6.

Fluidization

6.1 General behaviour of gas solids and liquid solids systems

When a fluid is passed downwards through a bed of solids, no relative movement between the particles takes place and where the flow is streamline, the pressure drop across the
bed is directly proportional to the rate of flow. The pressure drop under these conditions may be obtained using the equations in the lecture 4 (Flow of Fluids through Granular Beds
and Packed Columns). When a fluid is passed upwards through a bed, the pressure drop is the same as that for downward flow at relatively low rates. When the frictional drag on
the particles becomes equal to their apparent weight (actual weight-buoyancy force), the particles become rearranged thus offering less resistance to the flow of fluid and the bed
starts to expand with a corresponding increase in voidage. This process continues with increase in velocity, with the total frictional force remaining equal to the weight of the
particles, until the bed has assumed its loosest stable form of packing. If the velocity is then increased further, the individual particles separate from one another and become freely
supported in the fluid. At this stage, the bed is described as fluidized. In practice, the transition from the fixed to the fluidized bed condition is not uniform mainly due to irregularities
in the packing and, over a range of velocities, fixed and fluidized bed regions may co-exist.

In the system with liquid, the bed continues to expand as the velocity is increased and it maintains its uniform character, with the degree of agitation of the particles increasing
progressively. This type of fluidization is known as particulate fluidization. With a gas, however, uniform fluidization is frequently obtained only at low velocities. At higher velocities
two separate phases may form—a continuous phase, often referred to as the dense or emulsion phase, and a discontinuous phase known as the lean or bubble phase. The
fluidization is then said to be aggregative. At much higher velocities, the bubbles tend to break down (much more chaotic structure). When gas bubbles pass through a relatively
high-density fluidized bed the system closely resembles a boiling liquid, with the lean phase corresponding to the vapor and the dense or continuous phase corresponding to the
liquid. The bed is then often referred to as a boiling bed, as opposed to the quiescent bed usually formed at low flowrates.

The value of the Froude number (umf2 /gd) has been used as a criterion to differentiate between the conditions leading to particulate or aggregative fluidization, where: umf is the
minimum velocity of flow, calculated over the whole cross-section of the bed, at which fluidization takes place, d is the diameter of the particles, and g is the acceleration due to
gravity. At values of a Froude group of less than unity, particulate fluidization normally occurs and, at higher values, aggregative fluidization takes place. Much lower values of the
Froude number are encountered with liquids because the minimum velocity required to produce fluidization is less.

1
6.2 Effect of fluid velocity on pressure gradient and pressure drop
When a fluid flows slowly upwards through a bed of very fine particles the flow is streamline and a linear relation exists between pressure gradient and flowrate as discussed in the
lecture 4 (Flow of Fluids through Granular Beds and Packed Columns).

If the pressure gradient (−∆P/l) is plotted against the superficial velocity (uc) using logarithmic co-ordinates a straight line of unit slope is obtained, as shown in Figure (1). As the
superficial velocity approaches the minimum fluidizing velocity (umf ), the bed starts to expand and when the particles are no longer in physical contact with one another the bed is
fluidized. The pressure gradient then becomes lower because of the increased voidage and, consequently, the weight of particles per unit height of bed is smaller. This fall
continues until the velocity is high enough for transport of the material to take place, and the pressure gradient then starts to increase again because the frictional drag of the fluid at
the walls of the tube starts to become significant. When the bed is composed of large particles, the flow will be laminar only at very low velocities and the slope s of the lower part of
the curve will be greater (1 < s < 2) and may not be constant, particularly if there is a progressive change in flow regime as the velocity increases.

If the pressure across the whole bed instead of the pressure gradient is plotted against velocity, also using logarithmic coordinates as shown in Figure (2), a linear relation is again
obtained up to the point where expansion of the bed starts to take place (A), although the slope of the curve then gradually diminishes as the bed expands and its porosity
increases. As the velocity is further increased, the pressure drop passes through a maximum value (B) and then falls slightly and attains an approximately constant value that is
independent of the fluid velocity (CD). If the fluid velocity is reduced again, the bed contracts until it reaches the condition where the particles are just resting on one another (E).
The porosity then has the maximum stable value which can occur for a fixed bed of the particles. If the velocity is further decreased, the structure of the bed then remains unaffected
provided that the bed is not subjected to vibration. The pressure drop (EF) across this reformed fixed bed at any fluid velocity is then less than that before fluidization. If the velocity
is now increased again, it might be expected that the curve (FE) would be retraced and that the slope would suddenly change from 1 to 0 at the fluidizing point. This condition is
difficult to reproduce, however, because the bed tends to become consolidated again unless it is completely free from vibration. In the absence of channeling, it is the shape and
size of the particles that determine both the maximum porosity and the pressure drop across a given height of fluidized bed of a given depth. In an ideal fluidized bed the pressure
drop corresponding to ECD is equal to the buoyant weight of particles per unit area. In practice, it may deviate appreciably from this value as a result of channeling and the effect of
particle-wall friction. Point B lies above CD because the frictional forces between the particles have to be overcome before bed rearrangement can take place.

2
Figure (1) Pressure gradient within a bed as a function of Figure (2) Pressure drop over fixed and fluidized
fluid velocity beds

3
The minimum fluidizing velocity (umf) may be determined experimentally by measuring the pressure drop across the bed for both increasing and decreasing velocities
and plotting the results as shown in Figure (2). The two ‘best’ straight lines are then drawn through the experimental points and the velocity at their point of
intersection is taken as the minimum fluidizing velocity. Linear rather than logarithmic plots are generally used, although it is necessary to use logarithmic plots if the
plot of pressure gradient against velocity in the fixed bed is not linear.
The theoretical value of the minimum fluidizing velocity may be calculated from the equations given in the lecture 4 (Flow of Fluids through Granular Beds and
Packed Columns) for the relation between pressure drop and velocity in a fixed packed bed, with the pressure drop through the bed put equal to the apparent weight
of particles per unit area, and the porosity set at the maximum value that can be attained in the fixed bed. In a fluidized bed, the total frictional force on the particles
must equal the effective weight of the bed. Thus, in a bed of unit cross-sectional area, depth l, and porosity e, the additional pressure drop across the bed attributable
to the layout weight of the particles is given by:
−∆P = (1 − e)(ρs − ρ)lg Or (1-e1)l1 = (1-e2)l2 Or l1/l2 = (1-e2)/(1-e1) (1)
where: g is the acceleration due to gravity and (ρs and ρ) are the densities of the particles and the fluid respectively. Equation (1) applies from the initial expansion of
the bed until transport of solids takes place. The term {(GF − GE)/GF} has been used to measure the fluidization efficiency where: G F is the minimum flowrate required
to produce fluidization and GE is the rate required to produce the initial expansion of the bed. If flow conditions within the bed are streamline (Re1 ≤10), the relation
between fluid velocity uc, pressure drop (−∆P) and voidage e is given, for a fixed bed of spherical particles of diameter d (S = 6/d), by the Carman-Kozeny equation
{see lecture 4} which takes the form:
uc = e3 (−∆P)/{5S2μl(1 − e)2} = e3 d2 (−∆P)/{180μl(1 − e)2} = 0.0055 e3 d2 (−∆P)/{μl(1 − e)2} (2)
For a fluidized bed, the buoyant weight of the particles is counterbalanced by the frictional drag. Substituting for −∆P from equation (1) into equation (2) gives:
uc = 0.0055 {e3/(1 − e)} {d2(ρs − ρ)g/μ} (3)

4
6.3 Minimum fluidizing velocity (umf)
As the upward velocity of flow of fluid through a packed bed of uniform spheres is increased, the point of incipient fluidization is reached when the particles are just supported in the
fluid (uc = umf). The corresponding value of the minimum fluidizing velocity (umf) is then obtained by substituting emf into equation (3) to give:

umf = 0.0055 {emf3/(1 − emf)} {d2(ρs − ρ)g/μ} (4)

Since equation (4) is based on the Carman–Kozeny equation, it applies only to conditions of laminar flow (Re1 ≤10). In practice, this restricts its application to fine particles (d≤0.1 mm). The value of emf
will be a function of the shape, size distribution and surface properties of the particles . For nearly spherical particles, emf lies in the range 0.40 − 0.45 , increasing a bit with particle size. When the flow
regime at the point of incipient fluidization is outside the range over which the Carman-Kozeny equation is applicable, it is necessary to use one of the more general equations for the pressure gradient
in the bed {see lecture 4: carman approach with 3 curves: A (Carman Eqn.), B (Sawistowski Eqn.), and C (Ergun Eqn.)}, for example: using Ergun equation (Curve C) for spherical particles {S = 6/d}:

−∆P/l = (R1/ρu12) (Sρuc2) {(1-e)/e3} = (R1/ρu12) (6ρuc2) {(1-e)/(de3)} = 150 {(1 − e)2/e3} {μuc/d2} + 1.75 {(1 − e)/e3} {ρuc2/d} (1st term for laminar flow and 2nd term for turbulent flow) (5)

Where: d is the diameter of the sphere with the same ratio of (volume/surface area) as the particles. Substituting e = emf at the incipient fluidization point and for −∆P from equation (1), equation (5) is
then applicable at the minimum fluidization velocity umf , and gives:

(1 − emf )(ρs − ρ)g = 150 {(1 − emf)2/emf3} {μumf/d2} + 1.75 {(1 − emf)/emf3} {ρumf2/d} (6)

Multiplying both sides by ρd3/{μ2(1 − emf)} gives:

ρ(ρs − ρ)gd3/μ2 = 150 {(1 − emf)/emf3} {umfdρ/μ} + {1.75/emf3} {umfdρ/μ}2 (7)

Note: Ga = Galileo number = ρ(ρs − ρ)gd3/μ2 and Re′𝑚𝑓 = Reynolds number at the minimum fluidizing velocity = ρumfd/μ {Or umf = μRe′𝑚𝑓 /(ρd)} (8)

Then, equation (8) then becomes: Ga = 150 {(1 − emf)/emf3} Re′𝑚𝑓 + {1.75/emf3} Re′2
𝑚𝑓 {Solve: ax2 + bx + c = 0 where: x = Re′𝑚𝑓 } (9)

The relationship between voidage at the minimum fluidizing velocity (emf) and particle shape (Φs) {the ratio of the diameter of the sphere of the same specific as the particle d (as used in equation 5) to
the diameter of the sphere with the same volume as the particle dp.

Thus: Φs = d/dp (or d = Φs * dp) where: d = 6Vp/Ap and dp = (6Vp/π)1/3 (10)

It is more convenient to measure the particle volume Vp only and then work in terms of dp and the shape factor Φs (d = Φs * dp). The minimum fluidizing velocity is a function of both emf and Φs , neither of which is easily measured or estimated, and
in practice, inter-related. The relation between these two quantities is essentially independent of particle size over a wide range. The following two expressions give reasonably good correlations between e mf and Φs:

{(1 − emf)/emf3} (1/ Φs2) = 11 and (1/emf3) (1/Φs) = 14 (11)

5
Using equation (10) {d = Φs * dp} in equation (5) gives:
(1 − emf )(ρs − ρ)g = 150 {(1 − emf )2/emf3} {μumf /(Φs2 dp2)} + 1.75 {(1 − emf)/emf3} {ρumf2 /(Φs dp)} Or
(ρs − ρ)ρgdp3/μ2 = 150 {(1 − emf)/emf3} (1/Φs2) (ρdpumf/μ) + 1.75 {1/(emf3Φs)} {ρ2dp2umf2/μ2} (12)
Substituting equations (8 and 11) in equation (12):
Gap = (150 × 11) Re′𝑚𝑓𝑝 + (1.75 × 14) Re′2
𝑚𝑓𝑝 Or Re′2 ′
𝑚𝑓𝑝 + 67.3 Re𝑚𝑓𝑝 − 0.0408Gap = 0 (13)

where Gap and Re′𝑚𝑓𝑝 are the Galileo number and the particle Reynolds number at the point of incipient fluidization, in both cases with the linear dimension of the
particles expressed as dp. Solving equation (13) gives: Re′𝑚𝑓𝑝 = 33.65[ (1 + 6.18 × 10−5Gap) − 1] {where: umf = μRe′𝑚𝑓𝑝 /(ρdp)} (14)

Example (1)
A bed consists of uniform spherical particles of diameter 3 mm and density 4200 kg/m3. What will be the minimum fluidizing velocity in a liquid of viscosity 3
mNs/m2 and density 1100 kg/m3?

Solution
From equation (8): Galileo number (Ga) = d3ρ(ρs − ρ)g/μ2 = ((3 × 10−3)3 × 1100 × (4200 − 1100) × 9.81)/(3 × 10−3)2 = 1.003 × 105
Assume: emf = 0.4 Or you can ass
From equation (9): 1.003 × 105 = 150 {(1 − 0.4)/0.43} Re′𝑚𝑓 + {1.75/0.43} Re′2 ′ ′
𝑚𝑓 (Solve for Re𝑚𝑓 , Re𝑚𝑓 = 40, Note: Stokes law is not valid)

So, umf = μRe′𝑚𝑓 /(ρd) = 43.667 * 3 × 10−3 /(1100* 3 × 10−3) = 0.0364 m/s

6
Example (2)
Oil, of density 900 kg/m3 and viscosity 3 mNs/m2, is passed vertically upwards through a bed of catalyst consisting of approximately spherical particles of diameter
0.1 mm and density 2600 kg/m3. At approximately what mass rate of flow per unit area of bed will (a) fluidization, and (b) transport of particles occur?

Solution
(a) As no value of the voidage is available, e will be estimated by considering eight closely packed spheres of diameter d in a cube of side 2d. Thus: volume of
spheres = 8(π/6)d3, volume of the enclosure = (2d)3 = 8d3, and hence the voidage emf = [8d3 − 8(π/6)d3]/8d3 = 0.478 or (emf = 0.48)

Or emf can be assumed any value through the range (0.4 to 0.45) for nearly spherical particles.

Equations (4) may be used to determine the fluidizing velocity (umf):

Gmf = ρumf = 0.0055 ρ {emf3/(1 − emf)} {(d2(ρs − ρ)g)/μ} = (0.0055 * 900) {0.483/(1-0.48)} {(10−4)2 (2600-900) (9.81)/(3 × 10−3)} = 0.059 kg/m2s

(b) Transport of the particles will occur when the fluid velocity is equal to the terminal falling velocity of the particle.

Using Stokes’ law : u0 = d2g(ρs − ρ)/18μ = ((10−4)2 × 9.81 × 1700)/(18 × 3 × 10−3) = 0.0031 m/s

The Reynolds number = ((10−4 × 0.0031 × 900)/(3 × 10−3) = 0.093 and hence Stokes’ law applies. The required mass flow = (0.0031 × 900) = 2.78 kg/m2s

7
6.4 Minimum fluidizing velocity (umf) in terms of terminal failing velocity (uo)
The minimum fluidizing velocity (umf) may be expressed in terms of the free-falling velocity (u0) of the particles in the fluid. The Ergun equation (equation 9) relates the Galileo number (Ga) to the
Reynolds number (Re′𝑚𝑓 ) in terms of the voidage (emf) at the incipient fluidization point. In lecture 3 (motion of particles in a fluid), relations (Stokes and Newton laws) are given that permit the
calculation of terminal falling velocity (u0) in addition to other relations that calculate the particle Reynolds number {Re′𝑜 (=u0dρ/μ)} as a function of Galileo number. Thus, it is possible to express
Re′𝑚𝑓 in terms of umf and Re′𝑜 in terms of u0. For a spherical particle, the Reynolds number (Re′𝑜 ) is expressed in terms of the Galileo number (Ga) by the following comprehensive equation which
covers the whole range of values of Re′ of interest (see lecture 3):

Re′𝑜 = (2.33Ga0.018 − 1.53Ga −0.016)13.3 (15)

Equation (15) applies when the particle motion is not significantly affected by the walls of the container (d/dt tends to zero). The ratio Re′𝑜 / Re′𝑚𝑓 (= u0/umf ) may be obtained using equations (9) to

calculate Re′𝑚𝑓 for a given value of emf (usually 0.4-0.45) and equation (15) to calculate Re′𝑜 for a any value of Ga. It is convenient to use the following equations (16a-16c, see lecture 3) as these
enable very simple relations for Re′𝑜 / Re′𝑚𝑓 to be obtained at both low and high values of Ga.

Ga = 18 Re′𝑜 (Ga < 3.6) (16a) , Ga = 18 Re′𝑜 + 2.7 Re′𝑜1.687 (3.6 < Ga < 105) (16b) , Ga = (1/3) Re′2
𝑜 (Ga > ca.105) (16c)

Taking a typical value of emf of 0.4, the relation between Re′𝑚𝑓 and Ga is given from equation (9):

Ga = 1406 Re′𝑚𝑓 + 27.3 Re′2

𝑚𝑓 (17a) , Re′2 ′
𝑚𝑓 + 51.4 Re𝑚𝑓 − 0.0366Ga = 0 (17b) (Solve: ax2 + bx + c = 0 where: x = Re′𝑚𝑓 ) , (Re′𝑚𝑓 )emf=0.4 = 25.7{ (1 + 5.53 × 10−5Ga) − 1} (17c)

For low values of Re′𝑚𝑓 (<0.003) and of Ga(<3.6), the first term may be neglected: Re′𝑚𝑓 = 0.000712Ga (from eqn. 17b) , Re′𝑜 = 0.0556Ga (from eqn. 16a) (18)

So, Re′𝑜 / Re′𝑚𝑓 = u0/umf = 78 (19)

For high values of Re′𝑚𝑓 (>∼ 200) and Ga(>105): Re′𝑚𝑓 = 0.191Ga1/2 (from eqn. 17) , Re′𝑜 = 1.732Ga1/2 (from eqn. 16c) (20)

So, Re′𝑜 / Re′𝑚𝑓 = u0/umf = 9.1 (21)

Note: u0/umf is much larger for low values of Ga, generally obtained with small particles, than with high values. For particulate fluidization with liquids, the theoretical range of fluidizing velocities is
from a minimum of umf to a maximum of u0. It is thus seen that there is a far greater range of velocities possible in the streamline flow region.
8
6.5 Bed expansion of Liquid-Solid Systems
Liquid-fluidized systems are generally characterized by the regular expansion of the bed that takes place as the velocity increases from the minimum fluidization velocity to the
terminal falling velocity of the particles. The general relation between velocity and volumetric concentration or voidage is found to be similar to that between sedimentation velocity
and concentration for particles in a suspension (RICHARDSON and ZAKI equation) (see lecture 5: Gravity sedimentation).

uc/ui = en = (1-C)n (22)

where: uc is the observed sedimentation velocity or the empty tube fluidization velocity, ui is the corresponding velocity at infinite dilution, e is the voidage of the system, C is the
volumetric fractional concentration of solids, and n is an index.

Values of the index (n) range (2.4 - 4.8) and are the same for sedimentation and for fluidization at a given value of the Galileo number Ga. The index n may be calculated from the
following equation: (4.8 − n)/(n − 2.4) = 0.043 Ga0.57 [1 − 1.24 (d/dt)0.27] (23)

An alternative way of calculating the index (n) for the expansion of particulate fluidized system and neglecting the effects due to the container wall (d/dt is low) then:

uc/u0= Re′𝑐 / Re′𝑜 = en or n = log(uc/u0)/log e = −log(Re′𝑜 / Re′𝑐 )/log e) (24)

At the point of incipient fluidization (uc = umf at e = emf): umf /u0=Re′𝑚𝑓 / Re′𝑜 = emf n or n = log(umf /u0)/log e = −log(Re′𝑜 /Re′𝑚𝑓 )/log emf (25)

For a typical value of emf of 0.4, calculate Re′𝑚𝑓 from equation (17c) and Re′𝑜 from equation (15), equation (25) will be:

n = 2.51 log { (1.83Ga0.018 − 1.2Ga−0.016)13.3 / [ 1 + 5.53 × 10−5Ga − 1] } (Applies to low values of d/dt) (26)

An alternative method of calculating the value of Re′𝑚𝑓 (and hence umf ) is to substitute for Re′𝑜 from equation (15) into equation (25), and to put the voidage e equal to its value emf
at the minimum fluidizing velocity:

Re′𝑚𝑓 = (2.33Ga0.018 − 1.53Ga0.016)13.3 emf n {where: n can be obtained from equation (23)} (27)

9
Example (3)
Glass particles of 4 mm diameter are fluidized by water at a velocity of 0.25 m/s. What will be the voidage of the bed? The density of glass = 2500 kg/m 3, the
density of water = 1000 kg/m3, and the viscosity of water = 1mNs/m2.

Solution

Galileo number for particles in water, Ga = d3ρ(ρs − ρ)g μ2 = (4 × 10−3)3 × 1000 × 1500 × 9.81 (1 × 10−3)2 = 9.42 × 105

Reynolds number Re′𝑜 at terminal falling velocity is given by equation (15): Re′𝑜 = (2.33Ga0.018 − 1.53Ga−0.016)13.3 = 1799

Thus: u0 = μRe′𝑜 /(dρ) =1799 × (1 × 10−3)/(4 × 10−3 × 1000) = 0.45 m/s

The value of n in equation (22) is given by equation (23) for small values of d/dt (d/dt = 0) as:

(4.8 − n)/(n − 2.4) = 0.043Ga0.57 = 109.5 ∴ n = 2.42

The voidage e at a velocity of 0.25 m/s is then given by equation (22) as:

0.25/0.45 = e2.42 So, e = 0.784

10
Example (4)
A spherical solid particles having a size of 0.12 mm and a density of 1000kg/m 3 are to be fluidized using air at 2 atm and 25 0C . The porosity at min. fluidizing
condition (emf) is 0.42. If the cross-section area of the empty bed is 0.3 m2 and the bed contains 300 kg of solid , calculate: the min. height of the fluidized bed (l),
the press. drop at min. fluidizing conditions, the min. velocity for fluidization, and the porosity of the bed (using an operating velocity of 3 times the min. fluidizing
velocity). The air viscosity (μ air) = 1.845* 10-5 kg/m.s.

Solution
a) Vol. of solid = 300 /1000 = 0.3 m3 and the height of the solid would be: l = 0.3/0.3 = 1m {Occupy in the bed if e = 0}

From equation (1): lmf (1-emf) = l (1-e) (constant ΔP)

So, lmf = l (1-e)/(1-emf) = 1*(1-0)/(1-0.42) = 1.72 m

b) From equation (1): ΔP = (1-emf) (ρs-ρ) lmf g

where: ρ = PMw/(RT) = 2 ∗ 101.325 ∗ 29 /(8.314 ∗ 298) = 2.372 Kg/m3

From equation (1): ΔP = (1-0.42)(1000-2.372)*1.72 *9.81 = 9786 N/m2

c) Using Carman–Kozeny equation {equation (4)}:

umf = 0.0055 {emf3/(1 − emf)} {d2(ρs − ρ)g/μ} = 0.0055 {0.423/(1-0.42)} {(0.12*10-3)2 (1000-2.372) (9.81)/(1.845* 10-5) = 5.42 * 10-3 m/s

d) Using uc = 3umf and Carman–Kozeny equation {equation (3)}: uc = 0.0055 {e3/(1 − e)} {d2(ρs − ρ)g/μ}

uc = 3* 5.42 * 10-3 = 0.0055 {e3/(1-e)} {(0.12*10-3)2 (1000-2.372) (9.81)/(1.845* 10-5)

Solve for e: e3 + 0.3832 e – 0.3832 = 0 Then: e = 0.555 (As velocity is increased, voidage is increased)
11