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Teaching Styles

Conference Paper · January 2013

DOI: 10.13140/2.1.1178.1441

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Mary Gloria C Njoku

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 Teaching Styles

Mary Gloria C. Njoku, DDL., PhD

Godfrey Okoye University, Enugu

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Introduction

For many years, the direct lecture method was the primary instructional method used by most

teachers (Santrock, 2006). It was more instructor-focused with the objective of transferring

knowledge, skill and information from the instructor to the learners. In this context, the instructor

controls the course content and pace. However, educational research has demonstrated that

learners learn best when they are able to learn through discovery, setting the pace of their

learning with the instructor coaching, mentoring or facilitating their knowledge, skill and

information acquisition. This teaching methodology is described as learner-focused (Santrock,

2006).

In terms of learning styles, it has been noted that most students gravitate towards visual,

auditory, kinesthetic and environmental styles. Visual learners process new material when the

information is presented visually through the use of graphics, images, illustrations,

demonstrations, charts, tables and graphs. Auditory learners do best when the new information is

spoken and thus they benefit from lectures and discussions. Kinesthetic learners process new

information best when they can touch and manipulate the material presented to them. Written

assignment, note taking, participation in activities and examination of objects are some of the

ways kinesthetic learners grasp new information. Environmental learners grasp new information

best when the material is presented in surroundings that match their personal environmental

preferences.

John Dewey's ideas shaped our understanding of children as active learners and advocated that

teachers engage learners in the learning process (Glassman, 2001). Edward Thorndike suggested

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that the most important task of education is to sharpen the reasoning skills of learners (Beatty,

1998). The work of Dewey and Thorndike were consistent with the constructivist teaching

strategies. Constructivism posits that people actively construct knowledge and understanding.

Constructivists suggest that instead of teachers delivering lectures in a manner that indicates

pouring knowledge into learners, students should be allowed to investigate and discover their

world and knowledge, reflect, and think critically about the knowledge (Ambrose, 2004; Brooks

& Brooks, 2001; Magolda, 2004). For several decades, students have been treated as passive

learners expected to sit still and memorize information given by teachers (Henson, 2004). Thus,

the position of constructivists is that learners should be collaborators and active participants in

the learning process.

Contrary to the constructivism approach, teachers and researchers who hold the traditional

education paradigm suggest that teachers should direct and control the learning process

(Santrock, 2006). Some educational psychologists, however, believe that the use of traditional

direct-instruction method or constructivist approach could both produce effective teaching and

results. This school of thought is based on the components of effective teaching. Generally, as

found by educational psychologist, the following factors characterize effective teaching:

appropriate goal-setting and instructional planning, classroom management skills, motivational

skills, communication skills, working effectively with learners from diverse backgrounds,

technological skills and commitment (Santrock, 2006). In summary, effective teachers create a

motivating classroom environment. The physical and psychological environment they develop

encourages students to do their optimal best in both character and academic formation. They

have adequate expectation of their students and construct a curriculum that challenges and

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motivates students to do well (Njoku, 2013). Therefore, their teaching can produce adequate

results regardless of the use of traditional direct-instruction or active learning modality.

However, due to differences in learners characteristics, both teaching methodologies could be

incorporated to provide an engaging, challenging and enriching learning environment. Active

learning reflects the participation of students in the learning process beyond passively listening

to a lecture. These include reading, writing, discussions, and engagement in group work or

problem solving tasks in the classroom. These activities could be the primary means of

conveying knowledge to students or be used as a supplement to lecturing as shown in the

following teaching styles summarized by Njoku (2012):

Seminars

 The attendance for seminar courses depends on the lecturers. Some make attendance

mandatory while others require a particular percentage. In terms of the format,

Example 1.

 The lecturer uses the first two lecture periods to introduce the topics to be covered in the

course

 Students form groups (maximum of 5 members per group) according to topics of interest

or programmes of study

 Students organize and have meetings, prepare and present their work in class

 Students also prepare a group paper of 15 to 25 pages. This paper is submitted at the end

of the semester or as directed by the lecturer

 It is adviceable for lecturers to include original practical work in the students' projects

Example 2.

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  The lecturer uses the first one or two lecture periods to introduce the topics to be covered

in the course

 The lecturer assigns groups of students specific chapters of the recommended books or

articles.

 Student groups prepare and make a presentation to the class on the assigned chapters and

or articles

 The groups should plan to spend at least 10 minutes for questions from the class.

 The lecturer makes input during the discussion phase of the group presentations.

 Students also prepare a group paper of 15 to 25 pages. This paper is submitted at the end

of the semester or as directed by the lecturer

Working Group

 Lecturer provides an overview of the topics to be covered

 Students get into small groups

 All students receive the assigned book chapters and articles for the course and are

required to read and come to class prepared for discussion but one group is responsible

for presenting a topic each week.

 A semester paper is submitted either individually or as a group. If individually three to

five pages is acceptable. For groups of three or more, a minimum of 10 pages and a

maximum of 15 pages is suggested.

 Attendance and participation in class discussion is mandatory.

Lecture

 The lecturer prepares and delivers lectures as scheduled

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  Students are required to attend at least 50% of the lectures.

 Students buy books, obtain the course material and learn

 Students take mid-semester and semester examination.

Service Learning

 The lecturer uses the first one or two lecture periods to introduce the areas to be covered

in the course

 Students indicate specific community services, volunteer or industrial training projects

they will undertake

 Students prepare a proposal on how the selected service or action is related to the course

objectives and hand in to lecturer for approval

 Students undertake the approved project

 Class meets at intervals to discuss students' progress on their projects

 Students prepare and make a presentation of their projects to the class during assigned

periods.

 Students prepare and hand in a paper of 5 to 10 pages on their projects. This paper is

submitted at the end of the semester or as directed by the lecturer

Independent Study

Independent studies are supervised by specific lecturers under whom students are conducting

projects. The projects could be research work, community intervention or office work.

 Students complete the independent study form signed by the project supervisor and

submit to their Head of Department.

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  Students undertake the approved project

 Students prepare and hand in a paper of 10 to 15 pages on their projects to their

supervisor.

 Both compulsory and elective courses can be fulfilled through independent studies

These styles are particularly appropriate for teaching at the university or college level as students

are expected to engage in higher order processing of information through critical thinking,

analysis, synthesis and evaluation.

Considering active learning examples, the following are methods of implementing active

learning in teaching:

1) Asking and answering questions (see William E. Cashin, Kansas State University. IDEA

PAPER No. 31, January, 1995.

http://www.theideacenter.org/sites/default/files/Idea_Paper_31.pdf),

2) Capstone courses in which students are given the opportunity to show integrated knowledge

and skill development in their specific area of study commonly called major (e.g., see Robert C.

Moore. In Assessing Media Education: A Resource for Educators and Administrators, ed. by

William G. Christ, Erlbaum, 2005. http://users.etown.edu/m/moorerc/capstone.html),

3) Civic engagement where students are given the opportunity to participate in both academic

and citizenship education (e.g., see Strategies for Creating an Engaged Campus.

http://www.compact.org/advancedtoolkit/default.html),

4) Case-based teaching in which students are assigned cases, real life or imaginary and asked to

analyse and make decisions about the cases (e.g., see Using Cases in Teaching (Penn State).

http://archive.tlt.psu.edu/suggestions/cases/),

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5) Clinical practicum where students are expected to learn from practicing their skills in real life

activities (e.g., see Strategies in Clinical Teaching,

http://wichita.kumc.edu/preceptor/introduction.html),

6) Team learning (e.g., see Cooperative Learning: Students Working in Small Groups. Speaking

of Teaching, Stanford University Newsletter on Teaching, Winter 1999, Vol. 10, No. 2.

http://www.stanford.edu/dept/CTL/cgi-bin/docs/newsletter/cooperative.pdf),

7) Critical thinking exercises (e.g., see Critical Thinking Across the Curriculum Project,

Metropolitan Community College-Longview.

http://www.mcckc.edu/main.asp?L=CriticalThinkingPurpose),

8) Creativity teaching (e.g., see Gave projects, tests, or assignments that required original or

creative thinking, Cynthia Desrochers, California State University, Northridge, POD-IDEA

Center Note, IDEA Item #19, July 2004.

http://www.theideacenter.org/sites/default/files/Item19Formatted.pdf),

9) Discussion forums in virtual or real world (e.g., see Discussion in the Classroom, Penn State,

Schreyer Institute for Teaching Excellence.

http://www.schreyerinstitute.psu.edu/Tools/Discuss/),

10) Experiential learning (e.g., see Experience-Based Learning, Lee Andresen, David Boud, and

Ruth Cohen. From Understanding Adult Education and Training, 2nd edition, Foley, G.,ed.

Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 2000, 225-238. PDF/Adobe Acrobat.

http://complexworld.pbworks.com/f/Experience-based%20learning.pdf).

11) Freshmen seminar that usually requires students to engage in critical thinking and intensive

writing (e.g., see First Year Inquiry, North Carolina State University.

http://www.ncsu.edu/firstyearinquiry/index.html.

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Other teaching styles include interdisciplinary methods that promote learning material that is

associated with two or more disciplines, and laboratory work. Another active teaching method

that integrates technology is termed "flipped classroom." Teachers who implement flipped

classroom prepare their lecture in visual electronic format so that students listen or watch the

lectures, demonstrations and explanations of the learning material at home and class time is then

spent on completing assignment (also called homework). The teacher's role in the class is to offer

one-on-one assistance to students and clarify the assignments as needed. As can be noted from

the assignment, the classroom is called "flipped" because the traditional classroom activity is

done at home by students and the homework is completed in the classroom. The flipped

classroom was initiated by Jon Bergmann and Aaron Sams (ChannelTechSmith, December 2,

2010). Examples of flipped classrooms can be found on the following links:

“Inverting the Classroom: A Gateway to Creating an Inclusive Learning Environment,”

Maureen J. Lage, Glenn J. Platt, and Michael Treglia (Journal of Economic Education, Winter

2000). http://dl.dropbox.com/u/249331/Inverted_Classroom_Paper.pdf

“Reversing the Lecture/Homework Paradigm Using eTEACH Web-based Streaming Video

Software,” Julie Foertsch, Gregory Moses, John Strikwerda, and Mike Litzkow (Journal of

Engineering Education, July 2002).

http://www.asee.org/papers-and-publications/publications/jee

“’Flipped Classroom’ Energizes Computational Fluid Dynamics Course,” Mark Dwortzan

(Boston University College of Engineering News and Events).

http://www.bu.edu/phpbin/news-cms/news/?dept=666&id=59184

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“Using the Inverted Classroom to Teach Software Engineering,” Gerald C. Cannod, Janet E.

Burge, Michael T. Helmick (Miami University 2007).

http://sc.lib.muohio.edu/bitstream/handle/2374.MIA/206/fulltext.pdf?sequence=1

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 References

Ambrose, D. (2004). Creativity in teaching. In J. C. Kaufman & J. Baer (Eds.), Creativity across

domains. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum

Beatty, B. (1998). From laws of learning to a science of values: Efficacy and morality in

Thorndike's educational psychology. American Psychologist, 53, 1145-1152.

Bergmann. Flipped Learning: Turning Learning on Its Head, at http://flipped-learning.com/

Brooks, J. G., & Brooks, M. G. (2001). In search of understanding: The case for constructivist

classrooms. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill.

Channel Tech Smith. (December 2, 2010). Flipping.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BXSBcM0RhB0&feature=relmfu

Glassman, M. (2001). Dewey and Vygotsky: Society, experience, and inquiry in educational

practice. Educational Researcher, 30(4), 3-14.

Henson, K. (2004). Constructivist teaching strategies for diverse middle school classrooms.

Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

Magolda, M. B. B. (2004). Evolution of constructivist conceptualization of epistemological

reflection. Educational Psychologist, 39, 31-42.

Njoku, M. G. C. (July, 2013). Elements of effective teaching. A talk presented to head teachers

and supervisors of Igboetiti Local Government Area of Enugu State.

Njoku, M. G. C. (2012). Teaching styles. unpublished brief on teaching methodology.

Santrock, J. W. (2006). Educational Psychology (2nd ed.). New Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hill

Publishing Company Limited.

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