investigations; unforeseen soil and water conditions; natural hazards; poor engineering analysis, design,

construction,
and quality control; damaging postconstruction activities; and usage outside the design conditions.
When failures are investigated thoroughly, we obtain lessons and information that will guide us to prevent
similar types of failure in the future. Some types of failure caused by natural hazards (earthquakes, hurricanes,
etc.) are diffi cult to prevent, and our efforts must be directed toward solutions that mitigate damages to lives
and properties.
One of the earliest failures that was investigated and contributed to our knowledge of soil behavior
is the failure of the Transcona Grain Elevator in 1913 (Figure 1.6). Within 24 hours after loading the
grain elevator at a rate of about 1 m of grain height per day, the bin house began to tilt and settle. Fortunately,
the structural damage was minimal and the bin house was later restored. No borings were done
to identify the soils and to obtain information on their strength. Rather, an open pit about 4 m deep was
made for the foundations and a plate was loaded to determine the bearing strength of the soil.
The information gathered from the Transcona Grain Elevator failure and the subsequent detailed
soil investigation was used (Peck and Bryant, 1953; Skempton, 1951) to verify the theoretical soil bearing
strength. Peck and Bryant found that the applied pressure from loads imposed by the bin house and
the grains was nearly equal to the calculated maximum pressure that the soil could withstand, thereby
lending support to the theory for calculating the bearing strength of soft clay soils. We also learn from
this failure the importance of soil investigations, soils tests, and the effects of rate of loading.
The Transcona Grain Elevator was designed at a time when soil mechanics was not yet born. One
eyewitness (White, 1953) wrote: “Soil Mechanics as a special science had hardly begun at that time. If as
much had been known then as is now about the shear strength and behavior of soils, adequate borings
would have been taken and tests made and these troubles would have been avoided. We owe more to
the development of this science than is generally recognized.”
We have come a long way in understanding soil behavior since the founding of soil mechanics by
Terzaghi in 1925. We continue to learn more daily through research on and experience from failures, and
your contribution to understanding soil behavior is needed. Join me on a journey of learning the fundamentals
of soil mechanics and its applications to practical problems so that we can avoid failures or, at
least, reduce the probability of their occurrence.
FIGURE 1.6 Failure of the Transcona Grain Elevator. (Photo courtesy of Parrish
and Heimbecker Limited.)
5

CHAPTER 2
GEOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
AND PARTICLE SIZES OF SOILS
2.0 INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this chapter is to introduce you to basic geology and particle sizes of soils.
When you complete this chapter, you should be able to:
• Appreciate the importance of geology in geotechnical engineering.
• Understand the formation of soils.
• Determine particle size distribution of a soil mass.
• Interpret grading curves.
Importance
Geology is important for successful geotechnical engineering practice. One of the primary tasks of a
geotechnical engineer is to understand the character of the soil at a site. Soils, derived from the weathering
of rocks, are very complex materials and vary widely. There is no certainty that a soil in one location will
have the same properties as the soil just a few centimeters away. Unrealized geological formations and
groundwater conditions have been responsible for failures of many geotechnical systems and increased
construction costs. As a typical practical scenario, let us consider the design and construction of a bridge
as part of a highway project. You are required to design the bridge foundation and abutment. To initiate
a design of the foundation and the abutment, you have to know the geology of the site including the soil
types, their spatial variations, groundwater conditions, and potential for damage from natural hazards
such as earthquakes. You, perhaps working with geologists, will have to plan and conduct a site investigation
and interpret the data. In the next chapter, you will learn about site investigation. In this chapter,
you will learn basic geology of importance to geotechnical engineers, descriptions of soils, and particle
size distributions.
2.1 DEFINITIONS OF KEY TERMS
Dip is the downward separation of a bedding plane.
Faults are ground fractures.
Minerals are chemical elements that constitute rocks.
Rocks are the aggregation of minerals into a hard mass.
Soils are materials that are derived from the weathering of rocks.
Strike is the horizontal surface separation of a layer or bedding plane.
Effective particle size (D10) is the average particle diameter of the soil at 10 percentile; that is, 10% of
the particles are smaller than this size (diameter).
Average particle diameter (D50) is the average particle diameter of the soil.
6 CHAPTER 2 GEOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS AND PARTICLE SIZES OF SOILS
2.2 QUESTIONS TO GUIDE YOUR READING
1. Why is geology important in geotechnical engineering?
2. What is engineering soil?
3. What is the composition of soils?
4. What are the main minerals in soils?
5. How is soil described?
6. What are the differences between coarse-grained and fi ne-grained soils?
7. What is a grading curve?
8. How do you determine the particle size distribution in soils?
9. How do you interpret a grading curve?
2.3 BASIC GEOLOGY
2.3.1 Earth’s Profi le
Our planet Earth has an average radius of 6373 km and a mean mass density of 5.527 g/cm 3 compared
with a mean mass density of soil particles of 2.7 g/cm 3 and water of 1 g/cm3. Studies from elastic waves
generated by earthquakes have shown that the earth has a core of heavy metals, mostly iron, of mass
density 8 g/cm3 surrounded by a mantle. The mantle consists of two parts, upper mantle and lower
mantle. The upper mantle is solid rock while the lower mantle is molten rock. Above the upper mantle
is the crust, which may be as much as 50 km thick in the continental areas (Figure 2.1) and as little as
7 km thick in oceanic areas.
2.3.2 Plate Tectonics
The crust and part of the upper mantle, about 100 km thick, make up the lithosphere. Below the
lithosphere is the asthenosphere, which is about 150 km thick. The lithosphere is fragmented into
about 20 large plates—large blocks of rocks—that slide against and move toward, away from, and
under each other above hot molten materials in the asthenosphere. The theory governing the movements
of the plates is called plate tectonics. Plate tectonics is based on uniformitarianism, which
states that the earth’s forces and processes are continuous rather than catastrophic and the present
is similar to the past.
Crust 7–50 km thick
Upper mantle
Lower mantle
Outer
core
Inner
core
km
0
650
2890
5150
6378
FIGURE 2.1
A sector of the earth.
2.3 BASIC GEOLOGY 7
The plates move slowly relative to each other but occasionally jerk, sending the energy contained
in the straining rock in all directions. The energy is transmitted as shock waves. When these waves reach
the surface, the ground shaking that occurs is referred to as an earthquake. The adjustment of the plates
after an earthquake causes another set of shock waves that are referred to as aftershocks. The point at
which the earthquake originates is called the focus and the point directly above it on the earth’s surface
is called the epicenter.
As the shock waves move to the earth’s surface from the focus, they separate into body waves and
surface waves. These waves travel at different velocities. Body waves comprise compression, or primary,
P waves, and distortional, or shear, S waves. P waves are the fi rst to arrive at the surface, followed by the
S waves. Surface waves comprise Love (LQ) waves and Raleigh (LR) waves. These surface waves have
large amplitudes and long periods.
The amount of seismic energy released is defi ned by the magnitude (M) of the earthquake. On the
Richter scale, M is a logarithmic scale that ranges from 0 to 9. An earthquake of M 5 2 is barely felt,
while an earthquake of M 5 7 could cause extensive damage.
At the edges of the plates, three phenomena are of particular importance:
1. A fault zone that occurs when the plates slide past each other.
2. A subduction zone that occurs when the plates move toward each other, causing one plate to move
beneath the other.
3. A spreading zone that occurs when the plates move away from each other.
2.3.3 Composition of the Earth’s Crust
The materials that comprise the earth’s crust are sediments and rock. Sediments are solid fragments of
inorganic or organic material resulting from the weathering of rocks and are transported and deposited
by wind, water, or ice. Rocks are classifi ed into three groups—igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic—
based on the earth’s process that forms them.
Igneous rocks are formed from magma (molten rock materials) emitted from volcanoes that
has cooled and solidified. Sedimentary rocks are formed from sediments and animal and plant
materials that are deposited in water or on land on the earth’s surface and then subjected to
pressures and heat. The heat and pressures that are involved in forming sedimentary rocks are low
in comparison to those for igneous rocks. Metamorphic rocks are formed deep within the earth’s
crust from the transformation of igneous, sedimentary, and even existing metamorphic rocks into
denser rocks. Their appearance and texture are variable. For engineering purposes, foliation
(layering caused by parallel alignment of minerals), weak minerals, and cleavage planes are
particularly important because they are planes of weakness. No melting takes place, so the original
chemical composition of the original rock remains unchanged. The rock texture generally becomes
coarser-grained.
Sedimentary rocks are of particular importance to geotechnical engineers because they cover
about 75% of the earth’s surface area with an average thickness of 0.8 km. The sediments that comprise
sedimentary rocks may be bonded (cemented) together by minerals, chemicals, and electrical attraction
or may be loose. Clastic sedimentary rocks are small pieces of rocks cemented together by minerals such
as carbonates (calcite, CaCO3) or sulfates (gypsum, CaSO4 [12H2O]). Examples of clastic sedimentary
rocks are sandstones formed from sand cemented by minerals and found on beaches and sand dunes;
shales formed from clay and mud and found in lakes and swamps; and conglomerates formed from sand
and gravels at the bottom of streams. Chemical sedimentary rocks are minerals such as halite (rock salt),
calcite, and gypsum that have been formed from elements dissolved in water (e.g., the material found in
Death Valley, California). Organic sedimentary rocks are formed from organic materials such as plants,
bones, and shells. Coal is an organic sedimentary rock formed deep in the earth from the compaction of
plants.
2.3.4 Discontinuities
Rock masses are seldom homogeneous and continuous. Rather, they consist of discontinuities that control
the strength and displacements of the rock masses and the stability of any structure founded on them.
Discontinuities in sedimentary rocks are called bedding planes. These bedding planes are planes that separate
different bodies of sedimentary deposits. In metamorphic rocks they are called foliation planes. In igneous
rocks they are called joints. However, the term joint is used generically to describe most discontinuities in rock
masses. The terms strike and dip are used to describe the geometry of a bedding plane. Strike is the horizontal
surface separation of a layer or bedding plane. Dip is the downward separation of a bedding plane.
Rock masses may be distorted by folding. There are a variety of folds. Two simple folds (Figure 2.2) are
anticlines—rock mass folded upward (convex)—and synclines—rock mass folded downward (concave).
Folding results in unequal distribution of stresses within the rock mass and can cause major problems in
civil engineering construction through uneven release of stresses.
The movements of the plates cause ground fractures called faults. The three predominant faults are
normal, thrust, and strike/slip. Tension causes normal fault (Figure 2.3a). An example of a normal fault is
the Teton Mountains in Wyoming. Compression causes thrust or reverse fault (Figure 2.3b). Shear causes
strike/slip fault (Figure 2.3c). An example of a strike/slip fault is the San Andreas Fault in California. Faults
are rarely simple. They normally consist of different types of faulting.
2.3.5 Geologic Cycle and Geological Time
The formation of rocks and sediments is a continuous process known as the geologic cycle. Sediments
are transformed by heat and pressure into rocks and then the rocks are eroded into sediments. The cycle
has neither a starting point nor an ending point. There are three main geological principles, given by
Nicolaus Steno (1638–1687), that govern the geologic cycle:
1. Principle of original horizontality, which states that sediments are deposited in layers parallel to the
earth’s surface.
2. Principle of original continuity, which states that depositions are sheetlike and are only terminated
in contact with existing solid surfaces. Deformities occur from subsequent