Introduction to

Flare Systems, Design and Calculations

Basics & Familiarization Module

17-Jun-2020

AHMED SHAFIK REDA RASHWAN

Process Engineering & Operations Expert Process Engineering & Project Mgmt. Expert
professionalche@gmail.com Reda.rashwan@live.com
Module Overview / Agenda
 Gas Flaring definition

 Gas Flare Stack

 General

 When does Flaring Incident Take Place

 Gas Flaring Composition

 Flare system components

 Types of Flares

 Environmental Impact

 Gas Flaring Reducing & Recovery

 Design Considerations

 Questions

 Back up & References

Gas Flaring Definition

 The definition of gas flaring is by CAPP - Canadian

Association of Petroleum Producers as the controlled
burning of natural gas that cannot be processed for sale or
use because of technical or economic reasons.

 Gas flaring can also be defined by the combustion devices

designed to safely and efficiently destroy waste gases generated
in a plant during normal operation.

 It exists at any facility accommodating HC pressurized systems

such as:

 Refineries.
 Natural gas processing plants.
 Chemical plants.
 Oil wells.
 Gas wells.
 Offshore oil and gas rigs.
 landfills.
Gas Flare Stack

 Flare stacks are primarily used for burning off flammable gas released by pressure relief valves during

unplanned over-pressuring of plant equipment, during plant or partial plant startups and shutdowns

and for the planned combustion of gases over relatively short periods.

 Gas flares are similarly used for a variety of activities such as:

 Startup

 Maintenance

 Testing

 Safety and emergency purposes.

 Dispose of large amounts of unwanted associated petroleum gas, possibly

throughout the life of an oil well.

General

 When any equipment in the plant are over-pressured, the pressure relief valve is an essential
safety device that automatically release gases and sometimes liquids. Those pressure relief valves
are required by industrial design codes and standards as well as by regulations & law.

 Height of the flame depends upon the volume of released gas, while brightness and color depend
upon composition.

 The released gases and liquids are routed through large piping systems called flare headers to the
flare. The released gases are burned as they exit the flare stacks. The size and brightness of the
resulting flame depends upon the flammable material's flow rate in joules per hour (or btu per
hour).

 Commonly, flares are equipped with a vapor-liquid separator (also known as a knockout drum)
upstream of the flare to remove any large amounts of liquid that may accompany the relieved
gases.

 Steam is very often injected into the flame to reduce the formation of black smoke. When too
much steam is added, a condition known as "over steaming" can occur resulting in reduced
combustion efficiency and higher emissions. To keep the flare system functional, a small amount
of gas is continuously burned, like a pilot light, so that the system is always ready for its primary
purpose as an over-pressure safety system.
When does Flaring Incident Take Place?

Category Cause Description

During the first weeks or months of the plant life, some of the associated 
Initial start‐up flaring ‐ gas may be flared before all the gas compressors are commissioned, or 
for reservoir management reasons.

Well with low gas‐to‐oil ratio 
Gas is flared because it is not economical to recover the gas.
(GOR)
Continuous production  Lack of local gas market, remoteness from international markets, lack of 
Gas Utilization Infeasible
flaring (mainly older  gas gathering and compression infrastructure.
sites)
Gas and liquid are released continuously from the process to flare (e.g. 
Gas release to flare glycol flash drum, glycol gas stripping, compressor seals, storage tanks 
etc.).
Preventive maintenance (compressors, drivers etc.).
Maintenance and inspection Replacement of equipment.
Regulatory inspections.
Work on plant system:
Preparation of new plant
Modifications and construction Tie‐ins
Change of operating conditions, power distribution, etc.
Work in the vicinity of an asset: simultaneous operations
Reservoir monitoring
Planned operational 
Gas injector well servicing
flaring
Reservoir and well maintenance  Flaring due to the offloading of sensitive wells (no facility to recover
 wellhead low pressure gas), or due to sensitive wells opened to flare in
some cases of shutdown
Plant and well testing
 Safety and production Operations testing
operations Safety testing
Leak testing
Well clean‐up after drilling, work overs
Drilling and work overs
Well tests
 Category Cause Description
Start‐up after shutdown
Off‐spec gas issues
Production dynamics Flow assurance problems
Changes in HC composition, flow, etc
Unavailability of receiving facilities
Mechanical failures in machines Rotating and alternating equipment

 Safety, process and equipment protection instruments failures (fire and
(.gas detectors, vibrations protectors, etc
Instrument and valve failures
Process and safety control systems failure
Connection and wiring systems failure
 Unplanned operational Signal loss
flaring Any type of failure in a gas‐injector well
Wells
Difficulties in restarting a producer well
Failures due to erosion or corrosion, internal and external
Electrical failures: failure of power generators, power distribution 
networks, motors, heaters, or other electrical equipment

Human factors: any human action resulting in involuntary flaring (lack of 
Other preparation and procedures, non‐compliance with an existing procedure, 
etc.)
Miscellaneous: causes that have been identified but do not fit into any of 
the other categories
Unexplained: any flared volume for which the exact cause is difficult to 
identify (except problems with metering)

Flaring to purge flare lines with hydrocarbon gas, for safety purposes. 
Safety flaring
Includes emergency shutdown with depressurization.
Gas Flaring Composition

There is in fact no standard composition and it is therefore necessary to define some group of gas
flaring according to the actual parameters of the gas.

 Natural gas is more than 90 % methane (CH4)

with ethane, hydrocarbons; inert gases such as
N2 and CO2.

 Gas flaring from refineries and other process

operations will commonly contain a mixture of
hydrocarbons and in some cases H2.

 Landfill gas, biogas or digester gas is a mixture of

CH4 and CO2 along with small amounts of
other inert gases.

Note: Changing gas composition will affect the

heat transfer capabilities of the gas and affect the
performance of the measurement by flow meter.
Flare system components
The above flow diagram depicts the typical components of an overall industrial flare stack system:

 The above flow diagram depicts the typical

components of an overall industrial flare
stack system:
1. A knockout drum to remove any oil or
water from the relieved gases.
2. A water seal drum to prevent any
flashback of the flame from the top of the
flare stack.
3. An alternative gas recovery system for
use during partial plant startups and
shutdowns as well as other times when
required. The recovered gas is routed into the
fuel gas system of the overall industrial plant.
4. A steam injection system to provide an
external momentum force used for efficient
mixing of air with the relieved gas, which
promotes smokeless burning.
5. A pilot flame (with its ignition system) that
burns all the time so that it is available to
ignite relieved gases when needed.
6. The flare stack, including a flashback
prevention section at the upper part of
the stack
Types of Flares

 Orientation
 Elevated Flare
 Ground Flare
a. Enclosed Flare
b. Open Flare

 Service
 Acid gas flare
 Cold dry flare
 Warm wet flare

 Pressure
 Atmospheric
 Low pressure
 High pressure
 Air-Assisted Flares
Uses forced air to provide the combustion air and the mixing required for smokeless operation.
These flares are built with a spider-shaped burner (with many small gas orifices) located inside but near the top of a
steel cylinder two feet or more in diameter.
Combustion air is provided by a fan in the bottom of the cylinder.
The amount of combustion air can be varied by varying the fan speed.

Advantage:
• They can be used where steam is not available.

Disadvantage:
• Not economically feasible when the gas volume is large.

 Non-Assisted Flares
The non-assisted flare is just a flare tip without any auxiliary provision for enhancing the mixing of air into its
flame.

Advantage:
• Applicable for gas streams that have a low heat content and a low carbon/hydrogen ratio that
burn readily without producing smoke .
• Requires less air for complete combustion, have lower combustion temperatures that minimize
cracking reactions, and are more resistant to cracking.

Disadvantage:
• Not applicable for heavy loads HC systems.
 Pressure-Assisted Flares
Pressure-assisted flares use the vent stream pressure to promote mixing at the burner tip.
They have the burner arrangement at ground level, and consequently, must be located in a remote area of the plant
where there is plenty of space available.
They have multiple burner heads that are staged to operate based on the quantity of gas being released.
The size, design, number, and group arrangement of the burner heads depend on the vent gas characteristics.

Advantage:
• Promotes proper mixing for a wide range of HC systems loads.

Disadvantage:
• Requires a plenty of space available.
Flaring Environmental impacts

 Methane's estimated global warming potential is 34 times greater than that of CO2.
Therefore, to the extent that gas flares convert methane to CO2 before it is released into the
atmosphere, they reduce the amount of global warming that would otherwise occur. However,
flaring emissions contributed to 270 MtCO2 in 2017 and reducing flaring emissions is key to
avoid dangerous global warming.

 Improperly operated flares may emit methane and other volatile organic compounds as well as
sulfur dioxide and other sulfur compounds, which are known to cause respiratory
problems.

 Other emissions from improperly operated flares may include, aromatic hydrocarbons
(benzene, toluene, xylenes) and benzo(a)pyrene, which are known to be
carcinogenic.

 It is now recognized as a major environmental problem, contributing an amount of about 150

billion m3 of natural gas is flared around the world, contaminating the environment with
about 400 Mt CO2 per year
Major pollutants from the flare and their impact on health:
Gas flaring Reducing and Recovery (R&R)

 There are many types of FGRS (Flare Gas Recovery System) in industry:

1. Collection, compression, and injection/reinjection

2. Generating electricity by generation and co-generation of steam and electricity

 The gas collection and compression into pipelines for processing and sale is a well-established
and proven approach to mitigating flaring and venting.

 According to environmental and economic considerations, FGRS have increased to reduce noise
and thermal radiation, operating and maintenance costs, air pollution and gas emission and
reduces fuel gas and steam consumption
Successful Case for R & R

 Qatargas company has made significant progress flaring from its LNG trains in line with the
increased national focus on flare minimization and the company`s desire to reduce its emissions
and carbon footprint.
 Enhanced acid gas recovery and operational excellence initiatives on source reduction and plant
reliability at Qatargas` older, conventional LNG trains have successfully reduced flaring by more
than 70 % between 2004 and 2011.
 A summary of Qatargas engineering projects and their expected flare reductions and
implementation timelines is provided below:
Designing Flare System
A- Flare Header
A- Flare Knock-Out Drum

 Low pressure pipe flares are not intended to handle liquids and do not perform efficiently when
hydrocarbon liquids are released into the flare system.

 The major criteria governing the sizing of header are backpressure and gas velocity.

 Flare header size large enough to prevent excessive backpressure on the plant safety valves and
to limit gas velocity and noise to acceptable levels.
B- KOD
A- Flare Knock-Out Drum

 Objective
• Separate bulk liquid from gas
• Limit liquid droplet size entrained with gas to the flare
• Provide adequate residence time for liquid

 Sizing basis
Based on API 521
• Separation of liquid droplet size of 300-600 microns
considering the design case for the flare
• 20-30 minutes of liquid hold-up time based on a
relief case that results in maximum liquid
• No internals to facilitate separation
• Many orientations / options possible, horizontal KODs
most preferred
A- Flare Knock-Out Drum

 Flare Knock-Out Drum Elevation

• KO drum elevation decides pipe rack elevation based on 1:500 slope of main flare
header
• KO drum elevation determined by pump NPSH requirement

 To reduce pipe rack elevation options are

a) Reduce KOD elevation (option 1)
• Use vertical can pump
• Locate pump within pit
• Locate KO drum within pit
b) Use intermediate KO drums (option 2)
 Sizing

Flare KOD sizing depends on two aspects:

1. Liquid Hold up requirement during a major liquid or two phase release.
2. Sufficient distance shall be available between inlet device bottom and HHHLL. It is
possible to have manually initiated depressurization even after HHHLLL. Any possible
liquid shall be accommodated above HHHLL.

 Sizing a knockout drum is generally a trial-and-error process.

 Distance between HLL and HHHLL shall be designed to accommodate maximum liquid release
scenario.

 The first step is to determine the drum size required for liquid entrainment separation.

 This vertical height is usually taken as the distance from the maximum liquid level.

 The vertical velocity of the Vapour and gas should be low enough to prevent large slugs of
liquid from entering the flare.

 The presence of small liquid droplets increases thermal radiation fluxes and smoking
potential.
When do the Liquid particles separate?
1. When the residence time of the vapor or gas is equal to or greater than the time required to
travel the available vertical height at the dropout velocity of the liquid particles and

2. When the gas velocity is sufficiently low to permit the liquid dropout to fall.

 Long-term field experience has shown that the dropout velocity in the drum may be based on
that necessary to separate droplets from 300 μm to 600 μm in diameter.

 Some types of flares can accommodate larger liquid droplets, so the vendor should always be
consulted regarding the adequacy of a specific flare for the burning of liquids.

 The dropout velocity, expressed in metres/second (feet per second) of a particle in a stream
is calculated using the following Equation:
How to calculate the drag coefficient?
1. Calculation

2. Chart
 The vertical depths of the liquid and Vapour spaces are determined using standard
geometry and the total drum diameter, ht, is calculated using Equation:

 The adequacy of the Vapour space is verified by determining the liquid dropout
time, θ, using Equation :
 KOD Manual Calculation Sheet
Step‐1 Plug in required data API 521 Table 14, pg 67
Data required API 521 case Case‐1 Case‐2 Case‐3 Case‐4 Case‐5
Operating press Bara 1.138 1.138 1.138 1.138 1.138
Operating temp °C 149 149 149 149 149
Mass flow rate of vapour kg/hr 76680 76680 76680 76680 76680
Vapour density kg/m3 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.9
Gas viscosity cP 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01
Mass flow rate of liquid kg/hr 14040 14040 14040 14040 14040
Liquid density kg/m3 496.6 496.6 496.6 496.6 496.6
Droplet size in micrometer m 300 300 300 300 300
Miscell draining Vol m3 1.89 1.89 1.89 1.89 1.89
Min Liq Hold up time min 30 30 30 30 30

Step‐2 Assume dia & Length of Vessel
Assume dia of the tank m 2.44 2.29 2.13 1.98 2
Assume length of the tank m 5.79 6.25 6.86 7.62 6
Total vol m3 27.1 25.7 24.4 23.5 18.8

Step‐3 Vary HL such that vol available is >= vol req
Vary  HL1+2 = HL m 1.4 1.37 1.33 1.28 1.8
Required volume m3 2.77 2.56 2.34 2.10 2.67
Available volume space m3 2.78 2.57 2.34 2.11 2.98

Step‐4 If Length req > length assumed repeat from Step‐2 
Length req 5.48 5.95 6.56 7.21 4.27

Step‐5 Remark
1 OK OK OK OK OK

** Try to maintain L/D ~ 3
C- Flare Stack
B-1 Flare Stack Diameter
B-2 Flare Stack Height
B-2 Flare Stack Height
D- Liquid Seal Drum
 Objective
 Prevent flashback from flare tip back to flare headers
 Avoid air ingress into flare system during sudden temperature changes leading to
condensation and maintain positive system pressure

 Use
 Used in flare gas recovery systems
 Staged flaring between enclosed flare and full size emergency flare

 Design specifications
 Water as liquid sealing fluid not recommended for extremely cold releases; water-glycol
mixtures of sufficient concentration used instead
E- Flare Structure
 Self supported flare stack
 Guy wired supported flare stack
 Derrick supported flare stack
 More than one flare may be supported on the same structure
F- Flare Tip
 Produce desired destruction/combustion efficiency of maximum specified relief
gas

 Establish and maintain proper ignition (Pilot gas /Pilot burners/ Ignition system)

 Ensure stable combustion (Windshield / Retention rings)

 Result in smokeless operation at normal continuous flows or at 100% flows

1. Steam
2. Air (high pressure or low pressure)
3. High pressure water
4. No external medium, maintain high pressure at tip by staging
 Based on velocity of gas exit from tip, flare tips are considered as sonic and
subsonic (pipe flare) type. This is the term used by process designer for high
pressure flares and low pressure flares.

 General stack pressure drops are as given below.

 Sonic flare – 2 to 4 bar
 Subsonic flare – 0.2-0.5 bar

 As an example, Air assisted flare tip: When smokeless flaring is desired and neither
steam nor assist gas is available, blowers can be used to inject combustion air
directly into the waste gas stream as it exits the flare tip. Combustion efficiency of
flared gas is increased by installing air blower which will reduce smoke formation.
 Another example, Multiple nozzle type flares: They are used where high flare gas
pressures are available (1 barg and up) and where it is preferred to have some
smokeless burning capability and also lower radiation levels. These kinds of flares
are used for HP flare application. They have good combustion efficiency and less
chances of smoke formation.
G- Pilot Burner
 Objective
 Provide flame for reliable ignition of main flare gas at all times

 Design specifications
 Pilot system to comply with API 537 (Flare Details for General Refineries and
Petrochemical Services).
 Pilots designed to remain lit and capable of being relit at wind speeds up to 160 km/h
under dry conditions
Minimum number of pilots Flare burner outer diameter, DN

1 (2 for toxic gas) Up to 200

2 >200 to 600
3 >600 to 1050
4 >1050 to 1500

To be agreed with purchaser >1500

 Pilot Ignition

High Energy Ignition (HEI)

 Electrode capable of high energy or high voltage discharge near pilot tip
 Does not require propagation of a flame front as in FFG system
 Does not require compressed air, self-aspirating pilots
 Simple and easy to use and automate, require little training or maintenance. Re-
ignition takes few seconds
 Shutdown of flare system required for maintenance

Back up FFG ignition (when using HEI) may be considered for

1. Very tall flares that are difficult to access
2. Flare systems that can be off line only once in more than 3-5 years
3. Offshore platforms in corrosive and salt environments

Flame Front Generator (FFG)

 Ignition line from panel to flare pilot filled with flammable fuel gas- air mixture and
spark introduced. Mixtures ignited and flame front travels through piping to ignite
pilot at flare tip
 FFG panel located at grade
 Panel operated manually or automated to reignite of pilot flame out detection. Re-
ignition can take several minutes
 Moisture accumulation can lead to corrosion, flame extinguishment Ignition lines to
be heat traced.
H- Flared Gas Measurement
Gas Flaring Measurement

 As we get familiar on the impact of improper flaring on health and environment, also it is highly
required to measure the HC quantities sent to flare to decide on the plant performance, identify
gaps and define the mitigating actions to eliminate or at least reduce flaring.

 There are many challenges when trying to measure gas flaring, including diameters of large pipe,
high flow velocities over wide measuring ranges, gas composition changing, low pressure, dirt,
wax and condensate.
Important criteria to be considered to decide on flow measurement instruments:

1. Operating range, the meter should be sized to accommodate the anticipated range of flows.

2. Accuracy, which will depend on the final use of the measurement data and applicable regulatory
requirements.

3. Installation requirements, the flow meter should be installed at a point where it will measure
the total final gas flow to the flare and be located downstream of any liquids knock-out drum.

4. Maintenance and calibration requirements, all flow meters are susceptible to deteriorated
performance with time and use.

5. Composition monitoring, most types of flow meters are composition dependent. There are two
primary options for composition monitoring:
 Sampling and subsequent laboratory analysis.
 Online Analyzers.

6. Temperature and pressure corrections, the flow meter will need temperature and pressure
compensation features to correct the measured flow to standard conditions (101.325 kPa
and 15°C) or normal conditions (101.325 kPa and 0°C).
7. Multi-phase capabilities, if the gas stream contains high concentrations of condensable hydrocarbons, the gas
flow meter should be installed as close as possible to the knock-out drum and consideration should be given to
insulating and heat tracing the line.

8. Monitoring records, should be kept for at least 5 years. These records should be included the flow
measurement data, hours the monitor during operation, and all servicing and calibration records.

9. Flow verification, where verifiable flaring rate is desired (provers), the systems should be designed or modified
to accommodate secondary flow measurements to allow an independent check of the primary flow meter
while in active service.

10. Flow test methods, may be considered for making spot checks or determinations of flows in flare header.

11. Non-clogging, non-fouling, no moving parts design for lowest maintenance.

12. Stainless steel wetted parts and optional stainless steel process connections and enclosure housings.

13. Offshore platforms corrosive salt water, may require use of stainless steel on all exposed instrument materials,
including sensors, process connections and enclosures. Agency approvals for installation in hazardous locations,
in environments with potential hazardous gases; enclosure only ratings are inadequate (and risky).

14. Compliance with local environmental regulations, meet performance and calibration procedures mandated
such as US EPA’s 10 CFR 40; 40 CFR 98; EU Directive 2007/589/EC; US MMR 30 CFR Part 250 and others
The main types of flow meter technologies for flare gas measurement in industry:
The main types of flow meter technologies for flare gas measurement in industry:
I- Other Accessories
Flare Accessories

 Smokeless flaring : medium control

 Proper steam or air control is required
 By measuring gas being flared and adjusting steam rate / blower capacity

 Detection smoke using infra-red analyzers

 Aircraft Warning Lights

 Required when flare heights exceed 61m or when site is close to airport
 Type and number based on regulations
Back Up
Appendices for Calculations
Appendices For Calculation