CHE 509: Introduction to Particle Technology

PARTICLE - FLUID SEPARATION:

CLASSIFICATION, SEDIMENTATION, CENTRIFUGATION

Lecturer:
ENGR. MICHAEL ALLAN G. RAMOS
Department of Chemical Engineering
Technological Institute of the Philippines
1st Semester, 2019-2020
Gravity Separation

• Particles are separated from the fluid by gravitational forces

acting on the particles.
• A separation based on density and size.

• Purpose:
a) Remove the particles from the fluid stream
b) Particles are recovered as the product
c) Separate particles into fractions differing in size or in density.
Settling of Particle
• Free Settling
Ø When particle is at sufficient distance from:
1. Walls of the container (Dp/Dc < 1/200)
2. From other particles (Cp = 0.2 vol %)

• Hindered Settling

Free Settling Velocity

>
Hindered Settling Velocity
Free Settling
Consider a particle at free settling: By Newton’s Law of Motion:

ΣF = ma
Fg – Fb – Fd = m (dv/dt)

Fe (external) Terminal velocity, vt:

Ø maximum settling velocity

motion
FD (drag)

Fb (buoyant)

Forces Acting on a Particle
where:
g = 9.81 m/s2 A = projected area
ρp = density of the particle of the particle
ρ = density of the fluid
Vp = Volume of the particle
CD = Drag Coefficient
Free Settling
Terminal velocity, vt
for particle at free settling

• For a Spherical Particle:

a. Vp = π/6 Dp3
b. A = π/4 Dp2

EQN 6-229 (Perry’s HB, 8th Ed.)

Drag Coefficient, CD
• Function of Reynold’s Number.
Drag Coefficient, CD
• Function of Reynold’s Number

Terminal Velocity, vt
Range NRe CD

Stoke’s
<1.0
Law

Intermediate
Trial and Error
Range

1000
Newton’s
to CD = 0.44
Law
200,000
Illustrative Problem 1
Oil droplets having a diameter of 20 µm (0.020 mm) are to be
settled from air at temperature of 37.8°C and 101.3 kPa
pressure. The density of the oil is 900 kg/m3. Calculate the
terminal settling velocity of the droplets.

• Air at 37.8°C: ρ = 1.137 kg/m3, µ = 1.90 X 10-5 Pa•s

• ANSWER: 0.0103 m/s

Illustrative Problem 2
Many animal cells can be cultivated on the external surface of
dextran beads. These cell-laden beads or “microcarriers” have a
density of 1.02 g/cm3 and a diameter of 150 µm. A 50-liter
stirred tank is used to cultivate cells grown on microcarriers to
produce a viral vaccine. After growth, the stirring is stopped and
the microcarriers are allowed to settle. The microcarrier-free
fluid is then withdrawn to isolate the vaccine. The tank has a
liquid height to diameter ratio of 1.5; the carrier-free fluid has a
density of 1.00 g/cm3 and a viscosity of 1.1 cP. Estimate the
settling time by assuming that these beads quickly reach their
maximum terminal velocity.

ANSWER: 2379 seconds

 Hindered Settling
• Large number of particles are present
Ø Surrounding particles interfere with the motion of individual
particles
Ø There is an appreciable upward velocity of the liquid

vs = vt (ε)n EQN 6-244

(Perry’s HB, 8th Ed.)

where:
vt = terminal velocity at free settling
ε = porosity or total void fraction in the
suspension
n = f(Nre)
Hindered Settling
• Porosity (ε)

= volume of void space / total volume of suspension

= volume of liquid or gas / total volume
Illustrative Problem 3

A particle settles through a suspension containing 35%

solids by weight. Given that the velocity under free settling
motion is ut = 0.00669 m/s. Find us.

[density of particle = 2800 kg/m3, Dp = 200 mesh (0.074

mm), density of fluid = 996.5 kg/m3, viscosity of fluid =
0.8Cp]

ANSWER: 0.003036 m/s

Classification

• Process of separating solids into several fractions

• Separation is based on different settling velocities due to:
1. Different particle sizes (Gravity Classifiers)
2. Different particle densities (Sorting Classifiers)
Gravity Classifiers
• Separating particles on the basis of size
(density of fine particles is same
that of the larger ones)

Terminal Velocity for Spherical Particles

EQN 6-229 (Perry’s HB, 8th Ed.)

Draft tube-baffle crystallizer with

internal system for fines separation
and removal
Sorting Classifiers
• Devices that separate particles of differing densities

• Two principal separation methods:

1. Sink-and-Float Method
Ø Uses a liquid sorting medium with density intermediate between that of
the light material and that of the heavy
Ø Also called as heavy-fluid method

2. Differential Settling Method

Ø Uses a liquid sorting medium with density less than that of either
substance
Ø Utilizes the difference in terminal velocities that can exist between
particles of different densities
 Concentration Criterion
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑆𝐺-./01 2/3.45/6 − 𝑆𝐺8695: some concentration ratios:
= Coal ~ 3.4
𝐶𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑆𝐺65;-3 2/3.45/6 − 𝑆𝐺8695:
Cassiterite ~ 3.5
Hematite ~2.5
If the concentration ratio is:

> 3 separation is easy in all sizes down to the finest sand

= 2.5 possible to get clean concentrate down to particles of about 75𝜇𝑚
> 2.0 reasonable separation can be effected without difficulty
1.75 separation difficult down to a limit of 212 𝜇𝑚
1.5 difficult down to a limit of 1.7 mm
1.25 difficult down to a limit of 12.5 mm
< 1.25 substantially impossible
Sink-and-Float Methods
• Liquid sorting medium has density intermediate between
that of the light material and that of the heavy

Problem:
Light particles Ø Selection of liquid medium
will FLOAT 1. Halogenated Hydrocarbons
2. FeCl2
3. Pseudoliquid
- suspension in water of fine
Heavy Particles particles of heavy mineral:

Light Particles Magnetite (SG = 5.17)

Ferrosilicon (SG = 6.3 to 7.0)
Galena (SG = 7.5)

Heavy particles
will SINK
Differential Settling Methods
• Utilizes the difference in terminal velocities that can exist
between particles of different densities

Slow settling particles Problem:

will be carried by the Ø Wide particle size range
flowing water to the top
Smaller heavy particles will settle at
the same terminal velocity as larger
light particles
Heavy Particles
vt2 Light Particles
vw
vt1
Fast settling particles
will settle at the bottom

vt1 > vw > vt2

Differential Settling Methods
• Utilizes the difference in terminal velocities that can exist
between particles of different densities

Problem:
ρ1 > ρ2 Ø Wide particle size range

Smaller heavy particles will settle at

the same terminal velocity as larger
light particles

vt1 vw vt2

vt1 = vt2 ≈ vw
Basic Equations
• For two particles A and B of the same settling velocity,
different sizes and densities:

Stoke’s Law Newton’s Law

Illustrative Problem 4

• It is desired to separate two materials, particle A and particle B, in a

vertical elutriation system using water (1000 kg/m3; 0.001 Pa-s) as the
separating fluid. Densities are 7700 kg/m3 for A and 2400 kg/m3 for B.
If the mixture has a size range of 20𝜇𝑚 − 45𝜇𝑚:

(a) Verify if complete separation can be achieved.

(b) If not, what property of the separating fluid must be set for
complete separation?

Assume that the particles are essentially spherical in shape and

Stokes’ Law applies.
• For complete separation, settling velocities of particles A and B must
not be overlapping for over the whole size range.

Settling velocities of Particle A: Settling velocities of Particle B:

𝑚 𝑚
9.81 20𝑥10MN 𝑚 E
7700 − 1000 𝑘𝑔/𝑚S 9.81 20𝑥10MN 𝑚 E
2400 − 1000 𝑘𝑔/𝑚S
𝑣3DEF = 𝑠E 𝑣3gEF = 𝑠E
(18)(0.001 𝑃𝑎 − 𝑠) (18)(0.001 𝑃𝑎 − 𝑠)
𝒗𝒕𝑨𝟐𝟎 = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟔 𝒎𝒎/𝒔 𝒗𝒕𝑩𝟐𝟎 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟎𝟓𝟐 𝒎𝒎/𝒔

𝑚 𝑚
9.81 45𝑥10MN 𝑚 E
7700 − 1000 𝑘𝑔/𝑚S 9.81 45𝑥10MN 𝑚 E
2400 − 1000 𝑘𝑔/𝑚S
𝑣3Dab = 𝑠E 𝑣3gab = 𝑠E
(18)(0.001 𝑃𝑎 − 𝑠) (18)(0.001 𝑃𝑎 − 𝑠)
𝒗𝒕𝑨𝟒𝟓 = 𝟕. 𝟑𝟗 𝒎𝒎/𝒔 𝒗𝒕𝑩𝟒𝟓 = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟒 𝒎𝒎/𝒔
 50
largest B largest A
45

40

35

Dp 30

25

20
smallest B smallest A
15

10

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Terminal Settling Velocity

• Critical condition for complete separation: terminal settling velocity of

largest B must be equal to the terminal settling velocity of smallest A.
Applying Stokes’ Law:
𝒗𝒕𝑩𝟒𝟓 = 𝒗𝒕𝑨𝟐𝟎 F.b
45𝑥10MN 7700 − 𝜌
=
20𝑥10MN 2400 − 𝜌
𝒌𝒈
𝝆 = 𝟏𝟎𝟗𝟓. 𝟑𝟖
𝒎𝟑
Illustrative Problem 5

• A mixture of Galena (ρ = 7500 kg/m3) and Silica (ρ = 2650 kg/m3)

having a size range between 0.025 mm to 0.08 mm is separated by
elutriation using water. Assume the density and viscosity of water to
be 1000 kg/m3 and 1 cP, respectively.

a). What is the velocity of water needed to obtain a pure galena

product?

b) What is the expected size range of the galena product?

 • Galena à heavy particles (7500 kg/m3)
• Silica à light particles (2650 kg/m3)

Galena-Silica Galena-Silica • To obtain a pure galena at the bottoms, consider the

Mixture Mixture largest silica particle as the critical particle to be
removed by the upward-flowing water.

Assuming Stokes’ Law:

𝐷o = 0.08 𝑚𝑚
𝑘𝑔 𝑚
9.81 0.08𝑥10MS 𝑚 E
2650 − 1000 𝑘𝑔/𝑚S
𝜌o = 2650 S 𝑣3 = 𝑠E
𝑚 (18)(0.001 𝑃𝑎 − 𝑠)
𝒎
𝒗𝒕 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓𝟕𝟓𝟓 < 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
𝒔
𝑚 𝑘𝑔
0.08𝑥10MS 𝑚 0.005755 𝑠 1000
𝑚S
𝑁}. = = 0.46 < 1.0
Pure Galena 0.001 𝑃𝑎 − 𝑠
Water

• To determine the size range of the pure galena obtained, determine the maximum size
that can be carried by the flowing water.
𝑚 E
𝑚 9.81 𝐷o 7500 − 1000 𝑘𝑔/𝑚S
0.005755 = 𝑠E 𝑫𝒑 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟒𝟎𝟑𝟏 𝒎𝒎
𝑠 (18)(0.001 𝑃𝑎 − 𝑠)
𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕 𝑺𝒊𝒛𝒆 𝑹𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆: 𝟎. 𝟎𝟒𝟎𝟑𝟏 𝒎𝒎 < 𝑫𝒑 ≤ 𝟎. 𝟎𝟖 𝒎𝒎
SEDIMENTATION
Thickener / Clarifier

• Industrial unit in which the concentration of a suspension

is increased by sedimentation, with the formation of a
clear liquid
Thickener / Clarifier
Thickening is often referred to as “dewatering”. It is
desirable to obtain a partially or completely dewatered
solid-liquid mixture because of:

(1) Transportation
(2) Recycling of process water
(3) Compliance with environmental regulations
(4) Preparation for further processing
Thickener / Clarifier
Sedimentation may be done in batch or continuous. Continuous
thickener was first invented by Dorr in 1906 and thus often referred as
“Dorr thickener”. The size may range, but not limited, from 2-200
meters in diameter and 1-7 meters in depth.

Basic components:
(1) Tank or basin of certain size
(2) Feed directing system
(3) Overflow collecting system
(4) Rake mechanism
Batch Settling
Particles may settle in four (4) ways depending on the solids
concentration and the relative tendency of the particles to cohere:

1) Particle Clarification
2) Flocculating Clarification
3) Zone Settling
4) Compression Sedimentation
Batch Settling

• Characterized by the formation of different zones

1 At first, solid is uniformly distributed in the liquid. Total depth of
suspension is Z0
2 Formation of Zone A (clear liquid zone), Zone B (suspension zone),
Zone C (transition zone), and Zone D (thickened zone)
3 Depths of Zone A and Zone D increases, Zone B decreases, Zone C
remains nearly constant
4 Zone D compresses to the final height, Z∞, of settled solids
 Batch Settling At free settling:

𝑍F − 𝑍‰
𝑣3 =
z0 𝜃‰

At hindered settling:
interface height, z

𝑑𝑍
− = 𝐾 𝑍 − 𝑍•
Clear liquid

zC
𝑑𝜃

Integrating:
z∞
θC 𝑍 − 𝑍•
ln = −𝐾 𝜃 − 𝜃‰
Time, θ 𝑍‰ − 𝑍•
Illustrative Problem 6
In a laboratory test, the following data were obtained: Initial
Height = 30 cm; Critical height = 16 cm; Height = 10 cm
after 145 min; Height at infinite time is 4 cm; velocity of
settling =0.2 cm/min.

For a batch cylindrical tank with a volume of 1 m3, of height

equal to twice the diameter, find the settling time for the
particles to settle to a height which is 20% of the original.
From batch settling test as given from laboratory data:

𝑍F = 30 𝑐𝑚 𝑍F − 𝑍‰
𝑣3 =
𝑍‘ = 16 𝑐𝑚 𝜃‰
𝑍 = 10 𝑐𝑚 𝑎𝑡 𝜃 = 145 𝑚𝑖𝑛 (< ZC) 𝑐𝑚 30 𝑐𝑚 − 16 𝑐𝑚
0.2 =
𝑍• = 4 𝑐𝑚 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝜃‰
𝑐𝑚
𝑣3 = 0.2 (𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔) ∴ 𝜃‰ = 70 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑚𝑖𝑛

For height, below the critical height, Zc, hindered settling occurs as described by:

𝑍 − 𝑍•
ln = −𝐾 𝜃 − 𝜃‰
𝑍‰ − 𝑍•
10 𝑐𝑚 − 4 𝑐𝑚
ln = −𝐾 145 𝑚𝑖𝑛 − 70 𝑚𝑖𝑛
16 𝑐𝑚 − 4 𝑐𝑚

∴ 𝐾 = 0.009242 minM—
For the particles to settle to a height of 20% of the original:

𝑍 = 0.20 𝑍F = 0.20 30 𝑐𝑚 = 6 𝑐𝑚 (< 𝑍𝑐; ∴ ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔)

𝑍 − 𝑍•
ln = −𝐾 𝜃 − 𝜃‰
𝑍‰ − 𝑍•
6 𝑐𝑚 − 4 𝑐𝑚
ln = − 0.009242 minM— 𝜃 − 70 𝑚𝑖𝑛
16 𝑐𝑚 − 4 𝑐𝑚
∴ 𝜃 = 263.87 𝑚𝑖𝑛

For the up-scaled system, observed characteristics in lab scale batch settling
test is assumed:
𝜋
𝑉 = 1 𝑚S 𝑉= 𝐷 E (𝐻) ∴ 𝐻 = 1.7205 𝑚 = 𝑍F
4
𝐻 = 2𝐷 (𝑎𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜) E
𝜋 𝐻 (assuming tank is
𝜃 = ? 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑍 = 0.20 𝑍F 1 𝑚S = 𝐻 completely filled)
4 2

𝑍 𝑍 6 𝑐𝑚 0.20(172.05 𝑐𝑚)
= = ∴ 𝜽 = 𝟏𝟓𝟏𝟑. 𝟐𝟗 𝐦𝐢𝐧 = 𝟐𝟓. 𝟐𝟐 𝒉𝒓𝒔
𝜃 3. 3 𝜃 3/¡¢ 263.87 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝜃
Settling Zones in a Thickener

(A) Clear or clarification zone

(B) Feed zone
(C) Transition or critical zone
(D) Compression zone
Design Considerations
• Functions:
A. Produce a clarified liquid
B. Produce a given degree of thickening of the suspension

• Requirements to satisfy functions:

A. vliquid < vsettling
B. Sufficient residence time

• Design parameters:
A. Diameter of the tank
B. Height of the tank
 Design Considerations
F, cF
V

where:
L, c F = feed rate [m3/h]
L = rate entering at any level in the
free settling zone [m3/h]
V = overflow rate [m3/h]
U = underflow rate [m3/h]
U, cU c = concentration of slurry
• For continuous operation: [kg solids / m3]

Total solids flux at any level does not exceed the

rate at which the solids can be transmitted downwards

Total solids flux:

(1) Flux due to settling velocities (FB)
(2) Flux due to continuous removal of sludge at the bottom (Fu)
Design Considerations
• Design based on laboratory data

In a batch sedimentation:
Settling velocity depends on
solid concentration: Flux = settling velocity multiplied by concentration:

= vLcL
 Design Considerations
Flux = velocity created by
underflow removal x Total Solids Flux, FT = FB + FU:
concentration:
FT

FL
FU

FB

FL = minimum flux
*minimum flux is the maximum allowable solids loading for continuous operation:
Illustrative Problem 7
A single batch settling test was made on a limestone slurry.
The test was made on 236 g limestone per L slurry. Find
the area required for a feed rate of 3.785M liters/day.
Sludge concentration is 700 g/L. Underflow velocity is 500
cm/day. Result of the test is given below:
 Illustrative Problem 7
Solution: KYNCH METHOD

Solids at any layer is 𝑧© 𝑐© = 𝑧5 𝑐ª

assumed constant:
zi
height, z

zL

θL
Time, θ
𝐴 = 436.18 𝑚E
Illustrative Problem 8
• A biological sludge from a secondary waste treatment
facility is to be concentrated from 2500 mg/L to 10900
mg/L in a continuous thickener. Flow to the unit is 4.5 x
106 L/day. Determine the area required from the batch test
data.

time, min 0 1 2 3 5 8 12 16 20 25

Interface 51 43.5 37 30.6 23 17.9 14.3 12.2 11.2 10.7

height, cm
 Talmadge and Fitch Method

1. Locate critical point thru an angle

bisector
Interface Height, z

Angle Bisector 2. Draw a line tangent to the critical

point
3. Extend the tangent line to intersect
the mudline height for the
underflow.
zu
𝑧F𝑐F
𝑧9 =
𝑐9
𝜃9
Time 𝐿F𝜃9
𝐴=
𝑧F
 𝑚𝑔
60
𝑧F 𝑐F 51 𝑐𝑚 2500
𝑧9 = = 𝐿 = 11.70 𝑐𝑚
𝑐9 𝑚𝑔
10900 𝐿
50

´ ¸ ¹º ¸ »¼½
ª® ¯° a.b²—F³ µ¶· ——.Ä ÅÆÇ
Interface Height, z [cm]

¸®®® ´ ¾¿ À³® ÁÂÃ

40 𝐴= ±®
= ¸Á = 𝟕𝟏. 𝟔𝟗 𝒎𝟐
b— ‘2 ¸®® ÈÁ

30
Critical Point

20 (𝜃9 , 𝑧9 )
𝑧9
10

𝜃9 = 11. 7𝑚𝑖𝑛
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30

Time [min]
CENTRIFUGAL SEDIMENTATION
Centrifugal Separators
• Used to enhance settling time of
particles
• Uses the concept that an object
whirled about an axis at a constant
radial distance from the point is acted
on by a force
• Centrifugal force pushes particles to
the wall of the bowl

• Force ratio
Ø Separating effect of centrifuge relative to
gravitational field

Ø industrial centrifuge: ~104

Solid-Bowl Centrifuge Configurations
Counter-current Co-current

Solid and liquid travel in the opposite Solid and liquid both flows from one end
direction to one another up to the end of the cylinder
 Factors Affecting Centrifuge Performance

Performance Parameters:
A. Feed Characteristics C. Equipment Characteristics
B. Machine Variables • Length of the cylindrical section
• Bowl speed • Length of the conical section
• Differential spiral feed
• Depth of water in the bowl
The Screen-Bowl Centrifuge

• Two-stage unit that combines a solid bowl clarifier with a

centrifugal filtration section.
 The Screen-Bowl Centrifuge

Compared with vacuum filters and solid bowl centrifuges:

• 50% increase in capacity and 2-6% moisture reduction
• Less floor space and more cost effective; i.e. for fine coal dewatering
at a 450 tph capacity, drying to same moisture content:
Filtration Plant: $18.7 million (CapEx) + $8 million (OpEx)
Centrifugal/thermal drier: $15 million (CapEx) + $6.5 million (OpEx)
Centrifugal Separation

Liquid layer assumes an

equilibrium position with the
surface

Solids are forced horizontally

outward and pressed on the
wall
Assumptions
• All liquid moves upward with a
constant velocity carrying
particles with it

• particles moves radially at its

terminal velocity

• sufficient time (residence time)

is needed for a certain particle
size to reach the wall of the
bowl and be separated from the
liquid
Design Calculations
• r1 = axis to surface of liquid
• r2 = axis to wall of bowl
• ra/rb= distance of particle from axis

If rb < r2:
the particle leaves the bowl with the
Liquid
liquid

If rb = r2:
the particle is deposited on the bowl
wall and separated from the liquid
Feed
r1
ra
rb
r2
Design Calculations
• Recall Stoke’s Law:

• For centrifugation:

EQN 18-103 (Perry’s HB, 8th Ed.)

Illustrative Problem 9
If a centrifuge is 3-ft diameter and rotates at 1,000 rpm,
what must be the speed of a laboratory centrifuge of 6-in
diameter be ran if it is duplicate plant conditions?

ANSWER: 2449 rev/min

Design Calculations
• Recall Stoke’s Law:

• For centrifugation:

EQN 18-103 (Perry’s HB, 8th Ed.)

• Integrating:
Design Calculations

• t = time needed for the particle to

travel from ra to rb

• Residence time, θ
= Volume of suspension in the
centrifuge / Flow rate
= π(r22 – r12)b / q

EQN 18-113 (Perry’s HB, 8th Ed.)

Design Calculations

EQN 18-113 (Perry’s HB, 8th Ed.)

• Cut-Point / Critical Diameter, Dpc

- diameter of particle which just
reaches half of the distance between r1
and r2 given the residence time.
rb = r2 ra = (r1 + r2) / 2
Illustrative Problem 10
A viscous solution containing particles with a density of
1461 kg/m3 is to be clarified by centrifugation. The solution
density is 801 kg/m3 and its viscosity is 100 cp. The
centrifuge has a bowl with r2 = 0.02225 m, r1 = 0.00715 m,
and height b = 0.1970 m. Calculate the critical particle
diameter of the largest particles in the exit stream if N =
23,000 rev/min and flow rate of 0.002832 m3/h.

ANSWER: 0.746 μm
Illustrative Problem 11
What is the capacity in cubic meters per hour of a clarifying
centrifuge operating under these conditions?

Diameter of the bowl = 600 mm

Thickness of liquid layer = 75 mm
Depth of bowl = 400 mm
Speed = 1200 rpm
SG of liquid = 1.2
SG of solid = 1.6
Viscosity of liquid = 2 cp
Cut-size of particles = 30 μm

ANSWER: 210 m3/h

Special Case: Small Thickness of Liquid Layer

• If r1 ≈ r2:

Liquid

= indeterminate

Feed
r1
r2
Sigma Value of Centrifuge
Let: 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑙𝑎𝑦𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝑟E − 𝑟— = 𝑆
𝑆
For a cut-point 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 2
𝑣3 = =
particle: 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑉Ì©Í6
𝑞‘
𝑉
∴ 𝑞‘ = 2 𝑢3
𝑆

𝑉 𝜔E 𝑟E 𝐷o‘
E 𝜌 −𝜌
Ï 𝑔
𝑞‘ = 2 𝑥
𝑆 18 𝜇 𝑔
Terminal settling
E velocity under
𝑉 𝜔E 𝑟. 𝑔 𝐷o‘ 𝜌Ï − 𝜌
𝑞‘ = 2 𝒗𝒕 gravity settling
𝑆. 𝑔 18 𝜇 conditions
(1 g or Fc = Fg)
Sigma Value: 𝚺
• Centrifuge characteristics: • Physical properties of the suspension:
particle size, densities of the particle and
centrifuge dimensions, rotational speed,
liquid, viscosity of the liquid
and geometric configurations
Centrifuge Scale-Up: Sigma Method
• Pilot testing establish the performance of a specific centrifuge equipment
(type, configuration, size).

• The scale-up factor or (q/Σ) for the full-scale equipment:

𝒒𝒄 𝒒𝒄
=
𝚺 𝒑𝒊𝒍𝒐𝒕 𝚺 𝒇𝒖𝒍𝒍M𝒔𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒆

• Widely used criterion for the comparison of centrifuges of similar

geometry and liquid-flow patterns developing approximately the same G.

• Some important limitations in using calculated Sigma values:

(1) idealized plug-flow pattern / absence of exit and entrance effects;
(2) neglects possible particle re-entrainment.
Centrifuge Scale-Up: Sigma Method
- END -