Basic integration methods.

To compute a given integral, we must, if it is possible , using this or that method of

integration , reduce it to a tabular formula and thus obtain the desired result. In our
course we will dwell only on most frequently used methods of integration and give
simplest examples of their applications.

The most important methods are:

(1)integration by expansion

(2)integration by substitution

(3)integration by parts.

1. Integration by expansion. Let

f (x )=f 1 ( x )+ f 2 ( x ) ; then, according to property IV , we have

∫ f ( x )dx=∫ f 1( x )dx+∫ f 2 (x )dx .
Example1.

∫ (1−√ x )2 dx=∫(1−2 √ x + x+ dx=∫ dx−∫ 2 √ x dx +∫ xdx=

3
1
2 x x2 4 2
x2
¿ ∫ dx−2∫ x dx + ∫ xdx = x−2 + +C=x− x √ x + +C .
3 2 3 2
2
Note. There is no need to put an arbitrary constant after each term, since the sum
of arbitrary constants is again constant which is written at the end of the whole
expression.

2.Integration by substitution. (or the method of introducing a new variable).

Let f(x) be continuous on an open interval (a,b) and x=ϕ(t ) continuously

differentiable on an open interval (α , β) ; the function ϕ mapping the interval
(α , β) into the interval (a,b).

On the basis of the property of independence of the indefinite integral of the

'
argument chosen and taking into account dx=ϕ (t )dt , we obtain the formula
for changing the variable in an indefinite integral
 ∫ f ( x )dx=∫ f (ϕ(t ))ϕ' (t )dt (1)

The integral constituting the right hand member of equality (1) may turn out to be
simpler than the integral in the left-hand side of this equality or even a tabular one.

Let us consider several examples.

Example2. ∫ x √ x−5 dx . To get rid of the radical, we set

√ x−5=t . Hence x=t 2 +5

and consequently, dx=2 tdt .

We substitute into the integral and obtain

∫ x √ x−5 dx =∫ (t 2+5 )t⋅2 tdt=∫ (2t 4 +10 t 2)dt=2∫ t 4 dt +10∫ t2 dt=

5 3
t2 t3 2 10
¿ 2⋅ +10⋅ +C= (x−5)2 + ( x−5 )2 +C
5 30 5 3
3.Integration by parts. Let u and v be continuously differentiable function of
x. On the basis of the formula for the differential of a product, we have

d (uv )=udv + vdu ,

hence u dv=d (uv )−v du ,

Integrating we obtain ∫ u dv=∫ d (uv )−∫ v du , or finally

∫ u dv=uv −∫ v du (2)

This is just the formula for integration by parts. The derived formula shows that

the integral ∫ u dv is reduced to the integral ∫ v du which may turn out to be

simpler than the initial one, or even a tabular one.

Example. ∫ ln x dx .

dx
du=d ln x =
Setting here u=ln x and dv=dx , we obtain x and
v =x .
 dx
∫ ln x dx=x ln x −∫ x⋅ =x ln x −x+C
Hence, by formula (2), we have x

Example. ∫ x cos xdx . Putting u= x and dv=cos xdx ,we have

du=dx and v =∫ cos xdx=sin x .

Applying the formula for integration by parts (2), we get

∫ x cos xdx=x sin x−∫ sin xdx=x sin x+ cos x+C .

In the integral of the form ∫ p( x )f ( x )dx where p( x) is polynomial, in

n
particular p( x )=x and
ax
f (x )=e ,sin ax ,cos ax ,ln x ,arcsin x ,arccos x , arctgx , arcctgx we apply
the formula for integration by parts (2).

Techniques for integrating rational fractions with quadratic denominator.

P( x )
∫ ax 2 +bx +c dx ,
The question is how to compute integrals of the form

where P(x) is an integral polynomial and a,b,c are constants, a≠0 . Dividing
2
the numerator P(x) by the denominator ax +bx +c , we obtain a certain
polynomial Q(x) as a quotient and a linear binomial mx + n as a remainder
(since the power of the remainder is lower than that of the divisor; hence

P( x ) mx+n
=Q ( x )+
ax 2 + bx+ c ax 2 +bx +c .

The integral of the polynomial Q(x) is found directly; therefore we are going to
show how to compute integral of the for

mx+n
∫ ax 2 +bx +c dx
. (1)

First we derive two basic integrals

 x
() d
a
∫ 2dx 2 = 1a ∫ 2 = 1a arctan xa +C ( a≠0 )
x +a x
I. a
+1 () i.e.

dx 1 x
∫ x 2+a2 = a arctan a +C (a≠0) (2)

dx
∫ x 2−a2 (a≠0) We have
II.

1 1 1 ( x +a )−( x−a) 1 1 1
= = = −
x 2−a ( x+a)( x−a) 2 a ( x +a )(x −a ) 2 a ( x−a ) ( x+a )
.

∫ dx2 1
2
2
=
a
∫ 1
x−a
−(1
x+a
dx=
1
)
2a
∫ dx
x−a
−∫
dx
(
x
= )
x −a +a
1 d ( x−a) d ( x+a) 1
¿ ∫ [
2 a x−a
−∫
x+a ]
= [ln|x−a|−ln|x+a|]+C=
2a
1 x−a
¿ ln| |+C .
Hence 2 a x +a
dx 1 x−a
∫ x 2−a2 2 a x +a |+C .
= ln|
Thus
2 2
1 d ( x ±a ) 1
∫ x xdx
2 2
±a 2
= ∫ 2
x ±a 2
= ln|x 2 ±a2|+C .
2
III. (3)

Example.

dx 1 d(x √2) 1 1 x √2 1 2
∫2x2+3 =√2 ∫(x 2)2+( 3)2 =√2⋅¿√3 arctg√3 +C=¿=√6 arctg(x 3 )+C
√ √ √
 dx 1 x−√ 5
ln|
∫ x 2−5 2 √5 x+ √5 |+C
=
`Example.

The basis technique of computing integral (1) consists in the following: we

2
complete the quadratic trinomial ax +bx +c to get a perfect square. Then, if
the coefficient m=0, integral (1) is reduced either to integral I, II and III.

d(x−5) 1 (x−5)−3 1 x−8

Example.
dx
∫ 2 =∫ 2 dx
=¿=∫ 2 2 = ln| |+C= ln| |+ C¿ ¿
x −10x+16 (x −2⋅5x+25)+(16−25) (x−5) −3 2⋅3 (x−5)+3 6 x−2 .
∫
2
Note. If the quadratic trinomial ax +bx +c has real and different roots
x1
x
and 2 , then as it usually proved in similar courses of analysis, to compute
integral (1) , we may take an advantage of the expansion of the integrand into
partial fractions:

mx+ n A B
≡ +
ax 2 + bx+ c x−x 1 x −x2 ; (4)

where A and B are indefinite coefficients. The numbers A and B are found by
reducing identity (4) to the integral form and equating the coefficients of equal
powers of x in the left- and right-hand sides of the obtained equality.

x +2
I =∫ dx
Example. Find x 2 +5 x−6 .

Equating the denominator to zero , we obtain a quadratic equation

x 2 +5 x−6=0 , whence we find the roots x 1=1 and x 2=−6 . By (4),
x +2 A B
≡ + .
we have
2
x + 5 x−6 x −1 x+ 6 (5)

Hence, getting rid of the denominator and taking into account that
2
x +5 x−6=( x−1 )( x−6), we obtain x+ 2≡ A( x +2)+ B( x−1 ) or

x+ 2≡( A+ B ) x +( 6 A−B) (6)

Equating the coefficients of equal powers of x in the right and left-hand sides of

the last equality, we have

A+B=1¿}¿ ¿¿ . Hence ,
3
A= , B=
7
4
7 .
Note that the coefficients A and B simply determined from identity (6). We first
set x=1, whence

3
A=
3= A⋅7 and 7 , and then put x 2=−6 , which yields
4
B=
−4=B(−7 ) and 7 .
On the basis of expansion (5), we get

3 d (x −1) 4 d ( x+6 ) 3 4
I= ∫ + ∫ = ln|x−1|+ ln|x +6|+C=
7 x−1 7 x+6 7 7
1
= ln {|x−1|3 ( x+6 )4 }+C
7 .

Integration of simplest Irrational Expressions.

n
1.If the element of integration contains only the linear irrational √ ax+ b (
a≠0 )
n
then it is advisable to use the substitution t =√ ax+ b .

xdx
I=∫ 3
Example. Find √ x +1 .
3 3 2
We put t =√ x+1 whence x=t −1 and dx=3 t dt .

We have
5 2
( t 3 −1 )⋅3 t 2 dt 3 3 3 3
I =∫ =3∫ ( t 4 −t )dt = t 5− t 2 + C= ( x+ 1) 3 − ( x +1) 3 +C
t 5 2 5 2
2.The integral of the simplest quadratic irrational
 dx
∫
√ ax 2+ bx+c , by completing the quadratic trinomial ax +bx +c
2
to a
dx
∫
perfect square, is reduced to one of the two integrals √ α± x2 , which are
computed below.

dx
∫ 2
(α≠0 )
I. √x +α .

we apply here the Euler substitution

√ x2 + α =t −x , where t is a new variable . Squaring this equality termwise,

x 2 +α =t 2−2tx + x 2 2
we have or α =t −2 tx .

Differentiating both sides of the last equality, we get 0=2tdt −2 xdt−2 tdx or
tdx=(t−x )dt .

dx dt dx dt
= =
Hence t−x t i.e. √ x2+ α t . Thus we have

dt dt
∫ =∫ =ln|t|+C .
2
√ x +α t Finally, substituting t by its expression interms of
dx
∫ 2 =ln|x+ √ x 2+α|+C ( α ≠0 )
x, we find tabular integral √x +α .

x
d( )
dx a x
∫ 2 ∫
= =arcsin + C(α >0 )
2
√ α −x x 2 a
II. √ 1−
a() .

Integration of trigonometric Functions.

In applications an important role is played by the integrals

I =∫ sinm x cos n xdx , where m and n are non-negative integers.

Two cases are distinguished here:

(1) at least one of the exponents m or n is an odd number;

(2)both exponents m and n are even numbers.

In the theory of the Fourier series an important role is played by the integrals

∫ sin mx sin nxdx ∫ cos mx cos nxdx

∫ sin mx cos nxdx
They are computed with the aid of the trigonometric formulas:

1
sin α sin β= [cos(α−β )−cos (α+ β )]
2
1
cosα cos β= [ cos( α−β )+cos(α +β )]
2
1
sin α cos β = [sin (α−β )+sin(α +β )]
2
(Examples)

Cauchy's theorem. Some important integrals inexpressible in terms of elementary

functions.

Up till now we were successful in finding for some continuous functions f(x) their
indefinite integrals

∫ f ( x)dx .
Cauchy's theorem. Any continuous function has an antiderivative.

In other words, for any function f(x) continuous in an open interval (a,b) there
exists a function F(x) which derivative in the open interval (a,b) is exactly equal to
the given function f(x),
'
F ( x )=f ( x ), which means that there exists the indefinite integral

∫ f ( x )dx=F( x )+C where C is an arbitrary constant.

Cauchy's theorem. Some important integrals inexpressible in terms of elementary

functions.

Up till now we were successful in finding for some continuous functions f(x) their
indefinite integrals
 ∫ f ( x)dx .
Cauchy's theorem. Any continuous function has an antiderivative.

In other words, for any function f(x) continuous in an open interval (a,b) there
exists a function F(x) which derivative in the open interval (a,b) is exactly equal to
the given function f(x),

F' ( x )=f ( x ), which means that there exists the indefinite integral

∫ f ( x )dx=F( x )+C where C is an arbitrary constant.