Running head: ASSIGNMENT #4 1

Assignment #4

Heather Cantu

EHRD 627-700 Research and Development in Human Resource Development

Dr. Khalil Dirani

Texas A&M University

June 28, 2019

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Task #1 – Learning About Samples and Populations:

The ‘sample’ in a study is a manageable selection of people that are representative of the

total ‘population’ for the purposes of research. Ideally, the results of the study of this sample are

able to be generalized to the total population of people with similar or identical characteristics.

Task #2 – Learning About Reliability, Validity, and Generalizability

Reliability in Quantitative Research: In quantitative research, a study is considered reliable when

the results can be replicated by other researchers. In other words, the instruments used to gather

data in the study are considered consistent enough to allow for matching data to be drawn from

similar studies within an allowed margin of error (Leung, 2015).

Validity (or Internal Validity) in Quantitative Research: A quantitative study’s validity is

dependent upon the phenomenon being accurately and correctly measured. The corresponding

data must align with what the researchers are studying and the knowledge they are hoping to gain

as a result of the study (Heale & Twycross, 2015).

Generalizability (or External Validity) in Quantitative Research: A quantitative study is

considered externally valid when the results of said study are generalizable to a population of

people with similar characteristics. This makes the conclusions of the study meaningful.

Reliability in Qualitative Research: Reliability in qualitative research can be difficult to navigate,

as the results are usually unable to be exactly replicated due to the nature of this type of research.

However, reliability can be attained in qualitative research insofar as the results are aligned with

the corresponding data (Merriam, 2002).

Validity (or Internal Validity) in Qualitative Research: Qualitative research assumes that there

are multiple ‘realities’, because each person’s interpretation of the world differs. However, a
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qualitative study is considered internally valid when the results are aligned with the participants’

reality, and the researchers are measuring what they think they are measuring (Merriam, 2002).

Generalizability (or External Validity) in Qualitative Research: Due to the fact that results are

unlikely to be identically replicated in a similar qualitative study due to the ideas surrounding

differing realities, one must view generalizability through a different lens when it comes to

qualitative research. If the results of a thorough study on a particular phenomenon that applies to

a sample of people could be applicable to other situations, then a qualitative study is considered

externally valid (Merriam, 2002).

Task #3 – Learning Specific Technical Terms Through Internet Researching:

Correlation Coefficient (Statistical Procedure): A correlation coefficient ranges from a value of

-1 to +1 and is the statistical representation of the strength of the relationship between two

variables. The lower the coefficient, the less strength a relationship is considered to possess

(“Data Analysis – Pearson’s Correlation Coefficient”, 2019).

Test of Mean Difference or T-test (Statistical Procedure): A T-test allows researchers to see the

true magnitude of the differences between two groups. In other words, a T-test can inform a

researcher of the likelihood that the differences between the groups in their study happened by

chance alone (“T Test (Student’s T Test): Definition and Examples”, 2019).

ANOVA (Statistical Procedure): The ANOVA measurement (or ‘analysis of statistical variance’)

is used to determine whether or not the differences that were discovered to exist between groups

in a study are statistically significant. In other words, it is a way to determine if researchers

should accept their hypothesis or reject it due to the data they have gathered from their study

(“ANOVA Test: Definitions, Types, Examples”, 2019).

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P-value (Statistical Procedure): In a given study, researchers propose a hypothesis and then begin

collecting data to determine whether or not their hypothesis is true. The ‘p-value’ is the

probability that the aforementioned hypothesis is not true, and the cut-off value for this is usually

0.05 (“Key to statistical result interpretation: P-value in plain English”, 2019).

Beta Weights (Statistical Procedure): A beta weight is a coefficient that displays the strength of

the relationship between the independent and dependent variable when all other independent

variables are controlled for. It can also assist in determining data trends (Piedmont, 2014).

Qualitative Content Analysis (Qualitative Procedure): Simply put, qualitative content analysis is

deriving meaning via analysis and organization of the data collected in a qualitative study.

Qualitative data is non-numerical in nature, which leads to additional analysis complexities

(“How to Effectively Carry Out a Qualitative Data Analysis”, 2019).

Data Coding (Qualitative Procedure): Coding data goes beyond simply labeling data with fancy

colors and titles. The codes that are developed to organize the data allow researchers to relate

data to other data and to the hypothesis itself, which allows for the ability to extrapolate meaning

and determine intricate relationships (“Qualitative coding”, n.d.).

Semi-Structured Questionnaire (Qualitative Procedure): Semi-structured questionnaires are a

mixture of structured and unstructured questionnaires. This method allows for flexibility in that

some questions are developed in advance and others are asked as the conversation or

questionnaire moves forward (“Structured Questionnaires”, n.d.).

Constant Comparative Analysis (Qualitative Procedure): As data emerges throughout a study, it

is constantly compared to other existing data and adjusted. In other words, it allows for

flexibility of categories/coding, and allows researchers to see patterns emerging early and adjust

the study accordingly for maximum effect (Lewis-Beck, Bryman, & Futing Liao, 2004).
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References

ANOVA test: Definition, types, examples. (2019). Retrieved June 23, 2019, from

https://www.statisticshowto.datasciencecentral.com/probability-and-statistics/hypothesis-

testing/anova/

Data analysis: Pearson's correlation coefficient. (2019). Retrieved June 23, 2019, from

http://learntech.uwe.ac.uk/da/Default.aspx?pageid=1442

Heale, R., & Twycross, A. (2015). Validity and reliability in quantitative studies. Evidence

Based Nursing, 18(3), 66-67.

How to effectively carry out a qualitative data analysis. (2019). Retrieved June 23, 2019, from

https://www.achievability.co.uk/evasys/how-to-effectively-carry-out-a-qualitative-data-

analysis

Key to statistical result interpretation: P-value in plain English. (2019). Retrieved June 23, 2019,

from https://www.students4bestevidence.net/p-value-in-plain-english-2/

Leung, L. (2015). Validity, reliability, and generalizability in qualitative research. J Family Med

Prim Care, 4(3), 324-327.

Lewis-Beck, M., Bryman, A., & Futing Liao, T. (2004). Constant comparison. The SAGE

Encyclopedia of Social Science Research Methods.

Merriam, S. (2002). Qualitative research in practice: Examples for discussion and analysis. San

Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Piedmont, R. L. (2014). Beta weights. Retrieved June 23, 2019, from

https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/978-94-007-0753-5_201
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Qualitative coding. (n.d.). Retrieved June 23, 2019, from

https://www.cessda.eu/Training/Training-Resources/Library/Data-Management-Expert-

Guide/3.-Process/Qualitative-coding

Structured questionnaires. (n.d.). Retrieved June 23, 2019, from

archives.who.int/PRDUC2004/RDUCD/INRUD_2000_CDROM/.../qm_ch6.doc

T test (student’s t-test): Definition and examples. (2019). Retrieved June 23, 2018, from

https://www.statisticshowto.datasciencecentral.com/probability-and-statistics/t-test/