Obsidian is a glass and is usually black,

although sometimes it may be slightly grayish or greenish. It may include
some white crystals that look like snowflakes (snowflake obsidian). It may
include swirls of a red color. Obsidian breaks and chips like glass. The
location where the chip came out is scoop shaped, like the inside of a clam
shell. The chip often has ridges that that are semicircular. This kind of
break is called a conchoidal fracture.
1.1 obsidian
Obsidian is volcanic glass without gas bubbles. It is usually black or
dark brown in color
and breaks with a conchoidal (shell-like) fracture. Be careful not to cut
yourself on the sharp edges. A variety of obsidian with white to light gray
crystallized patches surrounded by black glass is known as snowflake
obsidian.
What is Obsidian?
Obsidian is an igneous rock that forms when molten rock material cools so
rapidly that atoms are unable to arrange themselves into a crystalline
structure. It is an amorphous material known as a "mineraloid." The result
is a volcanic glass with a smooth uniform texture that breaks with a
conchoidal fracture (see photo).
Where Does Obsidian Form?
Obsidian is usually an extrusive rock - one that solidifies above Earth's

surface. However, it can form in a variety of cooling environments:
along the edges of a lava flow (extrusive)

along the edges of a volcanic dome (extrusive)
around the edges of a sill or a dike (intrusive)
where lava contacts water (extrusive)
where lava cools while airborne (extrusive)
Obsidian from Glass Butte
Types of Obsidian: The specimens shown above are from Glass Butte
rockhounding site in central Oregon. It shows the diversity of obsidian types
that can be found in a small geographic area. Clockwise from upper left
are: double flow obsidian, rainbow obsidian, black obsidian, pumpkin
obsidian, mahogany obsidian, gold sheen obsidian, and the piece in the
center is gold sheen. The nice photo above is from the Glass Butte
Rockhounding Site page on the Deschutes National Forest website.
Mahogany obsidian tumbled stone
Mahogany obsidian: A tumble-polished specimen of "mahogany obsidian."

Image © iStockphoto / Arpad Benedek.
What Color is Obsidian?
Rainbow Obsidian
Rainbow Obsidian: A baroque cabochon of iridescent "rainbow obsidian."
Black is the most common color of obsidian. However, it can also be

brown, tan, or green. Rarely, obsidian can be blue, red, orange, or yellow.
The colors are thought to be caused mainly by trace elements or
inclusions.
Occasionally two colors of obsidian will be swirled together in a single

specimen. The most common color combination is black and brown
obsidian swirled together - that's called "mahogany obsidian" (see photo).
As a "glass," obsidian is chemically unstable. With the passage of time,

some obsidian begins to crystallize. This process does not happen at a
uniform rate throughout the rock. Instead it begins at various locations
within the rock. At these locations, the crystallization process forms radial
clusters of white or gray cristobalite crystals within the obsidian. When cut
and polished, these specimens are referred to as "snowflake obsidian" (see
photos).
Rarely, obsidian has an iridescent or metallic "sheen" caused by light
reflecting from minute inclusions of mineral crystals, rock debris, or gas.
These colored specimens are known as "rainbow obsidian," "golden
obsidian," or "silver obsidian," depending upon the color of the sheen or
iridescence. These specimens are very desirable for the manufacture of
jewelry.
Snowflake obsidian tumbled stone
Snowflake obsidian: A tumble-polished specimen of "snowflake obsidian."

Image © iStockphoto / Martin Novak.
What is the Composition of Obsidian?
Most obsidians have a composition similar to rhyolite and granite. Granites

and rhyolites can form from the same magma as obsidian and are often
geographically associated with the obsidian.
Rarely, volcanic glasses are found with a composition similar to basalt and
gabbro. These glassy rocks are named "tachylyte."
1.2 pumice
Pumice is volcanic glass filled with gas bubble holes (vesicles). It may
be thought of as
a glass foam. Because of the large number of holes, pumice is very light-
weight; it will
float on water. Pumice comes in many colors, but the most common color
is gray.
fine-grained (aphanitic texture)
1.3 Rhyolite
Rhyolite is a high-silica, fine-grained rock. You cannot see the mineral
grains with the
naked eye. Its colors are gray, light brown, tan, pale yellow, pink, and other
earth-colors.
Sometimes there may be a sprinkling of small crystals, but most of the rock
is fine-grained.
Using food terms, it resembles baloney (unidentifiable components).
Rhyolite has the same
chemical and mineral content as granite.
What is Rhyolite?
Rhyolite is an extrusive igneous rock with a very high silica content. It is

usually pink or gray in color with grains so small that they are difficult to
observe without a hand lens. Rhyolite is made up of quartz, plagioclase,
and sanidine, with minor amounts of hornblende and biotite. Trapped gases
often produce vugs in the rock. These often contain crystals, opal, or glassy
material.
Many rhyolites form from granitic magma that has partially cooled in the
subsurface. When these magmas erupt, a rock with two grain sizes can
form. The large crystals that formed beneath the surface are called
phenocrysts, and the small crystals formed at the surface are called
groundmass.
Rhyolite usually forms in continental or continent-margin volcanic eruptions

where granitic magma reaches the surface. Rhyolite is rarely produced at
oceanic eruptions.
rhyolite porphyry
Rhyolite Porphyry: Several specimens of rhyolite porphyry, each about
three inches across. Click the image to enlarge.
Eruptions of Granitic Magma
Eruptions of granitic magma can produce rhyolite, pumice, obsidian, or tuff.

These rocks have similar compositions but different cooling conditions.
Explosive eruptions produce tuff or pumice. Effusive eruptions produce
rhyolite or obsidian if the lava cools rapidly. These different rock types can
all be found in the products of a single eruption.
Eruptions of granitic magma are rare. Since 1900 only three are known to
have occurred. These were at St. Andrew Strait Volcano in Papua New
Guinea, Novarupta Volcano in Alaska, and Chaiten Volcano in Chile.
Granitic magmas are rich in silica and often contain up to several percent
gas by weight. (Think about that - several percent gas by weight is a LOT
of gas!) As these magmas cool, the silica starts to connect into complex
molecules. This gives the magma a high viscosity and causes it to move
very sluggishly.
The high gas content and high viscosity of these magmas are perfect for
producing an explosive eruption. The viscosity can be so high that the gas
can only escape by blasting the magma from the vent.
Granitic magmas have produced some of the most explosive volcanic

eruptions in Earth's history. Examples include Yellowstone in Wyoming,
Long Valley in California, and Valles in New Mexico. The sites of their
eruption are often marked by large calderas.
1.4 Andesite
Andesite is the name of fine-grained igneous rocks that are midway in
color and mineral
composition between rhyolite and basalt. Andesites are commonly gray or
some shade of
medium brown. Commonly they have a porphyritic texture; there are larger
visible crystals
surrounded by the gray or brown andesite.
What is Andesite?
Andesite is the name used for a family of fine-grained, extrusive igneous

rocks that are usually light to dark gray in color. They often weather to
various shades of brown, and these specimens must be broken for proper
examination. Andesite is rich in plagioclase feldspar minerals and may
contain biotite, pyroxene, or amphibole. Andesite usually does not contain
quartz or olivine.
Andesite is typically found in lava flows produced by stratovolcanoes.

Because these lavas cooled rapidly at the surface, they are generally
composed of small crystals. The mineral grains are usually so small that
they cannot be seen without the use of a magnifying device. Some
specimens that cooled rapidly contain a significant amount of glass, while
others that formed from gas-charged lavas have a vesicular or
amygdaloidal texture.
andesite stratovolcanoes
Stratovolcanoes: Pavlof Volcano (right) and Pavlof Sister Volcano (left) are
a pair of symmetrical stratovolcanoes built of andesite flows and tephra on
the Alaska Peninsula. Pavlof Volcano is one of the most active volcanoes
in Alaska. Photo by T. Miller, United States Geological Survey.
Where Does Andesite Form?
Andesite and diorite are common rocks of the continental crust above
subduction zones. They generally form after an oceanic plate melts during
its descent into the subduction zone to produce a source of magma. Diorite
is a coarse-grained igneous rock that forms when the magma did not erupt,
but instead slowly crystallized within Earth's crust. Andesite is a fine-
grained rock that formed when the magma erupted onto the surface and
crystallized quickly.
Andesite and diorite have a composition that is intermediate between

basalt and granite. This is because their parent magmas formed from the
partial melting of a basaltic oceanic plate. This magma may have received
a granitic contribution by melting granitic rocks as it ascended or mixed with
granitic magma.
Andesite derives its name from the Andes Mountains of South America. In
the Andes it occurs as lava flows interbedded with ash and tuff deposits on
the steep flanks of stratovolcanoes. Andesite stratovolcanoes are found
above subduction zones in Central America, Mexico, Washington, Oregon,
the Aleutian Arc, Japan, Indonesia, the Philippines, the Caribbean, and
New Zealand, among other locations.
Andesite can also form away from the subduction zone environment. For
example, it can form at ocean ridges and oceanic hot spots from partial
melting of basaltic rocks. It can also form during eruptions at continental
plate interiors where deep-source magma melts continental crust or mixes
with continental magmas. There are many other environments where
andesite might form.
Pavlof Volcano - plate tectonics
Pavlof Volcano - plate tectonics: Simplified plate tectonics cross-section
showing how Pavlof Volcano is located above a subduction zone where
basaltic crust of the Pacific Plate is being partially melted at depth. The
ascending magma then passes through continental crust, where it might
mix with other magmas or be altered by melting rocks of different
composition.
Andesite Porphyry
Occasionally, andesites contain large, visible grains of plagioclase,

amphibole, or pyroxene. These large crystals are known as "phenocrysts."
They begin forming when a magma, which is cooling at depth, approaches
the crystallization temperature of some of its minerals. These high-
crystallization-temperature minerals begin forming below the surface and
grow to visible sizes before the magma erupts.
When the magma erupts onto the Earth's surface, the rest of the melt
crystallizes quickly. This produces a rock with two different crystal sizes:
large crystals that formed slowly at depth (known as "phenocrysts"), and
small crystals that formed quickly at the surface (known as "groundmass").
"Andesite porphyry" is the name used for these rocks with two crystal sizes.
1.5 basalt
Basalt is a fine-grained igneous rock rich in iron that gives it a black to
brown color.
Fluid lava flows, such as those in Hawaii, produce basalt. If basalt has a
large number of
gas bubble holes it is called vesicular basalt or scoria. Basalt that has been
exposed to air
and water for a long time may oxidize to
a red color.
coarse-grained (phaneritic) texture
1.6 granite
Granite is a coarse-grained igneous rock often with a pink to reddish
color. A large
portion of the granite is made of small crystals of orthoclase feldspar which
give the rock
the pink or reddish color. Other minerals present are quartz (usually gray).
albite feldspar
(white) and either white mica (muscovite) or black mica (biotite). The word
granite means
grain-rock; it it weathers, it crumbles into loose grains.
What is Granite?
Granite is a light-colored igneous rock with grains large enough to be

visible with the unaided eye. It forms from the slow crystallization of magma
below Earth's surface. Granite is composed mainly of quartz and feldspar
with minor amounts of mica, amphiboles, and other minerals. This mineral
composition usually gives granite a red, pink, gray, or white color with dark
mineral grains visible throughout the rock.
Granite in Yosemite Valley
Granite in Yosemite Valley: Photograph of Yosemite Valley, California,

showing the steep granite cliffs that form the walls of the valley. ©
iStockphoto / photo75.
The Best-Known Igneous Rock
Granite is the best-known igneous rock. Many people recognize granite

because it is the most common igneous rock found at Earth's surface and
because granite is used to make many objects that we encounter in daily
life. These include counter tops, floor tiles, paving stone, curbing, stair
treads, building veneer, and cemetery monuments. Granite is used all
around us - especially if you live in a city.
Related: Explore the many uses of granite!
Granite is also well-known from its many world-famous natural exposures.

These include: Stone Mountain, Georgia; Yosemite Valley, California;
Mount Rushmore, South Dakota; Pike's Peak, Colorado; and White
Mountains, New Hampshire.
Rock kit
Rock & Mineral Kits: Get a rock, mineral, or fossil kit to learn more about
Earth materials. The best way to learn about rocks is to have specimens
available for testing and examination.
Yosemite Nature Notes - Granite: This video examines some of the

granites that create the scenery and climbing pleasures of Yosemite
National Park.
Fine-grained granite
Granite: Photograph of a white, fine-grained granite. This specimen is

about two inches across.
Multiple Definitions of Granite
The word "granite" is used in a variety of ways by different people. A simple
definition is used in introductory courses; a more precise definition is used
by petrologists (geologists who specialize in the study of rocks); and, the
definition of granite expands wildly when used by people who sell
decorative stone such as countertops, tile, and building veneer.
These multiple definitions of granite can lead to communication problems.

However, if you know who is using the word and who they are
communicating with, you can interpret the word in its proper context. Three
common usages of the word "granite" are explained below.
1.7 diorite
Diorite is a coarse-grained igneous rock intermediate in composition
between granite
and gabbro. It can sometimes be described as a "white granite" because
of the abundance
of albite, a white feldspar. Depending upon the amount of iron rich
minerals present,
diorite can range from nearly white to quite dark. Diorite has the same
mineral content
as andesite.
1.8 gabbro
Gabbro is a dark, coarse-grained igneous rock. It has the same mineral
content as
basalt, but the grains in gabbro are visible to the naked eye.
mixed grain sizes (large and small)
What is Gabbro?
Gabbro is a coarse-grained, dark-colored, intrusive igneous rock. It is

usually black or dark green in color and composed mainly of the minerals
plagioclase and augite. It is the most abundant rock in the deep oceanic
crust. Gabbro has a variety of uses in the construction industry. It is used
for everything from crushed stone base materials at construction sites to
polished stone counter tops and floor tiles.
Gabbro composition chart
Igneous rock composition chart: A chart that illustrates the generalized

mineral composition of igneous rocks. By studying this chart, you can see
that gabbros and basalts are composed mainly of plagioclase feldspar,
micas, amphiboles, and olivine.
What Minerals are in Gabbro?
Gabbro is composed mainly of calcium-rich plagioclase feldspar (usually

labradorite or bytownite) and clinopyroxene (augite). Minor amounts of
olivine and orthopyroxene might also be present in the rock. (See
composition chart on this page.)
This mineral composition usually gives gabbro a black to very dark green
color. A minor amount of light-colored mineral grains may also be present.
Unlike many other igneous rocks, gabbro usually contains very little quartz.
You can see a close-up view of gabbro toward the bottom of this page.
Gabbro and Basalt are Related
Gabbros are equivalent in composition to basalts. The difference between
the two rock types is their grain size. Basalts are extrusive igneous rocks
that cool quickly and have fine-grained crystals. Gabbros are intrusive
igneous rocks that cool slowly and have coarse-grained crystals.
1.9 porphyry
The term porphyry simply refers to the two distinctly different grain sizes
present in an
igneous rock. The larger crystals are called phenocrysts and the finer
crystals are the
groundmass. The groundmass can be rhyolite, andesite, or basalt and
even, rarely, granite.
The phenocrysts are often feldspar crystals or hornblende crystals.
very large grain size (larger than 1/2 inch)

10. pegmatite
Pegmatite is very coarsely crystallized. Some of the largest crystals in
the world have
been found in pegmatites. Pegmatites often have the same mineral
composition of granites
with large crystals of mica and feldspar. Gem minerals, such as tourmaline
and beryl are
found in pegmatites.
What is Pegmatite?
Pegmatites are extreme igneous rocks that form during the final stage of a
magma’s crystallization. They are extreme because they contain
exceptionally large crystals and they sometimes contain minerals that are
rarely found in other types of rocks.
To be called a “pegmatite,” a rock should be composed almost entirely of
crystals that are at least one centimeter in diameter. The name “pegmatite”
has nothing to do with the mineral composition of the rock.
Most pegmatites have a composition that is similar to granite with abundant

quartz, feldspar, and mica. These are sometimes called “granite
pegmatites” to indicate their mineralogical composition. However,
compositions such as “gabbro pegmatite,” “syenite pegmatite,” and any
other plutonic rock name combined with “pegmatite” are possible.
Pegmatites are sometimes sources of valuable minerals such as

spodumene (an ore of lithium) and beryl (an ore of beryllium) that are rarely
found in economic amounts in other types of rocks. They also can be a
source of gemstones. Some of the world’s best tourmaline, aquamarine,
and topaz deposits have been found in pegmatites.
---------------------------------------------------------------
2. Metamorphic
rocks
Metamorphic Rocks:
Gneiss, Marble, Quartzite, Schist, Serpentinite, Slate
Metamorphic Rock is formed by great heat, or pressure, or both. The
pressure can come from being buried very deep in the earth's crust, or from
the huge plates of the earth's crust pushing against each other. The deeper
below the surface of the earth, the higher the temperature, so deep burial
also means high temperatures. Another way that high temperatures occur
is when magma rises through the earth's upper crust. It is very hot and
bakes the rock through which it moves. Hot liquids or gases from the
magma also can cause chemical changes in the rock around the magma.
Metamorphic rocks form when pre-existing rocks (igneous, sedimentary, or

metamorphic) are exposed to high temperatures and pressures under the
Earth's surface. Some pre-existing minerals, unstable at the higher
temperature and pressure conditions, transform into new minerals. Others
recrystallize and grow larger.
Metamorphic rocks tend to be dominated by minerals you already know:

feldspar, quartz, muscovite, biotite, amphibole, and calcite/dolomite.
However, a few minerals are found exclusively or mainly in metamorphic
rocks:
Metamorphic rocks have been modified by heat, pressure, and chemical
processes, usually while buried deep below Earth's surface. Exposure to
these extreme conditions has altered the mineralogy, texture, and chemical
composition of the rocks.
There are two basic types of metamorphic rocks. Foliated metamorphic

rocks such as gneiss, phyllite, schist, and slate have a layered or banded
appearance that is produced by exposure to heat and directed pressure.
Non-foliated metamorphic rocks such as hornfels, marble, quartzite, and
novaculite do not have a layered or banded appearance. Pictures and brief
descriptions of some common types of metamorphic rocks are shown on
this page.
Metamorphic Rocks
23.
GNEISS (nice)
What Type of Rock Is It?: Metamorphic
What Does It Look Like?: Gneiss is usually light in color, but it can be
quite dark. It looks like it has ribbons or stripes of minerals running through
the rock. The grain size is usually fairly coarse. Gneiss usually breaks into
blocky pieces, not along the layers. Unlike granite, in which the crystals are
randomly arranged, the crystals in gneiss are lined up and in layers. Gneiss
is a tough and hard rock.
What Minerals Make Up the Rock?: Almost always: feldspars, quartz,

and mica. Sometimes: kyanite, garnet, hornblende, tourmaline, magnetite,
and many others.
How Was It Formed?: Gneiss is formed from another metamorphic rock,

called schist. The schist formed from fine grained sedimentary rock (often a
shale). Gneiss can be formed also from some igneous rocks, especially
granite. It is usually formed under great pressure from moving plates of the
earth's crust.
Compare To: schist granite

24.
SCHIST (sh-ist)
What Type of Rock Is It? Metamorphic
What Does It Look Like? Top and bottom layers are usually a silvery, to
green, to brown, to black mica, or a green to very dark green chlorite. The
micas are often in small flaky crystals. Layers are usually thin, often with
lens like layers of quartz between the mica layers. Layers may be
somewhat wavy. Grain size varies from medium to coarse. Schist usually
splits easily along the layers of mica, unlike gneiss.
What Minerals Make Up the Rock? quartz, feldspar, mica (muscovite,

biotite). Sometimes: chlorite, garnet, hornblende, actinolite, kyanite,
magnetite, pyrite, staurolite, tourmaline, and many others.
How Was It Formed? Schists are usually formed from shales that were
formed from clay or sandy clay, sometimes with a little lime, sometimes
from rocks and sediments from volcanoes. Schists are most often formed
when plates of the ocean floor push under, into, or up onto a continent. It is
the sea floor rocks that get crunched to form schists.
Compare To: gneiss, shale, slate, serpentinite

25.
MARBLE (mar'-bul)
What Does It Look Like? Often pure white. It may be streaked or patchy
gray, green, tan, or red. Marble is fine grained to very coarse grained and
crystals are usually easy to see. The rock is soft; it will not scratch glass
(quartzite may look like a fine grained marble, but easily scratches glass).
The powdered marble will often fizz with white vinegar. If it does not fizz, it
may be dolomitic marble.
What Minerals Make Up the Rock? calcite, or dolomite (dolomitic

marble); Sometimes: graphite, pyrite, mica, tremolite, and a few others
How Was It Formed? Marble forms from the metamorphism of

limestones.
Compare To: quartzite , limestone

26.
QUARTZITE (kwart'-zite)
What Minerals Make Up the Rock? quartz; Sometimes, a little: mica,

feldspar, magnetite, pyrite, ilmenite, garnet, and any of a few others.
What Does It Look Like? If the quartzite is pure quartz it is white. It may
have a yellowish to reddish color if it contains iron minerals. Rarely, it is
black if it contains a lot of magnetite. Sometimes, using a magnifier, the
grains of sand from which it formed can be seen. The rock breaks through
the grains, not around them (sandstone breaks around the grains).
Quartzite often shows lighter colored flakes on a broken surface, where air
is behind a very thin chip. Unlike marble, quartzite is very hard and easily
scratches glass.
How Was It Formed? Most quartzite is metamorphosed sandstone.
Compare To: marble, sandstone

27.
SLATE (sl-ate)
What Minerals Make Up the Rock? micas, feldspars, quartz (but they
can not be recognized because the grains are so small you would need a
microscope to see them); Sometimes contain: pyrite
What Does It Look Like? Slate can be black, gray, brownish red, bluish
gray, or greenish gray. It is very fine grained and has thin, quite smooth, flat
layers. Unlike shale, slate easily splits into thin flat pieces. It often will
scratch glass, with a little difficulty.
How Was It Formed? Slate is usually formed from clay sediments or

shale that has been heated and put under pressure by plate collisions. The
pressures and temperatures that form slate are lower than those that form
schist.
Compare To: shale, schist, serpentinite

28.
SERPENTINITE (Sir'-pen-tin-ite)
What Does It Look Like? Serpentinite feels very slippery. It is more a

broken rock than it is a layered rock. The "layers" are sort of flat plates of
green rock. They may be thin or more than 2cm thick. Serpentinite is
usually green to grayish-green. The flat plates may have long scratch like
grooves in them. It may be dull or nearly glassy looking. When serpentine
is dull it may be fine to coarse grained. When it is glassy it looks very
smooth and has no visible grains.
What Minerals Make Up the Rock? Mostly antigorite, amesite, and

lizardite. Sometimes: chrysotile (a type of asbestos), brucite, magnesite,
chromite, magnetite and garnets. Talc is often found because serpentine
alters to talc.
How Was It Formed? When an ocean floor plate collides with a

continental plate, giant slices of the oceanic crust are pushed up into the
rocks of the continent. A rock, called peridotite, at the bottom of the oceanic
plate is changed to serpentinite because there is less weight on it, the
temperature is lower, and water circulates through it. Serpentinite is usually
found in mountains that were once at the edge of a continent. Another way
serpentinite can form is from peridotites that crystallize deep in the earth's
crust from magma. The peridotites are gradually uncovered by erosion, and
as they get close to the surface, they alter to serpentinite.
Compare To: diabase, gabbro, slate, schist

2.1 Gneiss
Gneiss
Gneiss
Gneiss: The specimen shown is about two inches (five centimeters) across.
It is easy to see the "salt and pepper" banding of this rock.
What is Gneiss?
Gneiss is a foliated metamorphic rock identified by its bands and lenses of

varying composition, while other bands contain granular minerals with an
interlocking texture. Other bands contain platy or elongate minerals with
evidence of preferred orientation. It is this banded appearance and texture -
rather than composition - that define a gneiss.
Gneissic Granodiorite
Gneissic Granodiorite: An outcrop of gneissic granodiorite in the Zarembo

Island area of southeastern Alaska.
How Does Gneiss Form?
Gneiss usually forms by regional metamorphism at convergent plate

boundaries. It is a high-grade metamorphic rock in which mineral grains
recrystallized under intense heat and pressure. This alteration increased
the size of the mineral grains and segregated them into bands, a
transformation which made the rock and its minerals more stable in their
metamorphic environment.
Gneiss can form in several different ways. The most common path begins
with shale, which is a sedimentary rock. Regional metamorphism can
transform shale into slate, then phyllite, then schist, and finally into gneiss.
During this transformation, clay particles in shale transform into micas and
increase in size. Finally, the platy micas begin to recrystallize into granular
minerals. The appearance of granular minerals is what marks the transition
into gneiss.
Intense heat and pressure can also metamorphose granite into a banded
rock known as "granite gneiss." This transformation is usually more of a
structural change than a mineralogical transformation. Granite gneiss can
also form through the metamorphism of sedimentary rocks. The end
product of their metamorphism is a banded rock with a mineralogical
composition like granite.
photo of polished gneiss from the yard of a countertop vendor
Folded Gneiss: A photograph of polished gneiss from the stock of a

countertop vendor. The view shown in the photo is about 12 inches across.
Click to enlarge.
Composition and Texture of Gneiss
Although gneiss is not defined by its composition, most specimens have

bands of feldspar and quartz grains in an interlocking texture. These bands
are usually light in color and alternate with bands of darker-colored
minerals with platy or elongate habits. The dark minerals sometimes exhibit
an orientation determined by the pressures of metamorphism.
Some specimens of gneiss contain distinctive minerals characteristic of the
metamorphic environment. These minerals might include biotite, cordierite,
sillimanite, kyanite, staurolite, andalusite, and garnet. Gneiss is sometimes
named for these minerals, examples of which include "garnet gneiss" and
"biotite gneiss."
2.2 Schist
A foliated metamorphic rock that contains abundant platy mineral grains.
muscovite schist
Muscovite schist: The dominant visible mineral in this schist is muscovite.

Its platy grains are aligned in a common orientation, and that allows the
rock to be split easily in the direction of the grain orientation. The specimen
shown is about two inches (five centimeters) across.
What is Schist?
Schist is a foliated metamorphic rock made up of plate-shaped mineral

grains that are large enough to see with an unaided eye. It usually forms on
a continental side of a convergent plate boundary where sedimentary
rocks, such as shales and mudstones, have been subjected to
compressive forces, heat, and chemical activity. This metamorphic
environment is intense enough to convert the clay minerals of the
sedimentary rocks into platy metamorphic minerals such as muscovite,
biotite, and chlorite. To become schist, a shale must be metamorphosed in
steps through slate and then through phyllite. If the schist is
metamorphosed further, it might become a granular rock known as gneiss.
A rock does not need a specific mineral composition to be called “schist.” It
only needs to contain enough platy metamorphic minerals in alignment to
exhibit distinct foliation. This texture allows the rock to be broken into thin
slabs along the alignment direction of the platy mineral grains. This type of
breakage is known as schistosity.
In rare cases the platy metamorphic minerals are not derived from the clay
minerals of a shale. The platy minerals can be graphite, talc, or hornblende
from carbonaceous, basaltic, or other sources.
chlorite schist
Chlorite schist: A schist with chlorite as the dominant visible mineral is

known as a "chlorite schist." The specimen shown is about two inches (five
centimeters) across.
Rock kit
How Does Schist Form?
Schist is a rock that has been exposed to a moderate level of heat and a
moderate level of pressure. Let’s trace its formation from its protoliths - the
sedimentary rocks from which it forms. These are usually shales or
mudstones.
In the convergent plate boundary environment, heat and chemical activity

transform the clay minerals of shales and mudstones into platy mica
minerals such as muscovite, biotite, and chlorite. The directed pressure
pushes the transforming clay minerals from their random orientations into a
common parallel alignment where the long axes of the platy minerals are
oriented perpendicular to the direction of the compressive force. This
transformation of minerals marks the point in the rock’s history when it is no
longer sedimentary but becomes the low-grade metamorphic rock known
as “slate.”
Slate is has a dull luster, it can be split into thin sheets along the parallel
mineral alignments, and the thin sheets will ring when they are dropped
onto a hard surface. If the slate is exposed to additional metamorphism, the
mica grains in the rock will begin to grow. The grains will elongate in a
direction that is perpendicular to the direction of compressive force. This
alignment and increase in mica grain size gives the rock a silky luster. At
that point the rock can be called a “phyllite.” When the platy mineral grains
have grown large enough to be seen with the unaided eye, the rock can be
called “schist.” Additional heat, pressure, and chemical activity might
convert the schist into a granular metamorphic rock known as “gneiss.”
garnet schist
Garnet mica schist: This rock is composed of fine-grained muscovite mica

with numerous visible grains of red garnet. The specimen shown is about
two inches (five centimeters) across.
Emeralds in mica schist
Emeralds in mica schist: Photograph of emerald crystals in mica schist

from the Malyshevskoye Mine, Sverdlovsk Region, Southern Ural, Russia.
The large crystal is about 21 millimeters in length. Photograph ©
iStockphoto and Epitavi.
Types of Schist and Their Composition
As explained above, mica minerals such as chlorite, muscovite, and biotite

are the characteristic minerals of schist. These were formed through
metamorphism of the clay minerals present in the protolith. Other common
minerals in schist include quartz and feldspars that are inherited from the
protolith. Micas, feldspars, and quartz usually account for most of the
minerals present in a schist.
Schists are often named according to the eye-visible minerals of
metamorphic origin that are obvious and abundant when the rock is
examined. Muscovite schist, biotite schist, and chlorite schist (often called
“greenstone”) are commonly used names. Other names based upon
obvious metamorphic minerals are garnet schist, kyanite schist, staurolite
schist, hornblende schist, and graphite schist.
Some names used for schist often consist of three words, such as garnet
graphite schist. In these cases the dominant metamorphic mineral’s name
is used second, and the less abundant mineral name is used first. Garnet
graphite schist is a schist that contains graphite as its dominant mineral,
but abundant garnet is visible and present.
2.3 Slate
What is Slate? What Minerals are in Slate? What is Slate Used For?
Slate
Slate is a fine-grained, foliated metamorphic rock that is created by the

alteration of shale or mudstone by low-grade regional metamorphism. The
specimen shown above is about two inches (five centimeters) across.
What is Slate?
Slate is a fine-grained, foliated metamorphic rock that is created by the

alteration of shale or mudstone by low-grade regional metamorphism. It is
popular for a wide variety of uses such as roofing, flooring, and flagging
because of its durability and attractive appearance.
Composition of Slate
Slate is composed mainly of clay minerals or micas, depending upon the

degree of metamorphism to which it has been subjected. The original clay
minerals in shale alter to micas with increasing levels of heat and pressure.
Slate can also contain abundant quartz and small amounts of feldspar,
calcite, pyrite, hematite, and other minerals.
Slate roof
Slate roof: Most of the slate mined throughout the world is used to produce
roofing slates. Slate performs well in this application because it can be cut
into thin sheets, absorbs minimal moisture, and stands up well in contact
with freezing water. A disadvantage is the cost of the slate and its
installation in comparison with other roofing materials. As a result, in new
construction slate is mainly confined to high-end projects and prestige
architecture. Image © iStockphoto / Iain Sarjeant.
Color of Slate
Most slates are gray in color and range in a continuum of shades from light
to dark gray. Slate also occurs in shades of green, red, black, purple, and
brown. The color of slate is often determined by the amount and type of
iron and organic material that are present in the rock.
2.4 Marble
A non-foliated metamorphic rock that forms when limestone is subjected to
heat and pressure.
Pink Marble
Pink Marble: A piece of pink marble about four inches (ten centimeters)
across. The pink color is most likely derived from iron. Image by NASA.
What is Marble?
Marble is a metamorphic rock that forms when limestone is subjected to the

heat and pressure of metamorphism. It is composed primarily of the
mineral calcite (CaCO3) and usually contains other minerals, such as clay
minerals, micas, quartz, pyrite, iron oxides, and graphite. Under the
conditions of metamorphism, the calcite in the limestone recrystallizes to
form a rock that is a mass of interlocking calcite crystals. A related rock,
dolomitic marble, is produced when dolostone is subjected to heat and
pressure.
Photo Gallery: The Many Uses of Marble

Ruby in marble
Ruby in Marble: Marble is often the host rock for corundum, spinel, and
other gem minerals. This specimen is a piece of white marble with a large
red ruby crystal from Afghanistan. Specimen is about 1 1/4 inches across
(about 3 centimeters). Specimen and photo by Arkenstone /
www.iRocks.com.
How Does Marble Form?
Most marble forms at convergent plate boundaries where large areas of

Earth's crust are exposed to regional metamorphism. Some marble also
forms by contact metamorphism when a hot magma body heats adjacent
limestone or dolostone.
Before metamorphism, the calcite in the limestone is often in the form of

lithified fossil material and biological debris. During metamorphism, this
calcite recrystallizes and the texture of the rock changes. In the early
stages of the limestone-to-marble transformation, the calcite crystals in the
rock are very small. In a freshly-broken hand specimen, they might only be
recognized as a sugary sparkle of light reflecting from their tiny cleavage
faces when the rock is played in the light.
As metamorphism progresses, the crystals grow larger and become easily

recognizable as interlocking crystals of calcite. Recrystallization obscures
the original fossils and sedimentary structures of the limestone. It also
occurs without forming foliation, which normally is found in rocks that are
altered by the directed pressure of a convergent plate boundary.
Recrystallization is what marks the separation between limestone and

marble. Marble that has been exposed to low levels of metamorphism will
have very small calcite crystals. The crystals become larger as the level of
metamorphism progresses. Clay minerals within the marble will alter to
micas and more complex silicate structures as the level of metamorphism
increases.
marble dimension stone
Marble Dimension Stone: Marble cut into blocks and slabs of specific size
is known as "dimension stone." Photo © iStockphoto / Thomas Lehmann.
Physical Properties and Uses of Marble
Marble occurs in large deposits that can be hundreds of feet thick and
geographically extensive. This allows it to be economically mined on a
large scale, with some mines and quarries producing millions of tons per
year.
Most marble is made into either crushed stone or dimension stone.

Crushed stone is used as an aggregate in highways, railroad beds, building
foundations, and other types of construction. Dimension stone is produced
by sawing marble into pieces of specific dimensions. These are used in
monuments, buildings, sculptures, paving and other projects. We have an
article about "the uses of marble" that includes photos and descriptions of
marble in many types of uses.
Gray Marble
Gray Marble: This specimen has calcite cleavage faces up to several

millimeters in size that are reflecting light. The specimen is about two
inches (five centimeters) across.
calcium carbonate for acid neutralization
Calcium carbonate medicines: Marble is composed of calcium carbonate.

That makes it very effective at neutralizing acids. Highest purity marble is
often crushed to a powder, processed to remove impurities, and then used
to make products such as Tums and Alka-Seltzer that are used for the
treatment of acid indigestion. Crushed marble is also used to reduce the
acid content of soils, the acid levels of streams, and as an acid-neutralizing
material in the chemical industry. Photo © iStockphoto / NoDerog.
Rock kit
Color: Marble is usually a light-colored rock. When it is formed from a

limestone with very few impurities, it will be white in color. Marble that
contains impurities such as clay minerals, iron oxides, or bituminous
material can be bluish, gray, pink, yellow, or black in color.
Marble of extremely high purity with a bright white color is very useful. It is
often mined, crushed to a powder, and then processed to remove as many
impurities as possible. The resulting product is called "whiting." This
powder is used as a coloring agent and filler in paint, whitewash, putty,
plastic, grout, cosmetics, paper, and other manufactured products.
Acid Reaction: Being composed of calcium carbonate, marble will react in

contact with many acids, neutralizing the acid. It is one of the most effective
acid neutralization materials. Marble is often crushed and used for acid
neutralization in streams, lakes, and soils.
It is used for acid neutralization in the chemical industry as well.

Pharmaceutical antacid medicines such as "Tums" contain calcium
carbonate, which is sometimes made from powdered marble. These
medicines are helpful to people who suffer from acid reflux or acid
indigestion. Powdered marble is used as an inert filler in other pills.
Hardness: Being composed of calcite, marble has a hardness of three on

the Mohs hardness scale. As a result, marble is easy to carve, and that
makes it useful for producing sculptures and ornamental objects. The
translucence of marble makes it especially attractive for many types of
sculptures.
The low hardness and solubility of marble allows it to be used as a calcium

additive in animal feeds. Calcium additives are especially important for
dairy cows and egg-producing chickens. It is also used as a low-hardness
abrasive for scrubbing bathroom and kitchen fixtures.
Ability to Accept a Polish: After being sanded with progressively finer
abrasives, marble can be polished to a high luster. This allows attractive
pieces of marble to be cut, polished, and used as floor tiles, architectural
panels, facing stone, window sills, stair treads, columns, and many other
pieces of decorative stone.
2.5 Quartzite
The metamorphic rock composed almost entirely of quartz.
quartzite
Quartzite: A specimen of quartzite showing its conchoidal fracture and

granular texture. The specimen shown is about two inches (five
What is Quartzite?
Quartzite is a nonfoliated metamorphic rock composed almost entirely of

quartz. It forms when a quartz-rich sandstone is altered by the heat,
pressure, and chemical activity of metamorphism. These conditions
recrystallize the sand grains and the silica cement that binds them together.
The result is a network of interlocking quartz grains of incredible strength.
The interlocking crystalline structure of quartzite makes it a hard, tough,

durable rock. It is so tough that it breaks through the quartz grains rather
than breaking along the boundaries between them. This is a characteristic
that separates true quartzite from sandstone.
Quartzite photomicrograph
Quartzite Under a Microscope: A specimen of the Bo Quartzite collected

near South Troms, Norway, observed through a microscope in thin-section
under cross-polarized light. The quartz grains in this view range in color
from white to gray to black, and they form a tight interlocking network.
Photograph by Jackdann88, used here under a Creative Commons license.
Physical Properties of Quartzite
Quartzite is usually white to gray in color. Some rock units that are stained
by iron can be pink, red, or purple. Other impurities can cause quartzite to
be yellow, orange, brown, green, or blue.
The quartz content of quartzite gives it a hardness of about seven on the

Mohs Hardness Scale. Its extreme toughness made it a favorite rock for
use as an impact tool by early people. Its conchoidal fracture allowed it to
be shaped into large cutting tools such as ax heads and scrapers. Its
coarse texture made it less suitable for producing tools with fine edges
such as knife blades and projectile points.
Quartzite scree
Quartzite scree: A steep slope covered with an unstable blanket of

quartzite scree. Scree is a name used for resistant pieces of broken rock
that cover a talus slope. This photo was taken near Begunje na
Gorenjskem, Slovenia. A Creative Commons image by Pinky sl.
2.6 Novaculite
Native Americans and European settlers valued this rock for different
reasons
novaculite
Novaculite: Specimen of novaculite showing its fine-grained texture and

conchoidal fracture. Specimen is approximately 3 inches across.
What is Novaculite?
Novaculite is a dense, hard, fine-grained siliceous rock that breaks with a

conchoidal fracture. It forms from sediments deposited in marine
environments where organisms such as diatoms (single-celled algae that
secrete a hard shell composed of silicon dioxide) are abundant in the
water. When the diatoms die, their silicon dioxide shells fall to the seafloor.
In some areas these diatom shells are the primary ingredient of the
seafloor sediments.
During diagenesis (the transformation from sediment to rock) the silicon

dioxide from the diatom shells is transformed into chalcedony (a
microcrystalline silicon dioxide). At this point the rock is chert. The chert is
transformed into novaculite as further diagenesis and low-grade
metamorphism recrystallize the chalcedony into microcrystalline quartz
grains.
The two primary differences between chert and novaculite are: 1) chert is
composed mainly of chalcedony while novaculite is composed mainly of
microcrystalline quartz grains; and, 2) chert is a sedimentary rock, while
novaculite is a chert that has experienced a higher level of diagenetic
alteration and low-grade metamorphism.
3. Sedimentary
Rocks
Sedimentary Rocks:
Breccia, Conglomerate, Limestone, Sandstone, Shale
Sedimentary Rock forms from particles, called sediment, that are worn
off other rocks. The particles are sand, silt, and clay. Sand has the largest
particles while clay has the smallest. If there are a lot of pebbles mixed with
the sand, it is called gravel. The sediment gets turned into rock by being
buried and compacted by pressure from the weight above it. Another way it
becomes rock is from being cemented together by material that has been
dissolved in water. Often, both cementing and compaction take place
together.
When igneous rocks are exposed to weathering, many of their common

minerals completely dissolve or partially dissolve and convert into clay
minerals. As a result, olivine, pyroxene, plagioclase, amphibole, and biotite
are uncommon in sedimentary rocks. Similarly, most distinctly metamorphic
minerals either dissolve or disintegrate into particles too small to be readily
noticed by a beginning geologist.
Thus, of the eight common igneous minerals, only quartz, K-feldspar, and
muscovite are commonly seen in sedimentary rocks. These minerals are
joined in sedimentary rocks by clay minerals, calcite, dolomite, gypsum,
and halite. The clay minerals form during mineral weathering. The other
four minerals are salts that precipitate as water evaporates. The elemental
constituents of these salts are ultimately also derived from mineral
weathering.
Pyrite is not a rock-forming mineral, but it is commonly present in

sedimentary rocks that formed in or near seawater (oceans, lagoons, and
coastal swamps).
Photos of Common Clastic, Chemical, and Organic Sedimentary Rock
Types.
SANDSTONE (sand'-stone)
What Type of Rock Is It? Sedimentary
What Does It Look Like? Sandstone is often red to brown, light gray to
nearly white. Sometimes it is yellow or green. It usually is composed of
rounded grains that are all of the same size; and it is usually medium
grained. Some sandstones show slight color variations in layering.
What Minerals Make Up the Rock? quartz; Sometimes contains:

feldspars, mica, glauconite (in green colored sandstone), magnetite,
garnet, rutile, ilmenite
How Was It Formed? quartz sand that is produced by the weathering of

other rocks (such as granite, gneiss, and other sandstones) is deposited by
rivers, waves, or wind. The sediment may have been a sand bar, an ocean
beach, or desert sand dunes. The sand is buried under other sediments,
compacted by the weight of those sediments, and cemented by material
dissolved in water that seeps through it.
Related Rocks: Arkose: Usually red or pink, may be gray. Grains are
angular. Arkose contains more than 25% feldspar with quartz. Medium to
coarse grained. Greywacke: Black or dark green. Usually contains coarse
angular grains included with fine grains.
39.
SHALE (sh-ale)
What Does It Look Like? Shale may be black, gray, red, brown, dark
green, or blue. It is fine grained, so particles usually can not be seen. When
moistened, shale usually smells like wet mud. What Minerals Make Up the
Rock? clay minerals; Sometimes with some quartz sand, pyrite, gypsum
How Was It Formed? Clay sediments settle in quiet lakes, lagoons, bays,
or off-shore areas. When buried and compacted the clays become shale.
Iron oxides often help to cement the particles together.
Compare To: slate schist

40.
LIMESTONE (lime'-stone)
What Does It Look Like? Limestone is usually white, gray, tan, or yellow.
It may contain impurities to make it red or black. Fossils are often found in
limestone. It may be very smooth or even sugary, fine grained, or medium
grained. The powdered rock will usually fizz in white vinegar. Unlike
marble, limestone is not composed of visible crystals. What Minerals Make
Up the Rock? mostly calcite
How Was It Formed? Most limestone is formed by a chemical reaction in

sea water. The reaction makes a lime mud which sinks to the bottom to for
the limestone. Some limestones are formed from buried coral reefs.
Related Rocks: Dolostone (doe'-low-stone) looks like limestone, but is
composed of the mineral, dolomite. Powdered dolostone does not fizz with
white vinegar. Dolostone forms on the ocean floor.
Compare To: marble

41.
CONGLOMERATE (cun-glom'-er-at)
What Does It Look Like? Conglomerate looks like a mixture of sand and
different sizes of rounded pebbles. The pebbles are the important
observation.
What Minerals Make Up the Rock? mostly quartz
How Was It Formed? Sand and pebbles collect along sea shores, lake
shores, or river banks. They are compacted by the weight of sediments that
collect above them and cemented by material dissolved in the water that
seeps through them.
Related Rocks: Breccia (brech'-ee-uh) looks like conglomerate, but the

"pebbles" in it are jagged and blocky, not rounded.
42.
BRECCIA (brech'-ee-uh)
What Does It Look Like? Like conglomerate, but the "pebbles" in it are
jagged and blocky, not rounded.
What Minerals Make Up the Rock? The "cement" holding the rock
together is mostly quartz, but the pebbles can be almost any kind of rock -
often quartzite, granite, or another tough rock that does not easily erode
into sand or silt.
How Was It Formed? Where the environment is dry - like in deserts.

When mountains erode broken pieces of rock don't get carried away be
streams. They just pile up. When they get deep enough, the weight above
compresses them and they get cemented together.
Compare To: Conglomerate

About the Rock Identification Key
This Rock Key has been designed and written to assist children and
adults in identifying the common rocks they find in their back yards and on
memorable vacations. Anyone may copy it freely for noncommercial use.
Many thanks to Alan Plante who graciously offered many useful

suggestions for both major additions and editorial changes. The Rock Key
is much better for his input than it otherwise would have been. Alan's
advice has made this web version of the Rock Key a much better
document.
I have successfully used the Rock Identification Key, in a flowchart paper

format, with more than 6000 elementary school children for more than 20
years. That is not to say that this electronic version will work as well.
However, it is my hope that it will.
The kinds of rocks included in the Key are restricted. They are the more
common varieties, but it is inevitable that someone will try to identify a rock
which is not among those described. In most cases, the process will arrive
at a closely related type.
Although The Rock Identification Key is copyrighted, it may be

distributed freely for noncommercial use by individuals, educators, and
organizations. Under no condition is its inclusion approved in any
publication, print or electronic, which is to be sold or for which a fee is
charged.
3.1 Breccia
Breccia is a clastic sedimentary rock that is composed of large (over two-
millimeter diameter) angular fragments. The spaces between the large
fragments can be filled with a matrix of smaller particles or a mineral
cement which binds the rock together. The specimen shown above is about
two inches (five centimeters) across.
What Are Sedimentary Rocks?
Sedimentary rocks are formed by the accumulation of sediments. There are
three basic types of sedimentary rocks.
Clastic sedimentary rocks such as breccia, conglomerate, sandstone,

siltstone, and shale are formed from mechanical weathering debris.
Chemical sedimentary rocks, such as rock salt, iron ore, chert, flint, some
dolomites, and some limestones, form when dissolved materials precipitate
from solution.
Organic sedimentary rocks such as coal, some dolomites, and some

limestones, form from the accumulation of plant or animal debris.
Breccia
What Is Breccia, How Does It Form, and What Is Its Composition?
Chert Breccia
Chert Breccia: The angular clasts in this breccia are chert fragments. The
matrix is an iron-stained mix of clay- through sand-size particles. The
specimen is about two inches (five centimeters) across.
What is Breccia?
Breccia is a term most often used for clastic sedimentary rocks that are
composed of large angular fragments (over two millimeters in diameter).
The spaces between the large angular fragments can be filled with a matrix
of smaller particles or a mineral cement that binds the rock together.
How Does Breccia Form?

Breccia forms where broken, angular fragments of rock or mineral debris
accumulate. One possible location for breccia formation is at the base of an
outcrop where mechanical weathering debris accumulates. Another would
be in stream deposits near the outcrop such as an alluvial fan. Some
breccias form as debris flow deposits. The angular particle shape reveals
that they have not been transported very far (transport wears the sharp
points and edges of angular particles into rounded shapes). After
deposition, the fragments are bound together by a mineral cement or by a
matrix of smaller particles that fills the spaces between the fragments.
limestone breccia
Limestone Breccia: A breccia that contains clasts of multiple types of

limestone. Specimen is about four inches (ten centimeters) across.
How Does Breccia Differ From Conglomerate?
Breccia and conglomerate are very similar rocks. They are both clastic
sedimentary rocks composed of particles larger than two millimeters in
diameter. The difference is in the shape of the large particles. In breccia the
large particles are angular in shape, but in conglomerate the particles are
rounded. This reveals a difference in how far the particles were
transported. Near the outcrop where the fragments were produced by
mechanical weathering, the shape is angular. However, during transport by
water away from the outcrop, the sharp points and edges of those angular
fragments are rounded. The rounded particles would form a conglomerate.
breccia outcrop
Debris Flow Breccia: Outcrop of a breccia thought to have formed from

debris flow deposits in Death Valley National Park. The largest clasts are
about three feet (one meter) across and are thought to be from the
Noonday Dolomite. United States Geological Survey image.
What is Breccia's Composition?
Breccia has many compositions. Its composition is mainly determined by
the rock and mineral material that the angular fragments were produced
from. The climate of the source area can also influence composition. Most
breccias are a mix of rock fragments and mineral grains. The type of rock
that the fragments were produced from is often used as an adjective when
referring to the rock. Some examples: sandstone breccia, limestone
breccia, granite breccia, chert breccia, basalt breccia, and others. Often a
breccia will contain many types of angular rock fragments. These are
known as polymict breccias or polymictic breccias.
breccia-forming talus
Talus Slopes: Scene of a mountain environment where talus, the angular

mechanical weathering debris that might form breccia, is produced in
abundance. Panorama from Kearsarge Pass looking east over Big Pothole
Lake into the Owens Valley. Image © iStockphoto / Tom Grundy.
What Color is Breccia?
Breccia can be any color. The color of the matrix or cement along with the
color of the angular rock fragments determine its color. Breccia can be a
colorful rock, as shown in the photos on this page.
3.2 Conglomerate
What Is Conglomerate? How Does It Form? What Is It Used For?
Conglomerate
Conglomerate: The specimen shown is about two inches (five centimeters)

across. It is made up of chert and limestone clasts bound in a matrix of
sand and clay.
What is Conglomerate?
Conglomerate is a clastic sedimentary rock that contains large (greater
than two millimeters in diameter) rounded clasts. The space between the
clasts is generally filled with smaller particles and/or a chemical cement
that binds the rock together.
What is the Composition of Conglomerate?
Conglomerate can have a variety of compositions. As a clastic sedimentary

rock, it can contain clasts of any rock material or weathering product that is
washed downstream or down current. The rounded clasts of conglomerate
can be mineral particles such as quartz, or they can be sedimentary,
metamorphic, or igneous rock fragments. The matrix that binds the large
clasts together can be a mixture of sand, mud, and chemical cement.
beach covered with rounded rocks
Conglomerate-Forming Environment: A beach where strong waves have

deposited rounded, cobble-size rocks. If buried and lithified, these materials
might be transformed into a conglomerate. Image © iStockphoto / Jason
van der Valk.
rounded pebbles
Conglomerate-Size Sediment Clasts: Pebble-size clasts of many

compositions deposited together on a beach. Quartz, sandstone, and
limestone clasts are all easily recognizable. Largest clast is about two
inches (five centimeters) across. Image © iStockphoto / Ivan Ivanov.
Rock kit
How Does Conglomerate Form?
Conglomerate forms where sediments of rounded clasts at least two

millimeters in diameter accumulate. It takes a strong water current to
transport and shape particles this large. So the environment of deposition
might be along a swiftly flowing stream or a beach with strong waves.
There must also be a source of large-size sediment particles somewhere
up current. The rounded shape of the clasts reveals that they were tumbled
by running water or moving waves.
In September 2012, NASA's Mars rover Curiosity discovered an outcrop of

conglomerate exposed on the surface of Mars. The rounded clasts within
the conglomerate provide evidence that a stream or a beach had moved
the rocks and tumbled them into rounded pebbles. This conglomerate was
the most convincing evidence that water once flowed on the surface of
Mars. See photo below.
3.3 Sandstone
A clastic sedimentary rock composed of sand-size grains of mineral, rock,
or organic material.
Sandstone
Sandstone: The specimen shown is about two inches (five centimeters)

across.
What is Sandstone?
Sandstone is a sedimentary rock composed of sand-size grains of mineral,

rock, or organic material. It also contains a cementing material that binds
the sand grains together and may contain a matrix of silt- or clay-size
particles that occupy the spaces between the sand grains.
Sandstone is one of the most common types of sedimentary rock and is
found in sedimentary basins throughout the world. It is often mined for use
as a construction material or as a raw material used in manufacturing. In
the subsurface, sandstone often serves as an aquifer for groundwater or as
a reservoir for oil and natural gas.
What is Sand?
To a geologist, the word "sand" in sandstone refers to the particle size of

the grains in the rock rather than the material of which it is composed.
Sand-size particles range in size from 1/16 millimeter to 2 millimeters in
diameter. Sandstones are rocks composed primarily of sand-size grains.
Sandstone close-up
Sandstone: Close-up view of the sandstone specimen shown above.

Weathering and Transport of Sand
The grains of sand in a sandstone are usually particles of mineral, rock, or

organic material that have been reduced to "sand" size by weathering and
transported to their depositional site by the action of moving water, wind, or
ice. Their time and distance of transport may be brief or significant, and
during that journey the grains are acted upon by chemical and physical
weathering.
If the sand is deposited close to its source rock, it will resemble the source
rock in composition. However, the more time and distance that separate
the source rock from the sand deposit, the greater its composition will
change during transport. Grains that are composed of easily-weathered
materials will be modified, and grains that are physically weak will be
reduced in size or destroyed.
If a granite outcrop is the source of the sand, the original material might be
composed of grains of hornblende, biotite, orthoclase, and quartz.
Hornblende and biotite are the most chemically and physically susceptible
to destruction, and they would be eliminated in the early stage of transport.
Orthoclase and quartz would persist longer, but the grains of quartz would
have the greatest chance of survival. They are more chemically inert,
harder, and not prone to cleavage. Quartz is typically the most abundant
type of sand grain present in sandstone. It is extremely abundant in source
materials and is extremely durable during transport.
Rock kit
Types of Sand Grains
The grains in a sandstone can be composed of mineral, rock, or organic

materials. Which and in what percentage depends upon their source and
how they have suffered during transport.
Mineral grains in sandstones are usually quartz. Sometimes the quartz

content of these sands can be very high - up to 90% or more. These are
sands that have been worked and reworked by wind or water and are said
to be "mature." Other sands can contain significant amounts of feldspar,
and if they came from a source rock with a significant quartz content they
are said to be "immature."
3.4 Siltstone
A clastic sedimentary rock composed of silt-size grains.
Colors of Siltstone
Siltstone Colors: Siltstone occurs in a wide variety of colors. It is usually
gray, brown, or reddish brown. It can also be white, yellow, green, red,
purple, orange, black, and other colors. The colors are a response to the
composition of the grains, the composition of the cement, or stains from
subsurface waters. Specimens in the photo are about two inches across.
Click for larger image.
What is Siltstone?
Siltstone is a sedimentary rock composed mainly of silt-sized particles. It

forms where water, wind, or ice deposit silt, and the silt is then compacted
and cemented into a rock.
Silt accumulates in sedimentary basins throughout the world. It represents

a level of current, wave, or wind energy between where sand and mud
accumulate. These include fluvial, aeolian, tidal, coastal, lacustrine, deltaic,
glacial, paludal, and shelf environments. Sedimentary structures such as
layering, cross-bedding, ripple marks, erosional contacts, and fossils
provide evidence of these environments.
Siltstone is much less common than sandstone and shale. The rock units
are usually thinner and less extensive. Only rarely is one notable enough to
merit a stratigraphic name.
What Is Silt?
The word "silt" does not refer to a specific substance. Instead, it is a word
used for loose granular particles in a specific size range.
Silt-sized particles range between 0.00015 and 0.0025 inches in diameter,

or between 0.0039 and 0.063 millimeters in diameter. They are
intermediate in size between coarse clay on the small side and fine sand
on the large side.
Grains of coarse silt are large enough that most people can see them
without magnification on a background of contrasting color. Most people
are not able to sense them if they roll a few grains of silt between their
thumb and index finger. Most people are able to detect a few grains of silt
by biting them gently between their front teeth. (This test is not
recommended, but some experienced geologists and soil scientists use it
for quick field identification of silt in sediment and soil.)
Silt does not have a definite composition. It is usually a mixture of clay

minerals, micas, feldspars, and quartz. The small-size fraction of silt is
mostly clay. The coarse-size fraction is mostly grains of feldspar and
quartz.
Siltstone outcrop
Siltstone Outcrop: An exposure of the Holtzclaw siltstone near Louisville,

Kentucky. It shows the thinly bedded and differentially weathered character
of the rock unit. Siltstones are rarely of sufficient thickness or lateral
persistence to merit a stratigraphic name. Public domain photo by John
Knouse.
What Color is Siltstone?
Siltstone occurs in a wide range of colors. It is usually gray, brown, or

reddish brown. White, yellow, green, red, purple, orange, black, and other
colors occur. The color is caused by the composition of the grains, the
composition of the cement that binds them together, and stains produced
by contact with subsurface waters.
Field Identification
Siltstone can be difficult to identify in the field without close examination.

Weathered surfaces often appear to show sedimentary structures where
none are present. Different layers weather at different rates. Siltstone is
often interbedded with other lithologies.
Identification requires breaking off a small piece and observing the grain
size. Scraping the surface with a nail or knife blade will dislodge tiny silt
grains instead of dislodging sand grains or producing a white effervescent
powder.
3.5 Iron Ore

What Is Iron Ore, How Does It Form, and What Is It Used For?
Iron Ore
Iron Ore: A specimen of oolitic hematite iron ore. The specimen shown is
about two inches (five centimeters) across.
What is Iron Ore?
Earth's most important iron ore deposits are found in sedimentary rocks.
They formed from chemical reactions that combined iron and oxygen in
marine and fresh waters. The two most important minerals in these
deposits are iron oxides: hematite (Fe2O3) and magnetite (Fe3O4). These
iron ores have been mined to produce almost every iron and steel object
that we use today - from paper clips to automobiles to the steel beams in
skyscrapers.
How Does Iron Ore Form?
Nearly all of Earth's major iron ore deposits are in rocks that formed over
1.8 billion years ago. At that time Earth's oceans contained abundant
dissolved iron and almost no dissolved oxygen. The iron ore deposits
began forming when the first organisms capable of photosynthesis began
releasing oxygen into the waters. This oxygen immediately combined with
the abundant dissolved iron to produce hematite or magnetite. These
minerals deposited on the sea floor in great abundance, forming what are
now known as the "banded iron formations." The rocks are "banded"
because the iron minerals deposited in alternating bands with silica and
sometimes shale. The banding might have resulted from seasonal changes
in organism activity.
3.6 Chert
What Is Chert, How Does It Form, and What Is It Used For?
Chert
Chert: This specimen of chert is about two inches (five centimeters) across.
It displays conchoidal fracture and has broken to produce sharp edges.
What is Chert?
Chert is a microcrystalline or cryptocrystalline sedimentary rock material

composed of silicon dioxide (SiO2). It occurs as nodules, concretionary
masses, and as layered deposits. Chert breaks with a conchoidal fracture,
often producing very sharp edges. Early people took advantage of how
chert breaks and used it to fashion cutting tools and weapons. The name
"flint" is also used for this material.
Rock kit
How Does Chert Form?
Chert can form when microcrystals of silicon dioxide grow within soft
sediments that will become limestone or chalk. In these sediments,
enormous numbers of silicon dioxide microcrystals grow into irregularly-
shaped nodules or concretions when dissolved silica is transported to the
formation site by the movement of groundwater. If the nodules or
concretions are numerous, they can enlarge and merge with one another to
form a nearly continuous layer of chert within the sediment mass. Chert
formed in this manner is a chemical sedimentary rock.
Diatom
Diatoms are microscopic, single-celled algae that live in marine or fresh
water. They produce hard parts made of silicon dioxide. NASA Image.
Some of the silicon dioxide in chert is thought to have a biological origin. In

some oceans and shallow seas, large numbers of diatoms and radiolarians
live in the water. These organisms have a glassy silica skeleton. Some
sponges also produce "spicules" that are composed of silica. When these
organisms die, their silica skeletons fall to the bottom, dissolve,
recrystallize, and might become part of a chert nodule or chert layer. Chert
formed in this way could be considered a biological sedimentary rock.
Marble Bar Chert
Marble Bar Chert: Outcrop of the 3.4 Ga Marble Bar Chert, Pilbara Craton,
Australia. The hematite-rich chert has been used as evidence of high levels
of atmospheric oxygen in the early Archean. Image by NASA
Astrobiological Institute.
What is Chert's Composition?
Chert is a microcrystalline silicon dioxide (SiO2). As chert nodules or

concretions grow within a sediment mass, their growth can incorporate
significant amounts of the surrounding sediment as inclusions. These
inclusions can impart a distinctive color to the chert.
What Color is Chert?
Chert occurs in a wide variety of colors. Continuous color gradients exist

between white and black or between cream and brown. Green, yellow, and
red cherts are also common. The darker colors can result from inclusions of
sediment or organic matter. The name "flint" is often used in reference to
the darker colors of chert. Red to reddish brown cherts receive their color
from included iron oxide. The name "jasper" is frequently used for these
reddish cherts.
3.7 Flint
A hard, tough material that humans have used to make tools for millions of
years
flint projectile points
Flint arrowheads: One of the most common uses of flint by prehistoric

people was in the making of arrowheads. They were hard, tough and very
sharp. Image by Derek McLean.
What is Flint?
Flint is a hard, tough chemical or biochemical sedimentary rock that breaks

with a conchoidal fracture. It is a form of microcrystalline quartz that is
typically called “chert” by geologists. It often forms as nodules in
sedimentary rocks such as chalk and marine limestones. The nodules can
be dispersed randomly throughout the rock unit but are often concentrated
in distinct layers. Some rock units form through the accumulation of
siliceous skeletal material. These can recrystallize to form a layer of
bedded flint. Flint is highly resistant to weathering and is often found as
pebbles or cobbles along streams and beaches.
3.8 Dolomite
A sedimentary rock similar to limestone. Also known as "dolostone" and
"dolomite rock."
The Dolomites - iStockphoto
"The Dolomites" are a mountain range in northeastern Italy and part of the
Italian Alps. They are one of the largest exposures of dolomite rock on
Earth - from which the name is obtained. The Dolomites are a UNESCO
World Heritage Site. Image © iStockphoto / Dan Breckwoldt.
Dolomite: A Mineral and a Rock
"Dolomite" is a word that is used by geologists in two different ways: 1) as

the name of the mineral dolomite; and, 2) as the name of a rock known as
dolomite, dolostone, or dolomite rock.
This page is about dolomite rock. If you are looking for an article about the
mineral, please go here.
dolomite rock
Dolomite rock: A specimen of fine-grained dolomite rock from Lee,

Massachusetts. It is about four inches (ten centimeters) across.
What is Dolomite?
Dolomite, also known as "dolostone" and "dolomite rock," is a sedimentary

rock composed primarily of the mineral dolomite, CaMg(CO3)2. Dolomite is
found in sedimentary basins worldwide. It is thought to form by the
postdepositional alteration of lime mud and limestone by magnesium-rich
groundwater.
Dolomite and limestone are very similar rocks. They share the same color
ranges of white-to-gray and white-to-light brown (although other colors
such as red, green, and black are possible). They are approximately the
same hardness, and they are both soluble in dilute hydrochloric acid. They
are both crushed and cut for use as construction materials and used for
their ability to neutralize acids.
Rock kit
Dolomitization
Dolomite is very common in the rock record, but the mineral dolomite is
rarely observed forming in sedimentary environments. For this reason it is
believed that most dolomites form when lime muds or limestones are
modified by postdepositional chemical change.
Dolomite originates in the same sedimentary environments as limestone -

warm, shallow, marine environments where calcium carbonate mud
accumulates in the form of shell debris, fecal material, coral fragments, and
carbonate precipitates. Dolomite is thought to form when the calcite
(CaCO3) in carbonate mud or limestone is modified by magnesium-rich
groundwater. The available magnesium facilitates the conversion of calcite
into dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2). This chemical change is known as
"dolomitization." Dolomitization can completely alter a limestone into a
dolomite, or it can partially alter the rock to form a "dolomitic limestone."
dolomite aggregate
Dolomite aggregate: Dolomite aggregate used for asphalt paving, from
Penfield, New York. These specimens are approximately 1/2 inch to 1 inch
(1.3 centimeters to 2.5 centimeters) across.
Identification in the Field and Classroom
Dolomite is slightly harder than limestone. Dolomite has a Mohs hardness

of 3.5 to 4, and limestone (composed of the mineral calcite) has a hardness
of 3.
Dolomite is slightly less soluble in dilute hydrochloric acid. Calcite will

effervesce vigorously in contact with cold, dilute (5%) hydrochloric acid,
while dolomite produces a very weak effervescence.
These differences are often not significant enough to make a positive

identification in the field. Distinguishing the rocks in the field is further
complicated by a compositional continuum that ranges from limestone to
dolomitic limestone to dolomite. A chemical analysis that determines the
relative abundances of calcium and magnesium is needed to accurately
name the rocks.
Herkimer Diamond in dolostone
Dolostone: Photograph of a specimen of the Little Falls Dolostone from

Herkimer County, New York. This dolostone is the host rock for the doubly-
terminated quartz crystals known as "Herkimer Diamonds." It is vuggy, has
a high silica content, and is much harder and tougher than the typical
dolomite. The Herkimer Diamonds are found in petroleum-lined vugs in the
rock unit. Part of a Herkimer Diamond is visible in the large vug on the left
side of this specimen.
"Dolomite Rock" and "Dolostone"
Some geologists are uncomfortable using the word "dolomite" for both a
mineral and a rock of the same composition. They instead prefer using
"dolomite rock" or "dolostone" when speaking of the sedimentary rock and
"dolomite" when speaking of the mineral. Although these terms simplify
communication and improve accuracy, many geologists continue to use the
word "dolomite" for both the mineral and the rock.
Granular dolomite
Granular dolomite: A specimen of coarsely crystalline dolomitic marble from

Thornwood, New York. This specimen is approximately 3 inches (6.7
Metamorphism of Dolomite
Dolomite behaves like limestone when it is subjected to heat and pressure.

It begins to recrystallize as the temperature rises. As this occurs, the size of
the dolomite crystals in the rock increases, and the rock develops a
distinctly crystalline appearance.
If you examine the photo of granular dolomite, you will see that the rock is
composed of easily recognizable dolomite crystals. The coarse crystalline
texture is a sign of recrystallization, most often caused by metamorphism.
Dolomite that has been transformed into a metamorphic rock is called
"dolomitic marble."
3.9 Limestone
What Is Limestone and How Is It Used?
limestone
Limestone: The specimen shown is about two inches (five centimeters)

across.
What is Limestone?
Limestone is a sedimentary rock composed primarily of calcium carbonate

(CaCO3) in the form of the mineral calcite. It most commonly forms in clear,
warm, shallow marine waters. It is usually an organic sedimentary rock that
forms from the accumulation of shell, coral, algal, and fecal debris. It can
also be a chemical sedimentary rock formed by the precipitation of calcium
carbonate from lake or ocean water.
coral reef limestone forming environment
A Limestone-Forming Environment: An underwater view of a coral reef

system from the Kerama Islands in the East China Sea southwest of
Okinawa. Here the entire seafloor is covered by a wide variety of corals
which produce calcium carbonate skeletons. A United States Geological
Survey image by Curt Storlazzi.
Limestone-Forming Environment: Marine
Most limestones form in shallow, calm, warm marine waters. That type of
environment is where organisms capable of forming calcium carbonate
shells and skeletons can easily extract the needed ingredients from ocean
water. When these animals die, their shell and skeletal debris accumulate
as a sediment that might be lithified into limestone. Their waste products
can also contribute to the sediment mass. Limestones formed from this
type of sediment are biological sedimentary rocks. Their biological origin is
often revealed in the rock by the presence of fossils.
Some limestones can form by direct precipitation of calcium carbonate from

marine or fresh water. Limestones formed this way are chemical
sedimentary rocks. They are thought to be less abundant than biological
limestones.
Today Earth has many limestone-forming environments. Most of them are
found in shallow water areas between 30 degrees north latitude and 30
degrees south latitude. Limestone is forming in the Caribbean Sea, Indian
Ocean, Persian Gulf, Gulf of Mexico, around Pacific Ocean islands, and
within the Indonesian archipelago.
One of these areas is the Bahamas Platform, located in the Atlantic Ocean
about 100 miles southeast of southern Florida (see satellite image). There,
abundant corals, shellfish, algae, and other organisms produce vast
amounts of calcium carbonate skeletal debris that completely blankets the
platform. This is producing an extensive limestone deposit.
The Bahamas Platform, a limestone-forming environment.
The Bahamas Platform: A NASA satellite image of the Bahamas Platform

where active limestone formation occurs today. The main platform is over
100 miles wide, and a great thickness of calcium carbonate sediments
have accumulated there. In this image the dark blue areas are deep ocean
waters. The shallow Bahamas Platform appears as light blue. Enlarge
image.
Limestone-Forming Environment: Evaporative
water droplet on stalactite
Limestone stalactite: A drop of water hangs and evaporates on the tip of a
stalactite. National Park Service image.
Limestone can also form through evaporation. Stalactites, stalagmites, and

other cave formations (often called "speleothems") are examples of
limestone that formed through evaporation. In a cave, droplets of water
seeping down from above enter the cave through fractures or other pore
spaces in the cave ceiling. There they might evaporate before falling to the
cave floor. When the water evaporates, any calcium carbonate that was
dissolved in the water will be deposited on the cave ceiling. Over time, this
evaporative process can result in an accumulation of icicle-shaped calcium
carbonate on the cave ceiling. These deposits are known as stalactites. If
the droplet falls to the floor and evaporates there, a stalagmite could grow
upwards from the cave floor.
The limestone that makes up these cave formations is known as

"travertine" and is a chemical sedimentary rock. A rock known as "tufa" is a
limestone formed by evaporation at a hot spring, lake shore, or other area.
Related: The "Acid Test" for Carbonate Minerals

Composition of Limestone
Limestone is by definition a rock that contains at least 50% calcium

carbonate in the form of calcite by weight. All limestones contain at least a
few percent other materials. These can be small particles of quartz,
feldspar, clay minerals, pyrite, siderite, and other minerals. It can also
contain large nodules of chert, pyrite, or siderite.
The calcium carbonate content of limestone gives it a property that is often

used in rock identification - it effervesces in contact with a cold solution of
5% hydrochloric acid.
chalk
Chalk: A fine-grained, light-colored limestone formed from the calcium

carbonate skeletal remains of tiny marine organisms.
coquina
Coquina: This photo shows the shell hash known as coquina. The rock
shown here is about two inches (five centimeters) across.
tufa
Tufa: A porous limestone that forms from the precipitation of calcium
carbonate, often at a hot spring or along the shoreline of a lake where
waters are saturated with calcium carbonate.
Varieties of Limestone
There are many different names used for limestone. These names are
based upon how the rock formed, its appearance or its composition, and
other factors. Here are some of the more commonly used varieties.
Chalk: A soft limestone with a very fine texture that is usually white or
light gray in color. It is formed mainly from the calcareous shell remains of
microscopic marine organisms such as foraminifers, or the calcareous
remains from numerous types of marine algae.
Coquina: A poorly-cemented limestone that is composed mainly of

broken shell debris. It often forms on beaches where wave action
segregates shell fragments of similar size.
Fossiliferous Limestone: A limestone that contains obvious and

abundant fossils. These are normally shell and skeletal fossils of the
organisms that produced the limestone.
Lithographic Limestone: A dense limestone with a very fine and very

uniform grain size that occurs in thin beds which separate easily to form a
very smooth surface. In the late 1700s, a printing process (lithography) was
developed to reproduce images by drawing them on the stone with an oil-
based ink and then using that stone to press multiple copies of the image.
Oolitic Limestone: A limestone composed mainly of calcium carbonate

"oolites," small spheres formed by the concentric precipitation of calcium
carbonate on a sand grain or shell fragment.
Travertine: A limestone that forms by evaporative precipitation, often in a
cave, to produce formations such as stalactites, stalagmites, and flowstone.
Tufa: A limestone produced by precipitation of calcium-laden waters at a

hot spring, lake shore, or other location.
What Minerals Form
Rocks?
1. Silicate
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicate
Updated: 2017-06-30T12:56Z
Basic (ortho-)silicate oxoanion (SiO4−
4) structure
A silicate is a compound containing an anionic silicon

compound. The great majority of the silicates are oxides, but
hexafluorosilicate ([SiF6]2−) and other anions are also included.
"Orthosilicate" is the anion SiO4−

4 or its compounds. Related to orthosilicate are families of
anions (and their compounds) with the formula [SiO2+n]2n−.
Important members are the cyclic and single chain silicates
{[SiO3]2−}n and the sheet-forming silicates {[SiO2.5]−}n.[1]
Silicates constitute the majority of Earth's crust, as well as the

other terrestrial planets, rocky moons, and asteroids. Sand,
Portland cement, and thousands of minerals are examples of
silicates. Silicate compounds, including the minerals, consist of
silicate anions whose charge is balanced by various cations.
Myriad silicate anions can exist, and each can form compounds
with many different cations. Hence this class of compounds is
very large. Both minerals and synthetic materials fit in this
class.
Contents
1 Structural principles
2 Occurrence in solution
2.1 Silicates with non-tetrahedral silicon
3 Silicate rock and minerals
4 Portland cement
4.1 Mineralogy
5 References
Structural principles
In the vast majority of silicates, including silicate minerals, the

Si occupies a tetrahedral environment, being surrounded by 4
oxygen centres. In these structures, the chemical bonds to
silicon conform to the octet rule. These tetrahedra sometimes
occur as isolated SiO4−
4 centres, but most commonly, the tetrahedra are joined
together in various ways, such as pairs (Si
2O6−
7) and rings (Si
6O12−
18). Commonly the silicate anions are chains, double chains,
sheets, and three-dimensional frameworks. All these such
species have negligible solubility in water at normal conditions.
Occurrence in solution
Main article: Sodium silicate
Silicates are well characterized as solids, but are less commonly

observed in solution. The anion SiO4−
4 is the conjugate base of silicic acid, Si(OH)4, and both are
elusive as are all of the intermediate species. Instead, solutions
of silicates are usually observed as mixtures of condensed and
partially protonated silicate clusters. The nature of soluble
silicates is relevant to understanding biomineralization and the
synthesis of aluminosilicates, such as the industrially important
catalysts called zeolites.[2]
Silicates with non-tetrahedral silicon
Although the tetrahedron is the common coordination

geometry for silicon compounds, silicon is well known to also
adopt higher coordination numbers. A well-known example of
such a high coordination number is hexafluorosilicate (SiF2−
6). Octahedral coordination by 6 oxygen centres is observed. At
very high pressure, even SiO2 adopts this geometry in the
mineral stishovite, a dense polymorph of silica found in the
lower mantle of the Earth. This structure is also formed by
shock during meteorite impacts. Octahedral Si in the form of
hexahydroxysilicate ([Si(OH)6]2−) is observed in
thaumasite[citation needed] a mineral occurring rarely in
nature but sometimes observed amongst other calcium silicate
hydrate artificially formed in cement and concrete submitted to
a severe sulfate attack.
Silicate rock and minerals
Diatomaceous earth, as viewed under a microscope, is a soft,
siliceous, sedimentary rock made up of the frustules (shells) of
single cell diatoms. Diatom cell walls are made up of biogenic
silica; silica synthesised in the diatom cell by the polymerisation
of silicic acid. This image of diatomaceous earth particles in
water is at a scale of 6.236 pixels/μm, the entire image covers a
region of approximately 1.13 by 0.69 mm.
Main article: Silicate minerals
In geology and astronomy, the term silicate is used to denote

types of rock that consist predominantly of silicate minerals. On
Earth, a wide variety of silicate minerals occur in an even wider
range of combinations as a result of the processes that form
and re-work the crust. These processes include partial melting,
crystallization, fractionation, metamorphism, weathering and
diagenesis. Living things also contribute to the silicate cycle
near the Earth's surface. A type of plankton known as diatoms
construct their exoskeletons, known as tests, from silica. The
tests of dead diatoms are a major constituent of deep ocean
sediment.
Silica, or silicon dioxide, SiO2, is sometimes considered a

silicate, although it is the special case with no negative charge
and no need for counter-ions. Silica is found in nature as the
mineral quartz, and its polymorphs.
Portland cement
Portland cement is produced by hydration of clinker, which

consists of various calcium silicates, including tricalcium silicate
(Ca3SiO5, also written CaO·Ca2SiO4) and dicalcium silicate
(Ca2SiO4). These components are often generated in situ by
heating various clays and limestone.[3]
Mineralogy
Mineralogically, silicate minerals are divided according to

structure of their silicate anion into the following groups:[4][5]
Nesosilicates (lone tetrahedron) – [SiO4]4−, e.g. olivine.

Sorosilicates (double tetrahedra) – [Si2O7]6−, e.g. epidote,
melilite group.
Cyclosilicates (rings) – [SinO3n]2n−, e.g. tourmaline group.
Inosilicates (single chain) – [SinO3n]2n−, e.g. pyroxene group.
Inosilicates (double chain) – [Si4nO11n]6n−, e.g. amphibole
group.
Phyllosilicates (sheets) – [Si2nO5n]2n−, e.g. micas and clays.
Tectosilicates (3D framework) – [AlxSiyO2x+2y)]x−, e.g.
quartz, feldspars, zeolites.
Note that tectosilicates can only have additional cations if some
of the silicon is replaced by a lower-charge cation such as
aluminium. Al for Si substitution is common.
2. Feldspar
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feldspar
Updated: 2017-03-05T06:49Z
For other uses, see Feldspar (disambiguation).
Feldspar
Feldspar-Group-291254.jpg
Feldspar crystal (18×21×8.5 cm) from Jequitinhonha valley,
Minas Gerais, Southeastern Brazil.
General
Category Tectosilicate
Formula
(repeating unit) KAlSi3O8 – NaAlSi3O8 – CaAl2Si2O8
Crystal system Triclinic or monoclinic
Identification
Color pink, white, gray, brown
Cleavage two or three
Fracture along cleavage planes
Mohs scale hardness 6.0–6.5
Luster Vitreous
Streak white
Diaphaneity opaque
Specific gravity 2.55–2.76
Density 2.56
Refractive index 1.518–1.526
Birefringence first order
Pleochroism none
Other characteristics exsolution lamellae common
References [1]
Compositional phase diagram of the different minerals that
constitute the feldspar solid solution.
Feldspars (KAlSi3O8 – NaAlSi3O8 – CaAl2Si2O8) are a group of
rock-forming tectosilicate minerals that make up about 41% of
the Earth's continental crust by weight.[2]
Feldspars crystallize from magma as veins in both intrusive and

extrusive igneous rocks and are also present in many types of
metamorphic rock.[3] Rock formed almost entirely of calcic
plagioclase feldspar (see below) is known as anorthosite.[4]
Feldspars are also found in many types of sedimentary rocks.[5]
Contents
1 Etymology
2 Compositions
2.1 Alkali feldspars
2.1.1 Barium feldspars
2.2 Plagioclase feldspars
3 Weathering
4 Production and uses
5 See also
6 References
7 Further reading
8 External links
Etymology
The name feldspar derives from the German Feldspat, a

compound of the words Feld, "field", and Spat, "a rock that
does not contain ore". The change from Spat to -spar was
influenced by the English word "spar", a synonym for "mineral".
[6] Feldspathic refers to materials that contain feldspar. The
alternate spelling, felspar, has largely fallen out of use.
Compositions
This group of minerals consists of tectosilicates. Compositions

of major elements in common feldspars can be expressed in
terms of three endmembers:
Potassium-Feldspar (K-spar) endmember KAlSi3O8[7]
Albite endmember NaAlSi3O8[7]
Anorthite endmember CaAl2Si2O8[7]

Solid solutions between K-feldspar and albite are called alkali
feldspar.[7] Solid solutions between albite and anorthite are
called plagioclase,[7] or more properly plagioclase feldspar.
Only limited solid solution occurs between K-feldspar and
anorthite, and in the two other solid solutions, immiscibility
occurs at temperatures common in the crust of the earth.
Albite is considered both a plagioclase and alkali feldspar.
Alkali feldspars
The alkali feldspars are as follows:
orthoclase (monoclinic)[8]—KAlSi3O8
sanidine (monoclinic)[9]—(K,Na)AlSi3O8
microcline (triclinic)[10]—KAlSi3O8
anorthoclase (triclinic)—(Na,K)AlSi3O8
Sanidine is stable at the highest temperatures, and microcline

at the lowest.[8][9] Perthite is a typical texture in alkali
feldspar, due to exsolution of contrasting alkali feldspar
compositions during cooling of an intermediate composition.
The perthitic textures in the alkali feldspars of many granites
can be seen with the naked eye.[11] Microperthitic textures in
crystals are visible using a light microscope, whereas
cryptoperthitic textures can be seen only with an electron
microscope.
Barium feldspars
Barium feldspars are also considered alkali feldspars. Barium

feldspars form as the result of the substitution of barium for
potassium in the mineral structure. The barium feldspars are
monoclinic and include the following:
celsian—BaAl2Si2O8[12]
hyalophane—(K,Ba)(Al,Si)4O8[13]
Plagioclase feldspars
The plagioclase feldspars are triclinic. The plagioclase series

follows (with percent anorthite in parentheses):
albite (0 to 10)—NaAlSi3O8
oligoclase (10 to 30)—(Na,Ca)(Al,Si)AlSi2O8
andesine (30 to 50)—NaAlSi3O8—CaAl2Si2O8
labradorite (50 to 70)—(Ca,Na)Al(Al,Si)Si2O8
bytownite (70 to 90)—(NaSi,CaAl)AlSi2O8
anorthite (90 to 100)—CaAl2Si2O8
Intermediate compositions of plagioclase feldspar also may

exsolve to two feldspars of contrasting composition during
cooling, but diffusion is much slower than in alkali feldspar, and
the resulting two-feldspar intergrowths typically are too fine-
grained to be visible with optical microscopes. The immiscibility
gaps in the plagioclase solid solutions are complex compared to
the gap in the alkali feldspars. The play of colours visible in
some feldspar of labradorite composition is due to very fine-
grained exsolution lamellae.
Weathering
Chemical weathering of feldspars results in the formation of

clay minerals.[14]
Production and uses
About 20 million tonnes of feldspar were produced in 2010,

mostly by three countries: Italy (4.7 Mt), Turkey (4.5 Mt), and
China (2 Mt).[15]
Feldspar is a common raw material used in glassmaking,
ceramics, and to some extent as a filler and extender in paint,
plastics, and rubber. In glassmaking, alumina from feldspar
improves product hardness, durability, and resistance to
chemical corrosion. In ceramics, the alkalis in feldspar (calcium
oxide, potassium oxide, and sodium oxide) act as a flux,
lowering the melting temperature of a mixture. Fluxes melt at
an early stage in the firing process, forming a glassy matrix that
bonds the other components of the system together. In the US,
about 66% of feldspar is consumed in glassmaking, including
glass containers and glass fiber. Ceramics (including electrical
insulators, sanitaryware, pottery, tableware, and tile) and other
uses, such as fillers, accounted for the remainder.[16]
In earth sciences and archaeology, feldspars are used for K-Ar

dating, argon-argon dating, and luminescence dating.
In October 2012, the Mars Curiosity rover analyzed a rock that

turned out to have a high feldspar content.[17]
Feldspar output in 2005.
Lunar ferrous anorthosite #60025 (plagioclase feldspar).

Collected by Apollo 16 from the Lunar Highlands near Descartes
Crater. This sample is currently on display at the National
Museum of Natural History in Washington, D.C.
Labradorite.
First X-ray view of Martian soil—feldspar, pyroxenes, olivine

revealed (Curiosity rover at "Rocknest", October 17, 2012).[18]
See also
List of minerals
List of countries by feldspar production
References
This article incorporates public domain material from the

United States Geological Survey document: "Feldspar and
nepheline syenite" (PDF).
^ "Feldspar". Gemology Online. Retrieved 8 November 2012.

^ Anderson, Robert S.; Anderson, Suzanne P. (2010).
Geomorphology: The Mechanics and Chemistry of Landscapes.
Cambridge University Press. p. 187.
^ "Metamorphic Rocks." Metamorphic Rocks Information.
Retrieved on July 18, 2007
^ Blatt, Harvey and Tracy, Robert J. (1996) Petrology,
Freeman, 2nd ed., pp. 206–210 ISBN 0-7167-2438-3
^ "Weathering and Sedimentary Rocks." Geology. Archived
2007-07-21 at WebCite Retrieved on July 18, 2007.
^ Harper, Douglas. "feldspar". Online Etymology Dictionary.
Retrieved 2008-02-08.
^ a b c d e Feldspar. What is Feldspar? Industrial Minerals
Association. Retrieved on July 18, 2007.
^ a b "The Mineral Orthoclase". Feldspar Amethyst Galleries,
Inc. Retrieved on February 8, 2008.
^ a b "Sanidine Feldspar". Feldspar Amethyst Galleries, Inc.
Retrieved on February 8, 2008.
^ "Microcline Feldspar". Feldspar Amethyst Galleries, Inc.
Retrieved on February 8, 2008.
^ Ralph, Jolyon and Chou, Ida. "Perthite". Perthite Profile on
mindat.org Retrieved on February 8, 2008.
^ Celsian–orthoclase series on Mindat.org
^ Celsian–hyalophane series on Mindat.org
^ Nelson, Stephen A. (Fall 2008). "Weathering & Clay
Minerals". Professor's lecture notes (EENS 211, Mineralogy).
Tulane University. Retrieved 2008-11-13.
^ Feldspar, USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2011
^ Apodaca, Lori E. Feldspar and nepheline syenite, USGS 2008
Minerals Yearbook
^ Nasa's Curiosity rover finds 'unusual rock'. (12 October
2012) BBC News.
^ Brown, Dwayne (October 30, 2012). "NASA Rover's First Soil
Studies Help Fingerprint Martian Minerals". NASA. Retrieved
October 31, 2012.
Further reading
Bonewitz, Ronald Louis (2005). Rock and Gem. New York: DK

Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7566-3342-4.
External links
Media related to Feldspar at Wikimedia Commons

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3. Calcite
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcite
Updated: 2017-07-25T08:30Z
Calcite
Calcite-20188.jpg
General
Category Carbonate minerals
Formula
(repeating unit) CaCO3
Strunz classification 5.AB.05
Crystal system Trigonal
Crystal class Hexagonal scalenohedral (3m)
H-M symbol: (3 2/m)
Space group R3c
Unit cell a = 4.9896(2) Å,
c = 17.0610(11) Å; Z = 6
Identification
Color Colorless or white, also gray, yellow, green,
Crystal habit Crystalline, granular, stalactitic, concretionary,
massive, rhombohedral.
Twinning Common by four twin laws
Cleavage Perfect on [1011] three directions with angle of 74°
55'[1]
Fracture Conchoidal
Tenacity Brittle
Mohs scale hardness 3 (defining mineral)
Luster Vitreous to pearly on cleavage surfaces
Streak White
Diaphaneity Transparent to translucent
Specific gravity 2.71
Optical properties Uniaxial (-)
Refractive index nω = 1.640–1.660
nε = 1.486
Birefringence δ = 0.154–0.174
Solubility Soluble in dilute acids
Other characteristics May fluoresce red, blue, yellow, and
other colors under either SW and LW UV; phosphorescent
References [2][3][4]
Crystal structure of calcite
Calcite is a carbonate mineral and the most stable polymorph

of calcium carbonate (CaCO3). The Mohs scale of mineral
hardness, based on scratch hardness comparison, defines value
3 as "calcite".
Other polymorphs of calcium carbonate are the minerals
aragonite and vaterite. Aragonite will change to calcite at 380–
470 °C,[5] and vaterite is even less stable.
Contents
1 Etymology
1.1 "Alabaster", as used by archaeologists
2 Properties
3 Use and applications
4 Natural occurrence
5 Formation processes
6 In Earth history
7 Gallery
8 See also
9 References
10 Further reading
Etymology
Calcite is derived from the German Calcit, a term coined in the
19th century from the Latin word for lime, calx (genitive calcis)
with the suffix -ite used to name minerals. It is thus
etymologically related to chalk.[6]
"Alabaster", as used by archaeologists
When applied by archaeologists and stone trade professionals,

the term alabaster is used not just as in geology and
mineralogy, where it is reserved for a variety of gypsum; but
also for a similar-looking, translucent variety of fine-grained
banded deposit of calcite.[7]
Properties
Calcite crystals are trigonal-rhombohedral, though actual

calcite rhombohedra are rare as natural crystals. However, they
show a remarkable variety of habits including acute to obtuse
rhombohedra, tabular forms, prisms, or various scalenohedra.
Calcite exhibits several twinning types adding to the variety of
observed forms. It may occur as fibrous, granular, lamellar, or
compact. Cleavage is usually in three directions parallel to the
rhombohedron form. Its fracture is conchoidal, but difficult to
obtain.
It has a defining Mohs hardness of 3, a specific gravity of 2.71,
and its luster is vitreous in crystallized varieties. Color is white
or none, though shades of gray, red, orange, yellow, green,
blue, violet, brown, or even black can occur when the mineral is
charged with impurities.
Calcite is transparent to opaque and may occasionally show

phosphorescence or fluorescence. A transparent variety called
Iceland spar is used for optical purposes. Acute scalenohedral
crystals are sometimes referred to as "dogtooth spar" while the
rhombohedral form is sometimes referred to as "nailhead
spar".
Single calcite crystals display an optical property called

birefringence (double refraction). This strong birefringence
causes objects viewed through a clear piece of calcite to appear
doubled. The birefringent effect (using calcite) was first
described by the Danish scientist Rasmus Bartholin in 1669. At a
wavelength of ~590 nm calcite has ordinary and extraordinary
refractive indices of 1.658 and 1.486, respectively.[8] Between
190 and 1700 nm, the ordinary refractive index varies roughly
between 1.9 and 1.5, while the extraordinary refractive index
varies between 1.6 and 1.4.[9]
Calcite, like most carbonates, will dissolve with most forms of
acid. Calcite can be either dissolved by groundwater or
precipitated by groundwater, depending on several factors
including the water temperature, pH, and dissolved ion
concentrations. Although calcite is fairly insoluble in cold water,
acidity can cause dissolution of calcite and release of carbon
dioxide gas. Ambient carbon dioxide, due to its acidity, has a
slight solubilizing effect on calcite. Calcite exhibits an unusual
characteristic called retrograde solubility in which it becomes
less soluble in water as the temperature increases. When
conditions are right for precipitation, calcite forms mineral
coatings that cement the existing rock grains together or it can
fill fractures. When conditions are right for dissolution, the
removal of calcite can dramatically increase the porosity and
permeability of the rock, and if it continues for a long period of
time may result in the formation of caves. On a landscape scale,
continued dissolution of calcium carbonate-rich rocks can lead
to the expansion and eventual collapse of cave systems,
resulting in various forms of karst topography.
Use and applications
High-grade optical calcite was used in World War II for gun

sights, specifically in bomb sights and anti-aircraft weaponry.
[10] Also, experiments have been conducted to use calcite for a
cloak of invisibility.[11] Microbiologically precipitated calcite
has a wide range of applications, such as soil remediation, soil
stabilization and concrete repair.
Calcite, obtained from an 80 kg sample of Carrara marble,[12] is

used as the IAEA-603 isotopic standard in mass spectrometry
for the calibration of δ18O and δ13C.[13]
Natural occurrence
The largest documented single crystal of calcite originated from

Iceland, measured 7×7×2 m and 6×6×3 m and weighed about
250 tons.[14][15]
Calcite is a common constituent of sedimentary rocks,

limestone in particular, much of which is formed from the shells
of dead marine organisms. Approximately 10% of sedimentary
rock is limestone.
Calcite is the primary mineral in metamorphic marble. It also

occurs as a vein mineral in deposits from hot springs, and it
occurs in caverns as stalactites and stalagmites.
Lublinite is a fibrous, efflorescent form of calcite.[16]

Calcite may also be found in volcanic or mantle-derived rocks
such as carbonatites, kimberlites, or rarely in peridotites.
Calcite is often the primary constituent of the shells of marine

organisms, e.g., plankton (such as coccoliths and planktic
foraminifera), the hard parts of red algae, some sponges,
brachiopods, echinoderms, some serpulids, most bryozoa, and
parts of the shells of some bivalves (such as oysters and
rudists). Calcite is found in spectacular form in the Snowy River
Cave of New Mexico as mentioned above, where
microorganisms are credited with natural formations.
Trilobites, which became extinct a quarter billion years ago, had
unique compound eyes that used clear calcite crystals to form
the lenses.[17]
Formation processes
Calcite formation can proceed via several pathways, from the

classical Terrace ledge kink model[18] to the crystallisation of
poorly ordered precursor phases (amorphous calcium
carbonate, ACC) via an Ostwald ripening process, or via the
agglomeration of nanocrystals.[19]
The crystallization of ACC can occur in two stages: first, the ACC
nanoparticles rapidly dehydrate and crystallize to form
individual particles of vaterite. Secondly, the vaterite
transforms to calcite via a dissolution and reprecipitation
mechanism with the reaction rate controlled by the surface
area of calcite.[20] The second stage of the reaction is
approximately 10 times slower. However, the crystallization of
calcite has been observed to be dependent on the starting pH
and presence of Mg in solution.[21] A neutral starting pH during
mixing promotes the direct transformation of ACC into calcite.
Conversely, when ACC forms in a solution that starts with a
basic initial pH, the transformation to calcite occurs via
metastable vaterite, which forms via a spherulitic growth
mechanism.[22] In a second stage this vaterite transforms to
calcite via a surface-controlled dissolution and recrystallization
mechanism. Mg has a noteworthy effect on both the stability of
ACC and its transformation to crystalline CaCO3, resulting in the
formation of calcite directly from ACC, as this ion destabilizes
the structure of vaterite.
Calcite may form in the subsurface in response to activity of

microorganisms, such as during sulfate-dependent anaerobic
oxidation of methane, where methane is oxidized and sulfate is
reduced by a consortium of methane oxidizers and sulfate
reducers, leading to precipitation of calcite and pyrite from the
produced bicarbonate and sulfide. These processes can be
traced by the specific carbon isotope composition of the
calcites, which are extremely depleted in the 13C isotope, by as
much as −125 per mil PDB (δ13C).[23]
In Earth history
Calcite seas existed in Earth history when the primary inorganic

precipitate of calcium carbonate in marine waters was low-
magnesium calcite (lmc), as opposed to the aragonite and high-
magnesium calcite (hmc) precipitated today. Calcite seas
alternated with aragonite seas over the Phanerozoic, being
most prominent in the Ordovician and Jurassic. Lineages
evolved to use whichever morph of calcium carbonate was
favourable in the ocean at the time they became mineralised,
and retained this mineralogy for the remainder of their
evolutionary history.[24] Petrographic evidence for these
calcite sea conditions consists of calcitic ooids, lmc cements,
hardgrounds, and rapid early seafloor aragonite dissolution.[25]
The evolution of marine organisms with calcium carbonate
shells may have been affected by the calcite and aragonite sea
cycle.[26]
Gallery
4. Pyroxene
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyroxene
Updated: 2016-12-25T05:11Z
Diopside crystals from Afghanistan
Figure 1: A sample of pyroxenite, a rock consisting mostly of
pyroxene minerals.
The pyroxenes (commonly abbreviated to Px) are a group of

important rock-forming inosilicate minerals found in many
igneous and metamorphic rocks. Pyroxenes are silicon-
aluminum oxides with Ca, Na, Fe, Mg, Zn, Mn, Li substituting for
Si and Al. The general formula is XY(Si,Al)2O6 (where X
represents calcium, sodium, iron+2 and magnesium and more
rarely zinc, manganese and lithium and Y represents ions of
smaller size, such as chromium, aluminium, iron+3, magnesium,
cobalt, manganese, scandium, titanium, vanadium and even
iron+2). Although aluminium substitutes extensively for silicon
in silicates such as feldspars and amphiboles, the substitution
occurs only to a limited extent in most pyroxenes. They share a
common structure consisting of single chains of silica
tetrahedra and they crystallize in the monoclinic and
orthorhombic systems.
The name pyroxene is derived from the Ancient Greek words

for fire (πυρ) and stranger (ξένος). Pyroxenes were so named
because of their presence in volcanic lavas, where they are
sometimes seen as crystals embedded in volcanic glass; it was
assumed they were impurities in the glass, hence the name
"fire strangers". However, they are simply early-forming
minerals that crystallized before the lava erupted.
Mantle-peridotite xenolith from San Carlos Indian Reservation,
Gila Co., Arizona, USA. The xenolith is dominated by green
peridot olivine, together with black orthopyroxene and spinel
crystals, and rare grass-green diopside grains. The fine-grained
gray rock in this image is the host basalt.(unknown scale)
The upper mantle of Earth is composed mainly of olivine and

pyroxene. A piece of the mantle is shown at right
(orthopyroxene is black, diopside (containing chromium) is
bright green, and olivine is yellow-green) and is dominated by
olivine, typical for common peridotite. Pyroxene and feldspar
are the major minerals in basalt and gabbro.
Contents
1 Chemistry and nomenclature of the pyroxenes

2 Pyroxene minerals
3 See also
4 References
5 External links
Chemistry and nomenclature of the pyroxenes
Figure 2: The nomenclature of the calcium, magnesium, iron
pyroxenes.
The chain silicate structure of the pyroxenes offers much

flexibility in the incorporation of various cations and the names
of the pyroxene minerals are primarily defined by their
chemical composition. Pyroxene minerals are named according
to the chemical species occupying the X (or M2) site, the Y (or
M1) site, and the tetrahedral T site. Cations in Y (M1) site are
closely bound to 6 oxygens in octahedral coordination. Cations
in the X (M2) site can be coordinated with 6 to 8 oxygen atoms,
depending on the cation size. Twenty mineral names are
recognised by the International Mineralogical Association's
Commission on New Minerals and Mineral Names and 105
previously used names have been discarded (Morimoto et al.,
1989).
A typical pyroxene has mostly silicon in the tetrahedral site and

predominately ions with a charge of +2 in both the X and Y
sites, giving the approximate formula XYT2O6. The names of
the common calcium – iron – magnesium pyroxenes are
defined in the 'pyroxene quadrilateral' shown in Figure 2. The
enstatite-ferrosilite series ([Mg,Fe]SiO3) contain up to 5 mol.%
calcium and exists in three polymorphs, orthorhombic
orthoenstatite and protoenstatite and monoclinic clinoenstatite
(and the ferrosilite equivalents). Increasing the calcium content
prevents the formation of the orthorhombic phases and
pigeonite ([Mg,Fe,Ca][Mg,Fe]Si2O6) only crystallises in the
monoclinic system. There is not complete solid solution in
calcium content and Mg-Fe-Ca pyroxenes with calcium contents
between about 15 and 25 mol.% are not stable with respect to
a pair of exolved crystals. This leads to a miscibility gap
between pigeonite and augite compositions. There is an
arbitrary separation between augite and the diopside-
hedenbergite (CaMgSi2O6 – CaFeSi2O6) solid solution. The
divide is taken at >45 mol.% Ca. As the calcium ion cannot
occupy the Y site, pyroxenes with more than 50 mol.% calcium
are not possible. A related mineral wollastonite has the formula
of the hypothetical calcium end member but important
structural differences mean that it is not grouped with the
pyroxenes.
Figure 3: The nomenclature of the sodium pyroxenes.
Magnesium, calcium and iron are by no means the only cations

that can occupy the X and Y sites in the pyroxene structure. A
second important series of pyroxene minerals are the sodium-
rich pyroxenes, corresponding to nomenclature shown in Figure
3. The inclusion of sodium, which has a charge of +1, into the
pyroxene implies the need for a mechanism to make up the
"missing" positive charge. In jadeite and aegirine this is added
by the inclusion of a +3 cation (aluminium and iron(III)
respectively) on the Y site. Sodium pyroxenes with more than
20 mol.% calcium, magnesium or iron(II) components are
known as omphacite and aegirine-augite, with 80% or more of
these components the pyroxene falls in the quadrilateral shown
in figure 2.
Table 1 shows the wide range of other cations that can be

accommodated in the pyroxene structure, and indicates the
sites that they occupy.
Table 1: Order of cation occupation in the pyroxenesT Si
Al Fe3+
Y Al Fe3+Ti4+ Cr V Ti3+ Zr Sc Zn Mg
Fe2+Mn
X Mg
Fe2+Mn Li Ca Na
In assigning ions to sites the basic rule is to work from left to

right in this table first assigning all silicon to the T site then
filling the site with remaining aluminium and finally iron(III),
extra aluminium or iron can be accommodated in the Y site and
bulkier ions on the X site. Not all the resulting mechanisms to
achieve charge neutrality follow the sodium example above and
there are several alternative schemes:
Coupled substitutions of 1+ and 3+ ions on the X and Y sites
respectively. For example, Na and Al give the jadeite
(NaAlSi2O6) composition.
Coupled substitution of a 1+ ion on the X site and a mixture
of equal numbers of 2+ and 4+ ions on the Y site. This leads to
e.g. NaFe2+0.5Ti4+0.5Si2O6.
The Tschermak substitution where a 3+ ion occupies the Y
site and a T site leading to e.g. CaAlAlSiO6.
In nature, more than one substitution may be found in the

same mineral.
Pyroxene minerals
First X-ray diffraction view of Martian soil - CheMin analysis
reveals feldspar, pyroxenes, olivine and more (Curiosity rover at
"Rocknest", October 17, 2012).[1]
Clinopyroxenes (monoclinic; abbreviated CPx)

Aegirine, NaFe3+Si2O6
Augite, (Ca,Na)(Mg,Fe,Al,Ti)(Si,Al)2O6
Clinoenstatite, MgSiO3
Diopside, CaMgSi2O6
Esseneite, CaFe3+[AlSiO6]
Hedenbergite, CaFe2+Si2O6
Jadeite, Na(Al,Fe3+)Si2O6
Jervisite, (Na,Ca,Fe2+)(Sc,Mg,Fe2+)Si2O6
Johannsenite, CaMn2+Si2O6
Kanoite, Mn2+(Mg,Mn2+)Si2O6
Kosmochlor, NaCrSi2O6
Namansilite, NaMn3+Si2O6
Natalyite, NaV3+Si2O6
Omphacite, (Ca,Na)(Mg,Fe2+,Al)Si2O6
Petedunnite, Ca(Zn,Mn2+,Mg,Fe2+)Si2O6
Pigeonite, (Ca,Mg,Fe)(Mg,Fe)Si2O6
Spodumene, LiAl(SiO3)2
Orthopyroxenes (orthorhombic; abbreviated OPx)
Hypersthene, (Mg,Fe)SiO3
Donpeacorite, (MgMn)MgSi2O6
Enstatite, Mg2Si2O6
Ferrosilite, Fe2Si2O6
Nchwaningite, Mn2+2SiO3(OH)2•(H2O)
5. Dolomite
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dolomite
Updated: 2017-06-21T21:23Z
This article is about the mineral. For other uses, see Dolomite
(disambiguation).
Dolomite
Dolomite-Magnésite- Navarre.jpg
Dolomite (white) with magnesite (yellowish) from Spain
General
Category Carbonate minerals
Formula
(repeating unit) CaMg(CO3)2
Strunz classification 5.AB.10
Crystal system Trigonal
Crystal class Rhombohedral (3)
H-M symbol: (3)
Space group R3
Unit cell a = 4.8012(1), c = 16.002 [Å]; Z = 3
Identification
Color White, gray to pink
Crystal habit Tabular crystals, often with curved faces, also
columnar, stalactitic, granular, massive.
Twinning Common as simple contact twins
Cleavage Perfect on {1011}, rhombohedral cleavage
Fracture Conchoidal
Tenacity Brittle
Mohs scale hardness 3.5 to 4
Luster Vitreous to pearly
Streak White
Optical properties Uniaxial (-)
Refractive index nω = 1.679–1.681 nε = 1.500
Birefringence δ = 0.179–0.181
Solubility Poorly soluble in dilute HCl
Other characteristics May fluoresce white to pink under UV;
triboluminescent.
Ksp values vary between 1x10−19 to 1x10−17
References [1][2][3][4][5]
Dolomite (pronunciation: /ˈdɒləmaɪt/) is an anhydrous
carbonate mineral composed of calcium magnesium carbonate,
ideally CaMg(CO3)2. The term is also used for a sedimentary
carbonate rock composed mostly of the mineral dolomite. An
alternative name sometimes used for the dolomitic rock type is
dolostone.
Contents
1 History
2 Properties
3 Formation
4 Formation of dolomite from solution and its link with
biogenic dolomite
5 Uses
6 See also
7 References
History
Most probably the mineral dolomite was first described by Carl

Linnaeus in 1768.[6] In 1791, it was described as a rock by the
French naturalist and geologist Déodat Gratet de Dolomieu
(1750–1801), first in buildings of the old city of Rome, and later
as samples collected in the mountains now known as the
Dolomite Alps of northern Italy. Nicolas-Théodore de Saussure
first named the mineral (after Dolomieu) in March 1792.[7]
Properties
The mineral dolomite crystallizes in the trigonal-rhombohedral

system. It forms white, tan, gray, or pink crystals. Dolomite is a
double carbonate, having an alternating structural arrangement
of calcium and magnesium ions. It does not rapidly dissolve or
effervesce (fizz) in dilute hydrochloric acid as calcite does.
Crystal twinning is common.
Solid solution exists between dolomite, the iron-dominant

ankerite and the manganese-dominant kutnohorite.[8] Small
amounts of iron in the structure give the crystals a yellow to
brown tint. Manganese substitutes in the structure also up to
about three percent MnO. A high manganese content gives the
crystals a rosy pink color. Lead, zinc, and cobalt also substitute
in the structure for magnesium. The mineral dolomite is closely
related to huntite Mg3Ca(CO3)4.
Because dolomite can be dissolved by slightly acidic water,
areas of dolomite are important as aquifers and contribute to
karst terrain formation.[9]
Formation
Modern dolomite formation has been found to occur under

anaerobic conditions in supersaturated saline lagoons along the
Rio de Janeiro coast of Brazil, namely, Lagoa Vermelha and
Brejo do Espinho. It is often thought that dolomite will develop
only with the help of sulfate-reducing bacteria (e.g.
Desulfovibrio brasiliensis).[10] However, low-temperature
dolomite may occur in natural environments rich in organic
matter and microbial cell surfaces. This occurs as a result of
magnesium complexation by carboxyl groups associated with
organic matter.[11]
Dolomite
Vast deposits of dolomite are present in the geological record,

but the mineral is relatively rare in modern environments.
Reproducible, inorganic low-temperature syntheses of
dolomite and magnesite were published for the first time in
1999. Those laboratory experiments showed how the initial
precipitation of a metastable "precursor" (such as magnesium
calcite) will change gradually into more and more of the stable
phase (such as dolomite or magnesite) during periodical
intervals of dissolution and re-precipitation. The general
principle governing the course of this irreversible geochemical
reaction has been coined "breaking Ostwald's step rule".[12]
There is some evidence for a biogenic occurrence of dolomite.

One example is that of the formation of dolomite in the urinary
bladder of a Dalmatian dog, possibly as the result of an illness
or infection.[13]
Formation of dolomite from solution and its link with biogenic
dolomite
In 2015, it was experimentally discovered that the direct

crystallization of dolomite can occur from solution at
temperatures between 60 and 220 °C. Dolomite forms through
a three-stage process:
A nanoparticulate magnesium-deficient, amorphous calcium

carbonate (Mg-ACC) forms;
After a temperature-dependent induction time, this Mg-ACC
partially dehydrates and orders prior to its rapid (<5 minutes)
crystallization to non-stoichiometric proto-dolomite (with a
lower Mg/Ca ratio compared to dolomite). This occurs via the
dissolution of Mg-ACC, followed by the secondary nucleation of
proto-dolomite from solution.
Finally, the proto-dolomite crystallization proceeds via
spherulitic growth that follows a growth front nucleation
mechanism with a de novo and continuous formation of
nanocrystalline proto-dolomite subunits that form spherical
aggregates. In stage three of the reaction, the proto-dolomite
transforms to highly crystalline and stoichiometric dolomite on
a much longer timescale (hours to days), via an Ostwald-
ripening mechanism. Such a three-stage crystallization can
explain microbially induced proto-dolomites observed in
modern hypersaline settings and may also be the route by
which the Cryogenian cap dolomite deposits of the
Neoproterozoic formed.[14]
Uses
Dolomite with chalcopyrite from the Tri-state district, Cherokee
County, Kansas (size: 11.4×7.2×4.6 cm)
Dolomite is used as an ornamental stone, a concrete aggregate,

and a source of magnesium oxide, as well as in the Pidgeon
process for the production of magnesium. It is an important
petroleum reservoir rock, and serves as the host rock for large
strata-bound Mississippi Valley-Type (MVT) ore deposits of
base metals such as lead, zinc, and copper. Where calcite
limestone is uncommon or too costly, dolomite is sometimes
used in its place as a flux for the smelting of iron and steel.
Large quantities of processed dolomite are used in the
production of float glass.
In horticulture, dolomite and dolomitic limestone are added to

soils and soilless potting mixes as a pH buffer and as a
magnesium source. Home and container gardening are
common examples of this use.
Dolomite is also used as the substrate in marine (saltwater)

aquariums to help buffer changes in pH of the water.
Calcined dolomite is also used as a catalyst for destruction of

tar in the gasification of biomass at high temperature.[15]
Particle physics researchers like to build particle detectors

under layers of dolomite to enable the detectors to detect the
highest possible number of exotic particles. Because dolomite
contains relatively minor quantities of radioactive materials, it
can insulate against interference from cosmic rays without
adding to background radiation levels.[16]
See also
6. Halite
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halite
Updated: 2017-07-20T04:04Z
For the market widely known as "Halite", see Central Sofia
Market Hall.
Halite
Halit (NaCl) - Kopalnia soli Wieliczka, Polska.jpg
Halite from the Wieliczka salt mine, Małopolskie, Poland
General
Category Halide mineral
Formula
(repeating unit) NaCl
Strunz classification 3.AA.20
Crystal system Cubic
Crystal class Hexoctahedral (m3m)
H-M symbol: (4/m 3 2/m)
Space group Fm3m
Unit cell a = 5.6404(1) Å; Z = 4
Identification
Formula mass 58.433 g/mol
Color Colorless or white
Crystal habit Predominantly cubes and in massive
sedimentary beds, but also granular, fibrous and compact
Cleavage Perfect {001}, three directions cubic
Fracture Conchoidal
Tenacity Brittle
Mohs scale hardness 2.0 - 2.5
Luster Vitreous
Streak White
Diaphaneity Transparent
Specific gravity 2.17
Optical properties Isotropic
Refractive index n = 1.544
Solubility Water-soluble
Other characteristics Salty flavor, Fluorescent
References [1][2][3]
Halite ( /ˈhælaɪt/ or /ˈheɪlaɪt/),[4] commonly known as rock salt,

is a type of salt, the mineral (natural) form of sodium chloride
(NaCl). Halite forms isometric crystals.[5] The mineral is
typically colorless or white, but may also be light blue, dark
blue, purple, pink, red, orange, yellow or gray depending on the
amount and type of impurities. It commonly occurs with other
evaporite deposit minerals such as several of the sulfates,
halides, and borates.
Contents
1 Occurrence
2 Uses
3 Gallery
4 See also
5 References
Occurrence
Halite cubes from the Stassfurt Potash deposit, Saxony-Anhalt,
Germany (size: 6.7 × 1.9 × 1.7 cm)
Halite occurs in vast beds of sedimentary evaporite minerals

that result from the drying up of enclosed lakes, playas, and
seas. Salt beds may be hundreds of meters thick and underlie
broad areas. In the United States and Canada extensive
underground beds extend from the Appalachian basin of
western New York through parts of Ontario and under much of
the Michigan Basin. Other deposits are in Ohio, Kansas, New
Mexico, Nova Scotia and Saskatchewan. The Khewra salt mine
is a massive deposit of halite near Islamabad, Pakistan. In the
United Kingdom there are three mines; the largest of these is at
Winsford in Cheshire producing on average a million tonnes per
year.
Salt domes are vertical diapirs or pipe-like masses of salt that

have been essentially "squeezed up" from underlying salt beds
by mobilization due to the weight of overlying rock. Salt domes
contain anhydrite, gypsum, and native sulfur, in addition to
halite and sylvite. They are common along the Gulf coasts of
Texas and Louisiana and are often associated with petroleum
deposits. Germany, Spain, the Netherlands, Romania and Iran
also have salt domes. Salt glaciers exist in arid Iran where the
salt has broken through the surface at high elevation and flows
downhill. In all of these cases, halite is said to be behaving in
the manner of a rheid.
Unusual, purple, fibrous vein filling halite is found in France and

a few other localities. Halite crystals termed hopper crystals
appear to be "skeletons" of the typical cubes, with the edges
present and stairstep depressions on, or rather in, each crystal
face. In a rapidly crystallizing environment, the edges of the
cubes simply grow faster than the centers. Halite crystals form
very quickly in some rapidly evaporating lakes resulting in
modern artifacts with a coating or encrustation of halite
crystals.[6] Halite flowers are rare stalactites of curling fibers of
halite that are found in certain arid caves of Australia's
Nullarbor Plain. Halite stalactites and encrustations are also
reported in the Quincy native copper mine of Hancock,
Michigan.
7. Amphibole
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amphibole
Updated: 2017-07-14T02:29Z
This article is about the mineral. For the logical fallacy, see
equivocation. For the ambiguous grammatical construction, see
amphibology. For the study of amphibians (amphibiology), see
amphibian.
This article needs additional citations for verification.
Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable
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Amphibole (Tremolite)
Amphibole ( /ˈæmfᵻboʊl/) is the name of an important group of
generally dark-colored, inosilicate minerals, forming prism or
needlelike crystals,[1] composed of double chain SiO
4 tetrahedra, linked at the vertices and generally containing
ions of iron and/or magnesium in their structures. Amphiboles
can be green, black, colorless, white, yellow, blue, or brown.
The International Mineralogical Association currently classifies
amphiboles as a mineral supergroup, within which are two
groups and several subgroups.[2]
Contents
1 Mineralogy
1.1 In rocks
2 History and etymology
3 Mineral species
3.1 Chemical formula
3.2 Descriptions
4 See also
5 Notes
6 References
Mineralogy
Amphiboles crystallize into two crystal systems, monoclinic and

orthorhombic. In chemical composition and general
characteristics they are similar to the pyroxenes. The chief
differences from pyroxenes are that (i) amphiboles contain
essential hydroxyl (OH) or halogen (F, Cl) and (ii) the basic
structure is a double chain of tetrahedra (as opposed to the
single chain structure of pyroxene). Most apparent, in hand
specimens, is that amphiboles form oblique cleavage planes (at
around 120 degrees), whereas pyroxenes have cleavage angles
of approximately 90 degrees. Amphiboles are also specifically
less dense than the corresponding pyroxenes. In optical
characteristics, many amphiboles are distinguished by their
stronger pleochroism and by the smaller angle of extinction (Z
angle c) on the plane of symmetry. Amphiboles are the primary
constituent of amphibolites.
In rocks
Amphiboles are minerals of either igneous or metamorphic

origin; in the former case occurring as constituents
(hornblende) of igneous rocks, such as granite, diorite, andesite
and others. Calcium is sometimes a constituent of naturally
occurring amphiboles. Those of metamorphic origin include
examples such as those developed in limestones by contact
metamorphism (tremolite) and those formed by the alteration
of other ferromagnesian minerals (hornblende). Pseudomorphs
of amphibole after pyroxene are known as uralite.
History and etymology
The name amphibole (Ancient Greek ἀμφίβολος - amphíbolos

meaning 'ambiguous') was used by René Just Haüy to include
tremolite, actinolite, tourmaline and hornblende. The group
was so named by Haüy in allusion to the protean variety, in
composition and appearance, assumed by its minerals. This
term has since been applied to the whole group. Numerous
sub-species and varieties are distinguished, the more important
of which are tabulated below in two series. The formulae of
each will be seen to be built on the general double-chain
silicate formula RSi4O11.[3]
Four of the amphibole minerals are among the minerals

commonly called asbestos. These are: anthophyllite, riebeckite,
cummingtonite/grunerite series, and actinolite/tremolite
series. The cummingtonite/grunerite series is often termed
amosite or brown asbestos; riebeckite is known as crocidolite
or blue asbestos. These are generally called amphibole
asbestos.[4]
Mineral species
Chemical formula
Orthorhombic series
Anthophyllite, (Mg,Fe)7Si8O22(OH)2
Holmquistite, Li2Mg3Al2Si8O22(OH)2
Ferrogedrite, Fe2+5Al4Si6O22(OH)2
Monoclinic series
Tremolite, Ca2Mg5Si8O22(OH)2
Actinolite, Ca2(Mg,Fe)5Si8O22(OH)2
Cummingtonite, Fe2Mg5Si8O22(OH)2
Grunerite, Fe7Si8O22(OH)2
Hornblende, (K,Na)0-
1(Ca,Na,Fe,Mg)2(Mg,Fe,Al)5(Al,Si)8O22(OH)2
Glaucophane, Na2(Mg,Fe)3Al2Si8O22(OH)2
Riebeckite (or Crocidolite), Na2Fe2+3Fe3+2Si8O22(OH)2
Arfvedsonite, Na3Fe2+4Fe3+Si8O22(OH)2
Richterite, Na2Ca(Mg,Fe)5Si8O22(OH)2
Pargasite, NaCa2Mg3Fe2+Si6Al3O22(OH)2
Winchite, (CaNa)Mg4(Al,Fe3+)Si8O22(OH)2
Edenite, NaCa2Mg5(Si7Al)O22(OH)2
Descriptions
On account of the wide variations in chemical composition, the

different members vary considerably in properties and general
appearance.
Anthophyllite occurs as brownish, fibrous or lamellar masses

with hornblende in mica-schist at Kongsberg in Norway and
some other localities. An aluminous related species is known as
gedrite and a deep green Russian variety containing little iron
as kupfferite.[3]
Hornblende is an important constituent of many igneous rocks.

It is also an important constituent of amphibolites formed by
metamorphism of basalt.
Actinolite is an important and common member of the

monoclinic series, forming radiating groups of acicular crystals
of a bright green or greyish-green color. It occurs frequently as
a constituent of greenschists. The name (from Greek ἀκτίς,
ἀκτῖνος/aktís, aktînos, a 'ray' and λίθος/líthos, a 'stone') is a
translation of the old German word Strahlstein (radiated stone).
[3]
Glaucophane, crocidolite, riebeckite and arfvedsonite form a

somewhat special group of alkali-amphiboles. The first two are
blue fibrous minerals, with glaucophane occurring in
blueschists and crocidolite (blue asbestos) in ironstone
formations, both resulting from dynamo-metamorphic
processes. The latter two are dark green minerals, which occur
as original constituents of igneous rocks rich in sodium, such as
nepheline-syenite and phonolite.[3]
Pargasite is a rare magnesium-rich amphibole with essential

sodium, usually found in ultramafic rocks. For instance, it
occurs in uncommon mantle xenoliths, carried up by kimberlite.
It is hard, dense, black and usually idiomorphic, with a red-
brown pleochroism in petrographic thin section.
8. Mica
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mica
Updated: 2017-07-21T10:01Z
This article is about the mineral or gem. For other uses, see
Mica (disambiguation).
Mica
Mica (6911818878).jpg
General
Category Phyllosilicates
Formula
(repeating unit) AB2–3(X, Si)4O10(O, F, OH)2
Identification
Color purple, rosy, silver, gray (lepidolite); dark green,
brown, black (biotite); yellowish-brown, green-white
(phlogopite); colorless, transparent (muscovite)
Cleavage perfect
Fracture flaky
Mohs scale hardness 2.5–4 (lepidolite); 2.5–3 biotite; 2.5–3
phlogopite; 2–2.5 muscovite
Luster pearly, vitreous
Streak White, colorless
Melting point 700–1000 °C
Diagnostic features cleavage
References [1][2][3][4]
Sheet mica
Mica flakes
Dark mica from Eastern Ontario
The mica group of sheet silicate (phyllosilicate) minerals

includes several closely related materials having nearly perfect
basal cleavage. All are monoclinic, with a tendency towards
pseudohexagonal crystals, and are similar in chemical
composition. The nearly perfect cleavage, which is the most
prominent characteristic of mica, is explained by the hexagonal
sheet-like arrangement of its atoms.
The word mica is derived from the Latin word mica, meaning a
crumb, and probably influenced by micare, to glitter.[5]
Contents
1 Classification
1.1 Dioctahedral micas
1.2 Trioctahedral micas
1.3 Interlayer-deficient micas
2 Occurrence and production
3 Properties and uses
3.1 Ground mica
3.2 Built-up mica
3.3 Sheet mica
3.3.1 Electrical and electronic
3.3.2 Peepholes
3.3.3 Atomic force microscopy
3.4 Early history
3.5 Mica powder
3.6 Medicine
4 Health impact
5 Substitutes
6 Notes
7 References
8 External links
Classification
Chemically, micas can be given the general formula[6]

X2Y4–6Z8O20(OH, F)4,
in which
X is K, Na, or Ca or less commonly Ba, Rb, or Cs;

Y is Al, Mg, or Fe or less commonly Mn, Cr, Ti, Li, etc.;
Z is chiefly Si or Al, but also may include Fe3+ or Ti.
Structurally, micas can be classed as dioctahedral (Y = 4) and

trioctahedral (Y = 6). If the X ion is K or Na, the mica is a
common mica, whereas if the X ion is Ca, the mica is classed as
a brittle mica.
Dioctahedral micas
Muscovite[7]
Trioctahedral micas
Common micas:
Biotite[7]
Lepidolite
Phlogopite
Zinnwaldite
Brittle micas:
Clintonite
Interlayer-deficient micas
Very fine-grained micas, which typically show more variation in

ion and water content, are informally termed "clay micas".
They include:
Hydro-muscovite with H3O+ along with K in the X site;

Illite with a K deficiency in the X site and correspondingly
more Si in the Z site;
Phengite with Mg or Fe2+ substituting for Al in the Y site and
a corresponding increase in Si in the Z site.
Occurrence and production
File:Mica.webm
Mica is widely distributed and occurs in igneous, metamorphic

and sedimentary regimes. Large crystals of mica used for
various applications are typically mined from granitic
pegmatites.
Until the 19th century, large crystals of mica were quite rare
and expensive as a result of the limited supply in Europe.
However, their price dramatically dropped when large reserves
were found and mined in Africa and South America during the
early 19th century. The largest documented single crystal of
mica (phlogopite) was found in Lacey Mine, Ontario, Canada; it
measured 10 × 4.3 × 4.3 m and weighed about 330 tonnes.[8]
Similar-sized crystals were also found in Karelia, Russia.[9]
The British Geological Survey reported that as of 2005,

Koderma district in Jharkhand state in India had the largest
deposits of mica in the world. China was the top producer of
mica with almost a third of the global share, closely followed by
the US, South Korea and Canada. Large deposits of sheet mica
were mined in New England from the 19th century to the
1970s. Large mines existed in Connecticut, New Hampshire, and
Maine.
Scrap and flake mica is produced all over the world. In 2010,
the major producers were Russia (100,000 tonnes), Finland
(68,000 t), United States (53,000 t), South Korea (50,000 t),
France (20,000 t) and Canada (15,000 t). The total global
production was 350,000 t, although no reliable data were
available for China. Most sheet mica was produced in India
(3,500 t) and Russia (1,500 t).[10] Flake mica comes from
several sources: the metamorphic rock called schist as a
byproduct of processing feldspar and kaolin resources, from
placer deposits, and from pegmatites. Sheet mica is
considerably less abundant than flake and scrap mica, and is
occasionally recovered from mining scrap and flake mica. The
most important sources of sheet mica are pegmatite deposits.
Sheet mica prices vary with grade and can range from less than
$1 per kilogram for low-quality mica to more than $2,000 per
kilogram for the highest quality.[11]
Properties and uses
The mica group represents 37 phyllosilicate minerals that have

a layered or platy texture. The commercially important micas
are muscovite and phlogopite, which are used in a variety of
applications. Mica’s value is based on several of its unique
physical properties. The crystalline structure of mica forms
layers that can be split or delaminated into thin sheets usually
causing foliation in rocks. These sheets are chemically inert,
dielectric, elastic, flexible, hydrophilic, insulating, lightweight,
platy, reflective, refractive, resilient, and range in opacity from
transparent to opaque. Mica is stable when exposed to
electricity, light, moisture, and extreme temperatures. It has
superior electrical properties as an insulator and as a dielectric,
and can support an electrostatic field while dissipating minimal
energy in the form of heat; it can be split very thin (0.025 to
0.125 millimeters or thinner) while maintaining its electrical
properties, has a high dielectric breakdown, is thermally stable
to 500 °C (932 °F), and is resistant to corona discharge.
Muscovite, the principal mica used by the electrical industry, is
used in capacitors that are ideal for high frequency and radio
frequency. Phlogopite mica remains stable at higher
temperatures (to 900 °C (1,650 °F)) and is used in applications
in which a combination of high-heat stability and electrical
properties is required. Muscovite and phlogopite are used in
sheet and ground forms.[11]
Ground mica
The leading use of dry-ground mica in the US is in joint

compound for filling and finishing seams and blemishes in
gypsum wallboard (drywall). The mica acts as a filler and
extender, provides a smooth consistency, improves the
workability of the compound, and provides resistance to
cracking. In 2008, joint compound accounted for 54% of dry-
ground mica consumption. In the paint industry, ground mica is
used as a pigment extender that also facilitates suspension,
reduces chalking, prevents shrinking and shearing of the paint
film, increases resistance of the paint film to water penetration
and weathering, and brightens the tone of colored pigments.
Mica also promotes paint adhesion in aqueous and
oleoresinous formulations. Consumption of dry-ground mica in
paint, the second ranked use, accounted for 22% of the dry-
ground mica used in 2008.[11]
Ground mica is used in the well-drilling industry as an additive

to drilling fluids. The coarsely ground mica flakes help prevent
the loss of circulation by sealing porous sections of the drill
hole. Well drilling muds accounted for 15% of dry-ground mica
use in 2008. The plastics industry used dry-ground mica as an
extender and filler, especially in parts for automobiles as
lightweight insulation to suppress sound and vibration. Mica is
used in plastic automobile fascia and fenders as a reinforcing
material, providing improved mechanical properties and
increased dimensional stability, stiffness, and strength. Mica-
reinforced plastics also have high-heat dimensional stability,
reduced warpage, and the best surface properties of any filled
plastic composite. In 2008, consumption of dry-ground mica in
plastic applications accounted for 2% of the market. The rubber
industry used ground mica as an inert filler and mold release
compound in the manufacture of molded rubber products such
as tires and roofing. The platy texture acts as an antiblocking,
antisticking agent. Rubber mold lubricant accounted for 1.5% of
the dry-ground mica used in 2008. As a rubber additive, mica
reduces gas permeation and improves resiliency.[11]
Dry-ground mica is used in the production of rolled roofing and

asphalt shingles, where it serves as a surface coating to prevent
sticking of adjacent surfaces. The coating is not absorbed by
freshly manufactured roofing because mica’s platy structure is
unaffected by the acid in asphalt or by weather conditions.
Mica is used in decorative coatings on wallpaper, concrete,
stucco, and tile surfaces. It also is used as an ingredient in flux
coatings on welding rods, in some special greases, and as
coatings for core and mold release compounds, facing agents,
and mold washes in foundry applications. Dry-ground
phlogopite mica is used in automotive brake linings and clutch
plates to reduce noise and vibration (asbestos substitute); as
sound-absorbing insulation for coatings and polymer systems;
in reinforcing additives for polymers to increase strength and
stiffness and to improve stability to heat, chemicals, and
ultraviolet (UV) radiation; in heat shields and temperature
insulation; in industrial coating additive to decrease the
permeability of moisture and hydrocarbons; and in polar
polymer formulations to increase the strength of epoxies,
nylons, and polyesters.[11]
Mica flakes embedded in a fresco for glitter
Wet-ground mica, which retains the brilliancy of its cleavage

faces, is used primarily in pearlescent paints by the automotive
industry. Many metallic-looking pigments are composed of a
substrate of mica coated with another mineral, usually titanium
dioxide (TiO2). The resultant pigment produces a reflective
color depending on the thickness of the coating. These
products are used to produce automobile paint, shimmery
plastic containers, high quality inks used in advertising and
security applications. In the cosmetics industry, its reflective
and refractive properties make mica an important ingredient in
blushes, eye liner, eye shadow, foundation, hair and body
glitter, lipstick, lip gloss, mascara, moisturizing lotions, and nail
polish. Some brands of toothpaste include powdered white
mica. This acts as a mild abrasive to aid polishing of the tooth
surface, and also adds a cosmetically pleasing, glittery shimmer
to the paste. Mica is added to latex balloons to provide a
colored shiny surface.[11]
Mica is also used as an insulator in concrete block and home

attics, and can be poured into walls (usually in retrofitting
uninsulated open top walls). Mica may also be used as a soil
conditioner, especially in potting soil mixes and in gardening
plots. Greases used for axles are composed of a compound of
fatty oils to which mica, tar or graphite is added to increase the
durability of the grease and give it a better surface.
Built-up mica
Muscovite and phlogopite splittings can be fabricated into

various built-up mica products. Produced by mechanized or
hand setting of overlapping splittings and alternate layers of
binders and splittings, built-up mica is used primarily as an
electrical insulation material. Mica insulation is used in high-
temperature and fire-resistant power cables in aluminium
plants, blast furnaces, critical wiring circuits (for example,
defense systems, fire and security alarm systems, and
surveillance systems), heaters and boilers, lumber kilns, metal
smelters, and tanks and furnace wiring. Specific high-
temperature mica-insulated wire and cable is rated to work for
up to 15 minutes in molten aluminium, glass, and steel. Major
products are bonding materials; flexible, heater, molding, and
segment plates; mica paper; and tape.[11]
Flexible plate is used in electric motor and generator

armatures, field coil insulation, and magnet and commutator
core insulation. Mica consumption in flexible plate was about
21 tonnes in 2008 in the US. Heater plate is used where high-
temperature insulation is required. Molding plate is sheet mica
from which V-rings are cut and stamped for use in insulating
the copper segments from the steel shaft ends of a
commutator. Molding plate is also fabricated into tubes and
rings for insulation in armatures, motor starters, and
transformers. Segment plate acts as insulation between the
copper commutator segments of direct-current universal
motors and generators. Phlogopite built-up mica is preferred
because it wears at the same rate as the copper segments.
Although muscovite has a greater resistance to wear, it causes
uneven ridges that may interfere with the operation of a motor
or generator. Consumption of segment plate was about 149 t in
2008 in the US. Some types of built-up mica have the bonded
splittings reinforced with cloth, glass, linen, muslin, plastic, silk,
or special paper. These products are very flexible and are
produced in wide, continuous sheets that are either shipped,
rolled, or cut into ribbons or tapes, or trimmed to specified
dimensions. Built-up mica products may also be corrugated or
reinforced by multiple layering. In 2008, about 351 t of built-up
mica was consumed in the US, mostly for molding plates (19%)
and segment plates (42%).[11]
Sheet mica
Mica insulator items
Silver mica capacitors
Muscovite windows
Technical grade sheet mica is used in electrical components,
electronics, in atomic force microscopy and as window sheets.
Other uses include diaphragms for oxygen-breathing
equipment, marker dials for navigation compasses, optical
filters, pyrometers, thermal regulators, stove and kerosene
heater windows, radiation aperture covers for microwave
ovens, and micathermic heater elements. Mica is birefringent
and is therefore commonly used to make quarter and half wave
plates. Specialized applications for sheet mica are found in
aerospace components in air-, ground-, and sea-launched
missile systems, laser devices, medical electronics and radar
systems. Mica is mechanically stable in micrometer-thin sheets
which are relatively transparent to radiation (such as alpha
particles) while being impervious to most gases. It is therefore
used as a window on radiation detectors such as Geiger-Müller
tubes.
In 2008, mica splittings represented the largest part of the

sheet mica industry in the United States. Consumption of
muscovite and phlogopite splittings was about 308 t in 2008.
Muscovite splittings from India accounted for essentially all US
consumption. The remainder was primarily imported from
Madagascar.[11]
Small squared pieces of sheet mica are also used in the
traditional Japanese Kodo ceremony to burn incense: A burning
piece of coal is placed inside a cone made of white ash. The
sheet of mica is placed on top, acting as a separator between
the heat source and the incense, in order to spread the
fragrance without burning it.
Electrical and electronic
Sheet mica is used principally in the electronic and electrical

industries. Its usefulness in these applications is derived from
its unique electrical and thermal properties and its mechanical
properties, which allow it to be cut, punched, stamped, and
machined to close tolerances. Specifically, mica is unusual in
that it is a good electrical insulator at the same time as being a
good thermal conductor. The leading use of block mica is as an
electrical insulator in electronic equipment. High-quality block
mica is processed to line the gauge glasses of high-pressure
steam boilers because of its flexibility, transparency, and
resistance to heat and chemical attack. Only high-quality
muscovite film mica, which is variously called India ruby mica or
ruby muscovite mica, is used as a dielectric in capacitors. The
highest quality mica film is used to manufacture capacitors for
calibration standards. The next lower grade is used in
transmitting capacitors. Receiving capacitors use a slightly
lower grade of high-quality muscovite.[11]
Mica sheets are used to provide structure for heating wire
(such as in Kanthal or Nichrome) in heating elements and can
withstand up to 900 °C (1,650 °F).
Peepholes
Thin transparent sheets of mica were used for peepholes in

boilers, lanterns, stoves, and kerosene heaters because they
were less likely to shatter than glass when exposed to extreme
temperature gradients. Such peepholes were also used in
"isinglass curtains" in horse-drawn carriages[12] and early 20th
century cars.[13]
Atomic force microscopy
Another use of mica is as a substrate in the production of

ultraflat, thin-film surfaces, e.g. gold surfaces. Although the
deposited film surface is still rough due to deposition kinetics,
the back side of the film at the mica-film interface is ultraflat
once the film is removed from the substrate. Freshly-cleaved
mica surfaces have been used as clean imaging substrates in
atomic force microscopy,[14] enabling for example the imaging
of bismuth films,[15] plasma glycoproteins,[16] membrane
bilayers,[17] and DNA molecules.[18]
Early history
Human use of mica dates back to prehistoric times. Mica was
known to ancient Indian, Egyptian, Greek and Roman and
Chinese civilizations, as well as the Aztec civilization of the New
World.[citation needed]
The earliest use of mica has been found in cave paintings

created during the Upper Paleolithic period (40,000 BC to
10,000 BC). The first hues were red (iron oxide, hematite, or red
ochre) and black (manganese dioxide, pyrolusite), though black
from juniper or pine carbons has also been discovered. White
from kaolin or mica was used occasionally.
A few kilometers northeast of Mexico City stands the ancient

site of Teotihuacan. The most striking structure of Teotihuacan
is the towering Pyramid of the Sun. The pyramid contained
considerable amounts of mica in layers up to 30 cm (12 in)
thick.[19]
Natural mica was and still is used by the Taos and Picuris
Pueblos Indians in north-central New Mexico to make pottery.
The pottery is made from weathered Precambrian mica schist,
and has flecks of mica throughout the vessels. Tewa Pueblo
pottery is made by coating the clay with mica to provide a
dense, glittery micaceous finish over the entire object.[11]
Mica flakes (called abrak in Urdu and written as ‫ )ابرک‬are also
used in Pakistan to embellish women's summer clothes,
especially dupattas (long light-weight scarves, often colorful
and matching the dress).[20][21] Thin mica flakes are added to
a hot starch water solution, and the dupatta is dipped in this
water mixture for 3–5 minutes. Then it is hung to air dry.
Mica powder
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Throughout the ages, fine powders of mica have been used for
various purposes, including decorations. Powdered mica glitter
is used to decorate traditional water clay pots in India, Pakistan
and Bangladesh; it is also used on traditional Pueblo pottery,
though not restricted to use on water pots in this case. The
gulal and abir (colored powders) used by North Indian Hindus
during the festive season of Holi contain fine crystals of mica to
create a sparkling effect. The majestic Padmanabhapuram
Palace, 65 km (40 mi) from Trivandrum in India, has colored
mica windows.
Medicine
In Ayurveda, the Hindu system of ancient medicine prevalent in
India, has employed purification and processing of mica and
preparing Abhraka bhasma which is employed in treating
diseases of respiratory or digestive tract.[22][23]
Health impact
Mica dust in the workplace is regarded as a hazardous

substance for respiratory exposure above certain
concentrations.
The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has

set the legal limit (permissible exposure limit) for mica
exposure in the workplace as 20 mppcf over an 8-hour
workday. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and
Health (NIOSH) has set a recommended exposure limit (REL) of
3 mg/m3 respiratory exposure over an 8-hour workday. At
levels of 1,500 mg/m3, mica is immediately dangerous to life
and health.[24]
Substitutes
Some lightweight aggregates, such as diatomite, perlite, and

vermiculite, may be substituted for ground mica when used as
filler. Ground synthetic fluorophlogopite, a fluorine-rich mica,
may replace natural ground mica for uses that require thermal
and electrical properties of mica. Many materials can be
substituted for mica in numerous electrical, electronic, and
insulation uses. Substitutes include acrylate polymers, cellulose
acetate, fiberglass, fishpaper, nylon, phenolics, polycarbonate,
polyester, styrene, vinyl-PVC, and vulcanized fiber. Mica paper
made from scrap mica can be substituted for sheet mica in
electrical and insulation applications.[10]
Hand carved from mica from the Hopewell tradition
Notes
^ "Mica". Minerals Education Coalition.

^ "The Mica Group". Rocks And Minerals 4 U.
^ "Mica". mineralszone.com.
^ "Amethyst Galleries – THE MICA GROUP". galleries.com.
9. Quartz
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quartz
Updated: 2017-07-26T18:39Z
This article is about the mineral. For other uses, see Quartz
(disambiguation).
Quartz
Quartz, Tibet.jpg
Quartz crystal cluster from Tibet
General
Category oxide mineral[1][2]
Formula
(repeating unit) SiO2
Strunz classification 4.DA.05 (Oxides)
Dana classification 75.01.03.01 (tectosilicates)
Crystal system α-quartz: trigonal
β-quartz: hexagonal
Crystal class α-quartz: trapezohedral (class 3 2); β-quartz:
trapezohedral (class 6 2 2)[3]
Unit cell a = 4.9133 Å, c = 5.4053 Å; Z=3
Identification
Color Colorless through various colors to black
Crystal habit 6-sided prism ending in 6-sided pyramid
(typical), drusy, fine-grained to microcrystalline, massive
Twinning Common Dauphine law, Brazil law and Japan law
Cleavage {0110} Indistinct
Fracture Conchoidal
Tenacity Brittle
Mohs scale hardness 7 – lower in impure varieties (defining
mineral)
Luster Vitreous – waxy to dull when massive
Streak White
Diaphaneity Transparent to nearly opaque
Specific gravity 2.65; variable 2.59–2.63 in impure varieties
Optical properties Uniaxial (+)
Refractive index nω = 1.543–1.545
nε = 1.552–1.554
Birefringence +0.009 (B-G interval)
Pleochroism None
Melting point 1670 °C (β tridymite) 1713 °C (β cristobalite)[3]
Solubility Insoluble at STP; 1 ppmmass at 400 °C and 500 lb/in2
to 2600 ppmmass at 500 °C and 1500 lb/in2[3]
Other characteristics Piezoelectric, may be
triboluminescent, chiral (hence optically active if not racemic)
References [1][4][5][6]
Quartz is a mineral composed of silicon and oxygen atoms in a

continuous framework of SiO4 silicon–oxygen tetrahedra, with
each oxygen being shared between two tetrahedra, giving an
overall chemical formula of SiO2. Quartz is the second most
abundant mineral in Earth's continental crust, behind feldspar.
[7]
Quartz crystals are chiral, and exist in two forms, the normal α-
quartz and the high-temperature β-quartz. The transformation
from α-quartz to beta-quartz takes place abruptly at 573 °C
(846 K). Since the transformation is accompanied by a
significant change in volume, it can easily induce fracturing of
ceramics or rocks passing through this temperature limit.
There are many different varieties of quartz, several of which

are semi-precious gemstones. Since antiquity, varieties of
quartz have been the most commonly used minerals in the
making of jewelry and hardstone carvings, especially in Eurasia.
Contents
1 Etymology
2 Crystal habit and structure
3 Varieties (according to microstructure)
4 Varieties (according to color)
4.1 Amethyst
4.2 Blue quartz
4.3 Dumortierite quartz
4.4 Citrine
4.5 Milky quartz
4.6 Rose quartz
4.7 Smoky quartz
4.8 Prasiolite
5 Synthetic and artificial treatments
6 Occurrence
7 Related silica minerals
8 History
9 Piezoelectricity
10 See also
11 References
12 External links
Etymology
The word "quartz" is derived from the German word "Quarz"
and its Middle High German ancestor "twarc", which probably
originated in Slavic, cf. Czech tvrdý ("hard"), Polish twardy
("hard"), Serbian and Croatian tvrd ("hard").[8]
The Ancient Greeks referred to quartz as κρύσταλλος

(krustallos) derived from the Ancient Greek κρύος (kruos)
meaning "icy cold", because some philosophers (including
Theophrastus) apparently believed the mineral to be a form of
supercooled ice.[9] Today, the term rock crystal is sometimes
used as an alternative name for the purest form of quartz.
Crystal habit and structure
Quartz mineral embedded in limestone (top right of the
sample), easily identifiable by its hexagonal form. It cannot be
scratched by steel (see Mohs scale).
Quartz belongs to the trigonal crystal system. The ideal crystal

shape is a six-sided prism terminating with six-sided pyramids
at each end. In nature quartz crystals are often twinned (with
twin right-handed and left-handed quartz crystals), distorted, or
so intergrown with adjacent crystals of quartz or other minerals
as to only show part of this shape, or to lack obvious crystal
faces altogether and appear massive. Well-formed crystals
typically form in a 'bed' that has unconstrained growth into a
void; usually the crystals are attached at the other end to a
matrix and only one termination pyramid is present. However,
doubly terminated crystals do occur where they develop freely
without attachment, for instance within gypsum. A quartz
geode is such a situation where the void is approximately
spherical in shape, lined with a bed of crystals pointing inward.
α-quartz crystallizes in the trigonal crystal system, space group

P3121 or P3221 depending on the chirality. β-quartz belongs to
the hexagonal system, space group P6222 and P6422,
respectively.[10] These space groups are truly chiral (they each
belong to the 11 enantiomorphous pairs). Both α-quartz and β-
quartz are examples of chiral crystal structures composed of
achiral building blocks (SiO4 tetrahedra in the present case).
The transformation between α- and β-quartz only involves a
comparatively minor rotation of the tetrahedra with respect to
one another, without change in the way they are linked.
Crystal structure of α-quartz (red balls are oxygen, grey are

silicon)
β-quartz
Varieties (according to microstructure)

Although many of the varietal names historically arose from the
color of the mineral, current scientific naming schemes refer
primarily to the microstructure of the mineral. Color is a
secondary identifier for the cryptocrystalline minerals, although
it is a primary identifier for the macrocrystalline varieties.
Major varieties of quartz
TypeColor & DescriptionTransparent
Rock crystal Colorless Clear
AmethystPurple Transparent
Ametrine Zones of purple and yellow or orange Transparent
Rose quartz Pink, may display diasterism Transparent
Chalcedony Cryptocrystalline quartz and moganite mixture.
The term is generally only used for white or lightly colored
material. Otherwise more specific names are used.
Carnelian Reddish orange chalcedony Translucent
Aventurine Chalcedony with small inclusions (usually mica)
that shimmer Translucent
Agate Multi-colored, banded chalcedonySemi-translucent to
translucent
Onyx Agate where the bands are straight, parallel and
consistent in size.
Jasper Cryptocrystalline quartz, typically red to brown
Opaque
Milky quartz White, may display diasterism Translucent to
opaque
Smoky quartz Brown to gray Opaque
Tiger's eye Fibrous gold to red-brown colored quartz,
exhibiting chatoyancy.
Citrine Yellow to reddish orange to brown, greenish yellow
Transparent
Prasiolite Mint green Transparent
Rutilated quartz Contains acicular (needle-like) inclusions of
rutile
Dumortierite quartz Contains large amounts of
dumortierite crystals
Varieties (according to color)
Quartz crystal demonstrating transparency.
Pure quartz, traditionally called rock crystal or clear quartz, is

colorless and transparent or translucent, and has often been
used for hardstone carvings, such as the Lothair Crystal.
Common colored varieties include citrine, rose quartz,
amethyst, smoky quartz, milky quartz, and others.
The most important distinction between types of quartz is that

of macrocrystalline (individual crystals visible to the unaided
eye) and the microcrystalline or cryptocrystalline varieties
(aggregates of crystals visible only under high magnification).
The cryptocrystalline varieties are either translucent or mostly
opaque, while the transparent varieties tend to be
macrocrystalline. Chalcedony is a cryptocrystalline form of silica
consisting of fine intergrowths of both quartz, and its
monoclinic polymorph moganite.[11] Other opaque gemstone
varieties of quartz, or mixed rocks including quartz, often
including contrasting bands or patterns of color, are agate,
carnelian or sard, onyx, heliotrope, and jasper.
10. Muscovite
The list of minerals that commonly form rocks is short. With a little
practice you will recognize most of them when you see them. Descriptions
of some of the minerals, as they look in rocks, follow:
Quartz: Quartz is the last mineral to crystallize, so in igneous rocks it never
has any definite shape. In rocks, it does not show flat faces. It is usually
gray in igneous rocks; gray, white, yellow, or red in sedimentary rocks; and
gray or white in metamorphic rocks. It has a glassy, or sometimes waxy,
look to it.
Potassic Feldspars*: (microcline, orthoclase) Potassic feldspars are pink

or tan, sometimes white. They show flat, shiny faces in igneous rocks. The
crystal grains are usually blocky and nearly rectangular. They look like
good china.
Plagioclase Feldspars*: (albite, labradorite) Look like the potassic

feldspars, except they are white to dark gray, sometimes black. They may
show flashes of blue or green.
Micas*: (muscovite, biotite, phlogopite) Micas have very thin layers that
peel off (or cleave) very easily. In rocks they are usually flakes or layers of
flakes. Muscovite is silvery to brown; biotite is black; phlogopite is a reddish
brown. Phlogopite may be found in marble.
Chlorite*: Like mica, but the flakes are usually not as thin and do not peel
apart as easily. The color is medium to dark green, sometimes almost black
but with a greenish tint.
Hornblende: Hornblende is dark green to black. It shows nearly flat,

shiny faces in almost rectangular or long thin needle like crystals in rock.
Hornblende is usually found in dark colored metamorphic rocks; sometimes
in igneous rocks.
Actinolite and Tremolite: Actinolite and tremolite are usually in long thin
blades or needle like crystals. Actinolite is dark green; tremolite is white to
gray. The crystals may be parallel to each other, or spread from a point.
Actinolite is usually found in schists or gneisses. Tremolite may be found in
marble.
Olivine*: Olivine in rocks is an olive green to greenish yellow. In rocks it

is in rounded grains. If there is much of it, it is almost sugary. It is found
mostly in dark colored igneous rocks.
Calcite and Dolomite: The color is usually white, but can be other colors
when impure. Crystal grains show flat shiny faces, often shaped like
parallelograms. Calcite and dolomite are both soft. They are easily
scratched with a steel point. Powdered calcite will fizz in white vinegar;
dolomite will not. The minerals are found in limestone or dolostone ( the
rock is dolostone, the mineral is dolomite) and marble.

Assignment No.1-Tr Soils

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Assignment No.1-Tr Soils

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Arba Minch University

School of Graduate Studies [Institute of Technology]

Q. 2. Select any six rocks from each of Igneous, sedimentary and

4. Describe the following clay minerals giving their structure, specific

8. Describe separately the various modern techniques for identifying the

Let’s look at these one at a time.

This is where it gets a little tricky.

What is a mineral? It has a fixed chemical formula

That narrows down the field quite a bit.

What is a mineral? It Has an orderly crystalline structure

Properties of Minerals- A Detailed

Cleavage & Fracture

Cleavage Type Angles

Idiochromatism and the Chromophores

Minerals may be categorized according to whether they are opaque or

The property of density is defined as mass per unit volume:

Specific gravity has therefore classically been measured by weighing a mineral

G = mair / [mair - mwater]

The Mohs Scale

The Diamond Indentation Method

10. Crystal Habit

sedimentary and metamorphic rocks.

Igneous Rock is formed when a magma cools underground and

What Minerals Make Up the Rock? quartz, feldspars; Sometimes

What Minerals Make Up the Rock? quartz, feldspars (microcline,

Compare To: gneiss diorite

What Minerals Make Up the Rock? Dark colored plagioclase,

Compare To: granite, diabase

How Was It Formed? Basalt is a volcanic rock. It is formed from a

Compare To: rhyolite, diabase, gabbro

What Minerals Make Up the Rock? plagioclase feldspars, augite;

Compare To: basalt, gabbro, diorite, serpentinite

What Minerals Make Up the Rock? plagioclase feldspars, augite,

Compare To: basalt, diabase, serpentinite

How Was It Formed? Pumice is explosively blown out of volcanoes. It

Compare To: scoria, rhyolite

What Minerals Make Up the Rock? mainly a glass

Compare To: pumice, basalt

What Does It Look Like? Obsidian is a glass and is usually black,

Where Does Obsidian Form?

Obsidian is usually an extrusive rock - one that solidifies above Earth's

along the edges of a lava flow (extrusive)

Obsidian from Glass Butte

Mahogany obsidian: A tumble-polished specimen of "mahogany obsidian."

Black is the most common color of obsidian. However, it can also be

Occasionally two colors of obsidian will be swirled together in a single

As a "glass," obsidian is chemically unstable. With the passage of time,

Snowflake obsidian: A tumble-polished specimen of "snowflake obsidian."

Most obsidians have a composition similar to rhyolite and granite. Granites

Rhyolite is an extrusive igneous rock with a very high silica content. It is

Rhyolite usually forms in continental or continent-margin volcanic eruptions

Eruptions of granitic magma can produce rhyolite, pumice, obsidian, or tuff.

Granitic magmas have produced some of the most explosive volcanic

Andesite is the name used for a family of fine-grained, extrusive igneous

Andesite is typically found in lava flows produced by stratovolcanoes.

Andesite and diorite have a composition that is intermediate between

Occasionally, andesites contain large, visible grains of plagioclase,

Granite is a light-colored igneous rock with grains large enough to be

Granite in Yosemite Valley

Granite in Yosemite Valley: Photograph of Yosemite Valley, California,

Granite is the best-known igneous rock. Many people recognize granite

Related: Explore the many uses of granite!

Granite is also well-known from its many world-famous natural exposures.

Yosemite Nature Notes - Granite: This video examines some of the