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TutITransmissionLinesandPowerFlowAnalysis PDF
TutITransmissionLinesandPowerFlowAnalysis PDF
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Outline
I. Background material
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I. Background Material
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1. Current 𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑑𝑞/𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑤 𝑑𝐸
3. Power 𝑝 𝑡 =𝑣 𝑡 𝑖 𝑡 = =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
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𝑡 𝑡
4. Energy (work) w t = −∞
𝑝 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 = −∞
𝑣 𝜏 𝑖 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
𝑡
5. Charge (q or Q) 𝑞 𝑡 = −∞
𝑖 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
𝑡
6. Flux 𝜑 𝑡 = −∞
𝑣 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
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Linearity:
If 𝑦1 = 𝑓 𝑥1 & 𝑦2 = 𝑓(𝑥2 )
Then 𝛼 𝑦1 + 𝛽 𝑦2 = 𝑓(𝛼 𝑥1 + 𝛽 𝑥2 )
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𝑣𝑖𝑛 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑖 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃 𝑉𝑖 𝑒 𝑗𝜃 = 𝑉𝑖 ∠𝜃
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𝑉𝑖 𝑒 𝑗𝜃 = 𝑉𝑖 ∠𝜃
is called a ‘Phasor’
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𝑉𝑖 𝑒 𝑗𝜃 = 𝑉𝑖 ∠𝜃 13
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𝑢 =𝑎𝑥+𝑏𝑦 15
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Operators
v(t ) V V
dv
dt jV
V
vdt j
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R
v Ri V RI
L vL
di
V jLI
dt
C dv V
I
iC
dt jC
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Z=R+jX
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S=P+jQ
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Triangles
Comments:
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PSource = vi PLoad = vi
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PSource = PLoad
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Outline
TL Parameters: R, L, C, G
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Transmission Lines
Consequently, 𝜆 = 𝑐/𝑓
USA example
3𝑒8
For 60 Hz, 𝜆 = = 5𝑒6 𝑚
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Overhead TL Components
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http://lyhuatong.en.alibaba.com/product/60038152156-801813127/7_Wires_AAC_Wasp_Conductor_Aluminium_Electric_Conductor.html
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TL Parameters
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General TL Parameters
a. Series Resistance – accounts for Ohmic (I2R losses)
Power TL Parameters
TL Design Considerations
1. Dictates the size, type and number of bundle conductors per phase.
2. Responsible for number of insulator discs, vertical or v-shaped arrangement,
Electrical Factors phase to phase clearance and phase to tower clearance to be used
3. Number, Type and location of shield wires to intercept lightning strokes.
4. Conductor Spacing's, Types and sizes
Mechanical Factors Focuses on Strength of the conductors, insulator strings and support structures
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TL Parameters - Resistance
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Conductor geometry
Temperature
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Resistance
𝒍
The DC resistance of a conductor at a temperature T is given by: 𝑹(𝑻) = 𝝆𝑻
𝑨
where
T = conductor resistivity at temperature T
l = the length of the conductor
A = the current-carry cross-sectional area of the conductor
𝑷𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔
The AC resistance of a conductor is given by: 𝑹𝒂𝒄 =
𝑰𝟐
where
Ploss – real power dissipated in the conductor in watts
I – rms conductor current
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Spiraling:
The purpose of introducing a steel core inside the stranded
aluminum conductors is to obtain a high strength-to-weight ratio. A
stranded conductor offers more flexibility and easier to
manufacture than a solid large conductor. However, the total
resistance is increased because the outside strands are larger than
the inside strands on account of the spiraling.
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where
𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 - resistance of the wound conductor (Ω)
1
1 + (𝜋 )2 - Length of the wound conductor (m)
𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
𝑙 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛
p𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 = - relative pitch of the wound conductor (m)
2𝑟𝑙𝑎𝑦𝑒𝑟
𝑙𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛 - length of one turn of the spiral (m)
2𝑟𝑙𝑎𝑦𝑒𝑟 - Diameter of the layer (m) 23
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Frequency:
When voltages and currents change in time, current flow (i.e. current
density) is not uniform across the diameter of a conductor.
Frequency cont.
This is called the ‘Proximity Effect’ and is smaller than the skin-effect.
𝑹𝑨𝑪 = 𝒌 𝑹𝑫𝑪
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Skin Effect
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Temperature:
𝜌 𝑇 = 𝜌0 1 + 𝛼 𝑇 − 𝑇𝑜
TL Parameters - Conductance
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Conductance
Conductance is associated with power losses between the
conductors or between the conductors and ground.
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Conductance
Corona loss occurs when the electric field at the surface of a
conductor causes the air to ionize and thereby conduct.
Losses due to leakage currents and corona loss are often small
compared to direct I2R losses on TLs and are typically neglected
in power flow studies.
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Corona loss
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Corona loss
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TL Parameters - Inductance
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Φ= B ∙ d𝑠 ∝ 𝐼 , 𝑂𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
S
Φ
L= , 𝐷𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐼
Magnetic Flux
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Inductance
Inductance - Examples
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The inductance of a magnetic circuit that has a constant permeability (𝜇) can be
obtained as follows:
𝜇𝑜 𝑥
𝐵𝑥 = 2
𝐼 (𝑊𝑏/𝑚)
2𝜋𝑟
𝑑Φ = 𝐵𝑥 𝑑𝑎 = 𝐵𝑥 𝑙 𝑑𝑥 (𝑊𝑏)
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The fraction of the current I in the wire that links the area da = dxl is:
x 2
Nf =
r
𝑟 𝑟 2
𝑥 𝜇𝑜 𝑥 𝐼
Φ= 𝑑Φ = 𝑙𝑑𝑥
0 0 𝑟 2𝜋𝑟 2
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The inductance per phase of a 3-phase 3 wire line with equal spacing is given by:
D
La = 2 ∙ 10−7 ln (H/m) per phase
r′
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𝐷𝑥𝑦
𝐿𝑥 = 2 ∙ 10−7 ln
𝐷𝑥𝑥
where
𝑁 𝑀 𝑁 𝑀
𝑀𝑁 𝑁2
𝐷𝑥𝑦 = 𝐷𝑘𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐷𝑥𝑥 = 𝐷𝑘𝑚
𝑘=1 𝑚=1′ 𝑘=1 𝑚=1
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LTotal = Lx + Ly (H/m)
Great NEWs!!!!!
Long 3-phase TLs are sometimes transposed for positive sequence balancing.
The inductance (H/m) of a completely transposed three phase line may also be
calculated
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𝐷𝑒𝑞
𝐿𝑎 = 2 ∙ 10−7 ln
𝐷𝑠
3
𝐷𝑒𝑞 = 𝐷12 𝐷13 𝐷23
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𝐷𝑒𝑞
𝐿𝑎 = 2 ∙ 10−7 ln
𝐷𝑆𝐿
If bundle separation is large compared to the bundle size, then Deq ~ the center-to-
center distance of the bundles
4 2
2-conductor bundle: 𝐷𝑆𝐿 = 𝐷𝑆 𝑑 = 𝐷𝑆 𝑑
9 3 3
3-conductor bundle: 𝐷𝑆𝐿 = 𝐷𝑆 𝑑𝑑 = 𝐷𝑆 𝑑 2
16 4 4
4-conductor bundle: 𝐷𝑆𝐿 = 𝐷𝑆 𝑑𝑑𝑑 2 = 1.091 𝐷𝑆 𝑑 3
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TL Parameters - Capacitance
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𝑆
𝜀 𝐸 ∙ 𝑑𝑠 𝜀
Q=CV C = RC =
− 𝐸 ∙ 𝑑𝑙 𝜎
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Capacitance
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Calculating Capacitance
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Gauss’s Law may be used to calculate the electric field E and the
potential V for this geometry:
𝑞
𝐸𝑥 = (𝑉/𝑚)
2𝜋𝜀𝑥
The potential (voltage) of the wire is found using this electric field:
𝐷2
𝑞 𝑑𝑥 𝑞 𝐷2
𝑉12 = = 𝑙𝑛 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
2𝜋𝜀 𝐷1 𝑥 2𝜋𝜀 𝐷1
Capacitance - Examples
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2𝜋𝜀
𝐶𝑛 = 𝐷 (𝐹/𝑚)
𝑙𝑛
𝑟
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2𝜋𝜀
𝐶𝑎𝑛 = (𝐹/𝑚)
𝐷𝑒𝑞
𝑙𝑛
𝑟
where
3
𝐷𝑒𝑞 = 𝐷𝑎𝑏 𝐷𝑎𝑐 𝐷𝑏𝑐
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where
3
𝐷𝑒𝑞 = 𝐷𝑎𝑏 𝐷𝑎𝑐 𝐷𝑏𝑐
3
3-conductor bundle: 𝐷𝑆𝐶 = 𝑟 𝑑2
4
4-conductor bundle: 𝐷𝑆𝐶 = 1.091 𝑟 𝑑 3
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TLs Continued
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Gauss’ Law: The total of the electric flux through a closed surface
is equal to the charge enclosed divided by the permittivity. The
electric flux through an area is defined as the electric field
multiplied by the area of the surface projected in a plane
perpendicular to the field.
𝝆
𝜵∙𝑫=
𝝐
The ‘no name’ ME: The net magnetic flux through any closed
surface is zero.
𝛁∙𝑩=𝟎 7
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𝝏𝑩
𝜵𝑿𝑬=−
𝝏𝒕
𝝏𝑫
𝜵𝑿𝑯= + 𝑱
𝝏𝒕 8
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𝑩= 𝝁𝑯 𝝁 = 𝝁𝒓 𝝁𝒐
𝑫= 𝜺𝑬 𝝐 = 𝜺𝒓 𝜺𝒐
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TL Equations
TL equations can be derived by two methods:
Maxwell’s equations applied to waveguides
Infinitesimal analysis of a section of a TL operating in ACSS
with LCRG parameters (i.e. use phasors)
TL Equations
The LCRG parameters of a TL are expressed as per-
unit-length quantities to account for the experimentally
observed distributed characteristics of the TL
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KCL at node b
𝜕i
VL = L OLL for an inductor
𝜕t
𝜕v
IC = C OLC for a capacitor
𝜕t
𝝏𝑽(𝒛) ′ 𝝏𝑰(𝒛)
= –𝑳 (Eq.1)
𝝏𝒛 𝝏𝒕
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𝝏𝑰(𝒛) ′ 𝝏𝑽(𝒛)
=– 𝑪 (Eq.2)
𝝏𝒛 𝝏𝒕
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Summarizing
𝜕 𝑉 𝑧 ,𝑡 ′ 𝜕 𝐼 𝑧 ,𝑡
(Eqn. 1) =− 𝐿
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡
𝜕 𝐼 𝑧 ,𝑡 ′ 𝜕 𝑉 𝑧 ,𝑡
(Eqn. 2) =− 𝐶
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡
Equations 1 & 2 are called the “Coupled First Order Telegraph Equations”
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𝝏𝟐 𝑽(𝒛) 𝝏 𝟐 𝑽(𝒛)
= 𝑳′ 𝑪′ (Eq.5)
𝝏𝒛𝟐 𝝏𝒕𝟐
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𝝏𝟐 𝑰(𝒛) 𝝏 𝟐 𝑰(𝒛)
= 𝑳′ 𝑪′ 𝟐 (Eq.8)
𝝏𝒛𝟐 𝝏𝒕 20
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Summarizing
𝜕2 V(z) 𝜕 2 V(z)
(Eqn. 5) = L′ C′
𝜕z2 𝜕t2
𝜕2 I(z) 𝜕 2 I(z)
(Eqn. 8) = L′ C′ 2
𝜕z2 𝜕t
The general solution of the wave equation has the following form:
f z, t = f(z ± ut)
ω ω 1
u= = =
β ω L ′ C′ L ′ C′
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f z, t = f(z − ut)
or
f z, t = f(z + ut)
𝑓 𝑧 − 𝑢𝑡) = 𝑓(0
𝑧 − 𝑢𝑡 = 0
𝑧 = 𝑢𝑡 24
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Wave Equation
z increases as t increase for a constant phase
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TL Solutions
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𝜕2 V(z) 𝜕 2 V(z)
(Eqn. 5) = L′ C′
𝜕z2 𝜕t2
𝜕2 I(z) 𝜕 2 I(z)
(Eqn. 8) = L′ C′ 2
𝜕z2 𝜕t
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Initial Steps
Typically we will know or are given the source voltage. For
example, it could be:
From the time function we form the source phasor & know the
frequency that the TL operates at (in ACSS operation):
𝛚 = 𝟏𝟎𝟕 𝒔−𝟏
𝒋𝟑𝟎°
𝑽𝒔𝒔 = 𝟏𝟎 𝒆 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒔 30
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ACSS TL Analysis
Under ACSS conditions the voltage and current solutions to the WE
may be expressed as:
𝑉+ −𝑗γ𝑧 𝑉− 𝑗γ𝑧
I 𝑧 = 𝐼0+ 𝑒 −𝑗γ𝑧 + 𝐼0− 𝑒 𝑗γ𝑧 = 𝑒 + 𝑒 Time Harmonic Phasor Form
𝑍0 𝑍0
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Step 2: Determine Г𝐿
Step 6: Determine 𝑉𝐿
Characteristic Impedance:
𝑳′ 𝑽+𝒐 𝑽 −
𝒐
𝒁𝒐 = = = −
𝑪′ 𝑰𝒐+ 𝑰𝒐−
Load Impedance:
𝑽𝑳 𝑽+
𝟎 + 𝑽 −
𝟎
𝒁𝑳 = = + − 𝒁𝟎
𝑰𝑳 𝑽𝟎 − 𝑽𝟎
Identity:
𝐋′ 𝐂 ′ = 𝛍 𝛆
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Step 2: Determine Г𝑳
Reflection Coefficient:
𝑉0− 𝐼0−
Г𝐿 = = − +
𝑉0+ 𝐼0
𝑍𝐿 −𝑍0
Г𝐿 =
𝑍𝐿 +𝑍0
𝑍𝐿
𝑧𝐿 =
𝑍0
𝒛𝑳 − 𝟏
Г𝑳 =
𝒛𝑳 + 𝟏
VSWR:
𝟏 + 𝚪𝑳
𝐕𝐒𝐖𝐑 =
𝟏 − 𝚪𝑳
Input Impedance:
𝑽𝒊𝒏 𝒛 = −𝒍 𝒁𝑳 + 𝒁𝟎 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐡(𝜸𝒍)
𝒁𝒊𝒏 = = 𝒁𝟎
𝑰𝒊𝒏 𝒛 = −𝒍 𝒁𝟎 + 𝒁𝑳 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒉(𝜸𝒍)
𝒁𝑳 + 𝒋𝒁𝟎 𝒕𝒂𝒏(𝜷𝒍)
𝒁𝒊𝒏 = 𝒁𝟎
𝒁𝟎 + 𝒋𝒁𝑳 𝒕𝒂𝒏(𝜷𝒍)
𝒁𝑳 + 𝒋𝒁𝟎 𝐭𝐚𝐧(𝜷𝒛𝟏 )
𝒁(𝒛𝟏 ) = 𝒁𝟎
𝒁𝟎 + 𝒋𝒁𝑳 𝒕𝒂𝒏(𝜷𝒛𝟏 )
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𝒁𝒊𝒏
𝑽𝒊𝒏 = 𝑽𝑺𝑺 = 𝑽𝒊𝒏 𝒛 = −𝒍
𝒁𝒊𝒏 + 𝒁𝑺
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+
Step 5: Determine 𝑽𝟎
𝑽𝒊𝒏
𝑽𝟎+ = 𝒋𝜷𝒍
(𝒆 +Г𝑳 𝒆−𝒋𝜷𝒍 )
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Step 6: Determine 𝑽𝑳
Voltage at the load, VL:
𝑽𝑳 = 𝑽𝑻𝑳 𝒛 = 𝟎 = 𝑽𝒐+ 𝟏 + 𝚪𝑳
where:
𝑽𝒊𝒏
𝑽+
𝟎 = 𝒋𝜷𝒍
(𝒆 +Г𝑳 𝒆−𝒋𝜷𝒍 )
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𝑽𝑳
𝑰𝑳 =
𝒁𝑳
𝟏 𝟐
𝑷𝒂𝒗𝒈 = 𝑷𝑳 = 𝑰𝑳 𝑹𝒆(𝒁𝑳 )
𝟐
𝑰𝒏 𝒈𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒍, 𝑺𝑳 = 𝑽𝑳 𝑰∗𝑳 = 𝑷𝑳 + 𝒋 𝑸𝑳
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Final Steps
After we have determined VL in phasor form, we might be
interested in the actual time function associated with VL; i.e.
vL(t). It is straight forward to convert the VL phasor back to the
vL(t) time-domain form; e.g. suppose:
−𝒋𝟔𝟎°
𝑽𝑳 = 𝟓 𝒆 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒔
Then with
𝛚 = 𝟏𝟎𝟕 𝒔−𝟏
2-Port Analysis
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𝑦1 𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑥1
= 𝑎 𝑎22
𝑦2 21 𝑥2
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2-Port Networks
http://www.globalspec.com/reference/9518/348308/chapter-10-two-port-networks
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Review
A careful review of the preceding TL analysis reveals that all we
really determined in ACSS operation was Vin & Iin and VL & IL.
This reminds us of the exact input and output form of any linear
system with 2 inputs and 2 outputs which can always be
expressed as:
𝑦1 𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑥1
= 𝑎 𝑎22 ∴
𝑦2 21 𝑥2
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I1 = Iin I2 = IL
ZS
+ +
A B
+
VS V1 = Vin V2 = VL ZL
-
C D
- -
Nomenclature Used:
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𝑉𝑆 = 𝐴 𝑉𝑅 + 𝐵 𝐼𝑅
𝐼𝑆 = 𝐶 𝑉𝑅 + 𝐷 𝐼𝑅
In Matrix Form
𝑉𝑆 𝐴 𝐵 𝑉𝑅
=
𝐼𝑆 𝐶 𝐷 𝐼𝑅
𝐴𝐷 − 𝐵𝐶 = 1
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4 Cases of Interest
Case 1: Short TL
Case 3: Long TL
Case 4: Lossless TL
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Short TL
Less than ~80 Km
shunt Admittance is neglected
ABCD Parameters:
A=D=1 per unit
B=𝑍 Ω
C=0
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Medium TL
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Medium TL
𝑌𝑍
1+ 𝑍
𝑉𝑆 2 𝑉𝑅
=
𝐼𝑆 𝑌𝑍 𝑌𝑍 𝐼𝑅
𝑌 1+ 1+
4 2
ABCD Parameters:
𝑌𝑍
A=D= 1+ per unit
2
B=Z Ω
𝑌𝑍 61
C=Y 1+ Ω-1
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Long TL
cosh(𝛾𝑙) 𝑍𝐶 sinh(𝛾𝑙)
𝑉𝑆 𝑉𝑅
= 1
𝐼𝑆 sinh(𝛾𝑙) cosh(𝛾𝑙) 𝐼𝑅
𝑍𝐶
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γ = 𝑗ω 𝐿′ 𝐶 ′ = 𝑗β
ABCD Parameters:
𝐴 = 𝐷 = cosh 𝛾𝑙 = cosh(𝑗β𝑙) = cos(β𝑙) per unit
𝐵 = 𝑍0 sinh γ𝑙 = 𝑗𝑍0 sin(β𝑙) Ω
sinh(𝛾𝑙) sin(𝛽𝑙)
𝐶= =𝑗 S 64
𝑍0 𝑍0
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ABCD Matrix-Summary
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Steps
1. Represent the power system by its one-line diagram
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Steps Cont.
2. Convert all quantities to per unit (pu)
2-Base pu analysis:
VBase V, kV, …
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Steps Cont.
3. Draw the impedance diagram
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Steps Cont.
4. Determine the YBUS
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Steps Cont.
5. Classify the Buses; aka ‘bus types’
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Steps Cont.
6. Guess starting values for the unknown bus parameters;
e.g.
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Steps Cont.
7. Using the power flow equations find approximations for the
real & reactive power using the initially guessed values and
the known values for voltage/angles/admittance at the
various buses. Find the difference in these calculated
values with the values that were actually given;
i.e. form P & Q.
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Steps Cont.
8. Write the Jacobian Matrix for the first iteration of the
Newton Raphson Method. This will have the form:
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Steps Cont.
9. Solve for the unknown differences by inverting the
Jacobian and multiplying & form the next guess:
Steps Cont.
10. Repeat steps 7 – 9 iteratively until an accurate value for
the unknown differences as they 0. Then solve for all
the other unknown parameters.
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Introduction
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Power flow is proportional to v2, therefore controlling both bus voltage &
power flow is a nonlinear problem.
PFA is very useful (and efficient) at determining power flows and voltage
levels under normal operating conditions.
PFA Considerations
1. Generation Supplies the demand (load) plus losses.
The SW determines the voltage magnitude and phase at each bus in a power
system under balanced three-phase steady state conditions.
The SW also computes the real and reactive power flows (P and Q
respectively) for all loads, buses, as well as the equipment losses.
The load flow is essential to decide the best operation of existing system, for
planning the future expansion of the system, and designing new power system.
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LFS Requirements
Bus
A ‘Bus’ is defined as the meeting point (or connecting
point) of various components.
Quick Review
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Motivation
1 2
I
jX
+ -
𝑉𝑆 = 𝑉𝑆 ∠𝛿 = 𝑉𝑅 𝑒 𝑗𝛿 𝑉𝑅 = 𝑉𝑅 ∠0° = 𝑉𝑅
S = ‘Send’ R = ‘Receive’
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1 2
I
~ jX ~
+ -
𝑉𝑆 = 𝑉𝑆 ∠𝛿 = 𝑉𝑅 𝑒 𝑗𝛿 𝑉𝑅 = 𝑉𝑅 ∠0° = 𝑉𝑅
S = ‘Send’ R = ‘Receive’
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VS
jXI
O VR
I
90
j X I I due to j
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Discussion
1) VS leads VR by
2) KVL VS – j X I = VR
𝑉𝑆 − 𝑉𝑅
∴ 𝐼=
𝑗𝑋
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Discussion
𝑆𝑅 = 𝑃𝑅 + 𝑗𝑄𝑅 = 𝑉𝑅 𝐼∗
∗
𝑉𝑆 ∠𝛿 − 𝑉𝑅
𝑆𝑅 = 𝑉𝑅
𝑗𝑋
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Discussion
𝑉𝑆 𝑉𝑅 𝑉𝑆 𝑉𝑅 𝑉𝑅2
𝑆𝑅 = sin 𝛿 + 𝑗 cos 𝛿 −
𝑋 𝑋 𝑋
𝑆𝑅 = 𝑃𝑅 + 𝑗𝑄𝑅
Discussion
5) Or:
𝑉𝑆 𝑉𝑅
𝑃𝑅 = sin 𝛿
𝑋
𝑉𝑆 𝑉𝑅 𝑉𝑅2
𝑄𝑅 = cos 𝛿 −
𝑋 𝑋
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Discussion
𝑉2
𝑃𝑅 ≈ 𝛿
𝑋
𝑉
𝑄𝑅 ≈ ∆𝑉
𝑋
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𝑺𝒓 = 𝑽𝒓 𝑰∗
𝑺𝒔 = 𝑽𝒔 𝑰∗
where
𝒀 = 𝒁−𝟏
𝑰 = 𝒀 𝑽𝒔 − 𝑽𝒓
Vij is the voltage at bus i wrt bus j; bus i positive, bus j negative
Recall that a ‘node voltage’ (bus voltage) is the voltage at that node (Bus) with
respect to the reference.
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In PFA, combining series elements is not typically done as we seek to keep track
of the impedances of various assets and their power flows; e.g. in:
i. Generators
ii. TLs
iii. XFs
iv. FACTs
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Y-Matrix Example
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Example Circuit
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𝒀𝑩𝒖𝒔 ∗ 𝑽 = 𝑰 (Eqn-1)
where,
−𝟏
𝑽 = 𝒀𝑩𝒖𝒔 ∗ 𝑰 (Eqn-2)
Note: at this point the various known bus voltages (amplitude and
phase) may be used to calculate currents and power flow.
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𝑌𝑘𝑛 = 𝑌𝑛𝑘 = -(sum of the admittances in the branch connecting bus k to bus n)
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Y-Matrix Terminology
𝑌𝑘𝑘 , the main diagonal elements of Y, are referred to as the:
“Self-admittance”; or
“Driving point admittance”
of bus k
“Mutual-admittance”; or
“Transfer admittance”
between bus k and bus n
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Y-Matrix Notes
If there is no connection between bus k and bus n, then 𝑌𝑘𝑛 = 0 in
the Y-matrix; hence there are 2 zeros in the Y-matrix for this
situation since 𝑌𝑘𝑛 = 𝑌𝑛𝑘 .
𝑌𝑘𝑘
𝑌𝑛𝑛
𝑌𝑘𝑛 = 𝑌𝑛𝑘
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Note that since no direct connections exist between Bus 1 & 4 or Bus 2 & 4,
the corresponding entries in the Y matrix are zero 36
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Y-Matrix Math
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PSC Reminder
For a passive network element(s), the PSC yields:
V1
+ V1 − V2
I=
Z
V I
- I = Y V1 − V2
V2 38
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Y-Matrix Equations
Consider the following bus in a network:
Ia
Bus 3
Z13 V3
V1 ZC1 Ib
Z23
V2 Id I3
ZC2
Ic
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Y-Matrix Equations
KCL at bus 3 yields:
𝐈𝟑 = 𝐈𝐛 + 𝐈𝐝 + 𝐈𝐚 + 𝐈𝐜
𝑽𝟑 𝑽𝟑 𝑽𝟑 − 𝑽𝟏 𝑽𝟑 − 𝑽𝟐
𝑰𝟑 = + + +
𝒁𝑪𝟏 𝒁𝑪𝟐 𝒁𝟏𝟑 𝒁𝟐𝟑
𝑽𝟑 − 𝑽𝒎
𝑰𝟑 = 𝑽𝟑 𝒀𝟑,𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒐 𝒈𝒏𝒅 +
𝒁𝒎𝟑
𝒎≠𝟑
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Y-Matrix Equations
Algebra yields:
𝑽𝟑 − 𝑽𝒎
𝑰𝟑 = 𝑽𝟑 𝒀𝟑,𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒐 𝒈𝒏𝒅 +
𝒁𝒎𝟑
𝒎≠𝟑
Y-Matrix Equations
Finally:
Or in general
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Y-Matrix Equations
Hence:
(i) (ii)
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Y-Matrix Equations
In terms of Y-matrix elements:
𝟏
𝐘𝐤𝐦 = 𝐘𝐦𝐤 = − (ii)
𝐙𝐤𝐦
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Y-Matrix Equations
Using the short-hand notation:
𝑰𝒌 = 𝑽𝒌 𝒀𝒌𝒌 + 𝑽𝒎 𝒀𝒎𝒌
𝒎≠𝒌
𝐘𝐤𝐦 = 𝐘𝐦𝐤
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I1 I3
Bus 2
I2
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𝑉1
𝐼2 = 𝑌21 𝑌22 𝑌23 𝑉2
𝑉3
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𝐼1 𝑌11 ⋯ 𝑌1𝑛 𝑉1
⋮ = ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ⋮
𝐼𝑛 𝑌𝑛1 ⋯ 𝑌𝑛𝑛 𝑉𝑛
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𝑰𝒌 = 𝒀𝒌𝒎 𝑽𝒎
𝒎=𝟏
where
𝑽𝒌 = 𝑽𝒌 𝒆𝒋𝜽𝒌
𝑽𝒎 = 𝑽𝒎 𝒆𝒋𝜽𝒎
𝒀𝒌𝒎 = 𝒀𝒌𝒎 𝒆𝒋𝜹𝒌𝒎 50
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𝑺𝒌 = 𝑽𝒌 𝑰∗𝒌 = 𝑷𝒌 + 𝒋𝑸𝒌
𝒏 ∗
𝑺𝒌 = 𝑽𝒌 𝒀𝒌𝒎 𝑽𝒎
𝒎=𝟏
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𝐧 ∗
By Euler’s Theorem
∗
𝑽𝒌 𝑽𝒎 = 𝑽𝒌 𝑽𝒎 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽𝒌𝒎 + 𝒋 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽𝒌𝒎
where 𝜽𝒌𝒎 = 𝜽𝒌 − 𝜽𝒎
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The power flow equations are quadratic, V2 appears in all P & Q terms
In general this forces us to use numerical solution methods for solving the
power flow equations while controlling bus voltages
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Network Terminology
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Slack Bus
3
PQ Bus
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Bus Types
Total number of Quantities Quantities to be
Bus Type
buses Specified obtained
Load Bus (or)
n-m P, Q V,δ
PQ Bus
Generator Bus (or)
Voltage Controlled
m-1 P, V Q,δ
Bus (or)
PV Bus
Slack Bus (or)
Swing Bus (or) 1 V,δ P, Q
Reference Bus
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Bus Terminology
P = PG – PD
Q = QG – QD
PG & QG are the Real and Reactive Power supplied by the power system
generators connected
PD & QD are respectively the Real and Reactive Power drawn by bus loads
The powers in the buses will be known only after solving the load
flow equations.
For these reasons, the real and reactive power of one of the
generator bus is not specified.
This special bus is called Slack Bus and serves as the system
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Hence for a Slack Bus, the magnitude and phase of bus voltage are
specified and real and reactive powers are obtained through the
load flow equation.
or
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Gauss-Seidel Method
In numerical linear algebra, the Gauss–Seidel method, also known as the Liebmann method
or the method of successive displacement, is an iterative method used to solve a linear system
of equations. It is named after the German mathematicians Carl Friedrich Gauss and Philipp
Ludwig von Seidel, and is similar to the Jacobi method. Though it can be applied to any
matrix with non-zero elements on the diagonals, convergence is only guaranteed if the matrix
is either diagonally dominant, or symmetric and positive definite. It was only mentioned in a
private letter from Gauss to his student Gerling in 1823.
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Newton-Raphson Method
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Newton-Raphson Method
In numerical analysis, Newton's method (also known as the Newton–Raphson method),
is named after Isaac Newton and Joseph Raphson. It is a method for finding
successively better approximations to the roots (or zeroes) of a real-valued function.
𝐱; 𝐟 𝐱 = 𝟎
If the function is ‘well behaved’ then a better approximation to the actual root is x1:
𝐟(𝒙𝟎 )
𝒙𝟏 = 𝒙𝟎 − 66
𝐟′(𝒙𝟎 )
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Newton-Raphson Method
Very forgiving when errors are made in one iterations; the final
solution will be very close to the actual root
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Newton-Raphson Method
Procedure:
Step 1: Assume a vector of initial guess x(0) and set iteration counter k = 0
Step 2: Compute f1(x(k)), f2(x(k)),⋯ ⋯ fn(x(k))
Step 3: Compute ∆𝑚1, ∆𝑚2, ⋯ ⋯ Δ𝑚𝑛.
Step 4: Compute error = max[ ∆𝑚1 , ∆𝑚2 , ⋯ ⋯ ∆𝑚𝑛 ]
Step 5: If error ≤ ∈ (pre-specified tolerance), then the final solution vector is x(k)
and print the results. Otherwise go to step 6
Step 6: Form the Jacobin matrix analytically and evaluate it at x = x(k)
Step 7: Calculate the correction vector ∆𝑥 = [∆𝑚1, ∆𝑚2, ⋯ ⋯ Δ𝑚𝑛]T by using
equation d
Step 8: Update the solution vector x(k+1) = x(k) + ∆𝑥 and update k=k+1 and go back
to step 2.
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Newton-Raphson Method
Consider a 2-D example where in general there are n equations are given for the n
unknown quantities x1, x2, x3 ⋯ xn.
f1(x1, x2) = k1
f2(x1, x2) = k2 (Equation set a)
k1 and k2 are constants
Then
k1 = f1(x1(0) + ∆x1(0), x2(0) + ∆x2(0))
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k2 = f1(x1(0) + ∆x1(0), x2(0) + ∆x2(0))
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Newton-Raphson Method
Applying the first order Taylor Expansion to f1 and f2
𝝏𝒇𝟏 𝝏𝒇𝟏
k1≅ f1(x1(0), x2(0)) +∆x1(0) + ∆x2(0)
𝝏𝒙𝟏 𝝏𝒙𝟐
(Equation set b)
𝝏𝒇 𝝏𝒇
k2 ≅ f2(x1(0), x2(0)) +∆x1(0) 𝟐 + ∆x2(0) 𝟐
𝝏𝒙𝟏 𝝏𝒙𝟐
Newton-Raphson Method
Then
∆k1(0) ∆x1(0)
=J (0)
∆k2(0) ∆x2(0)
Newton-Raphson Method
f1(x1, x2 ⋯ ⋯ xn) = b1
f2(x1, x2 ⋯ ⋯ xn) = b2
(Equation set a)
⋮
fn(x1, x2, ⋯ ⋯ xn) = bn
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Newton-Raphson Method
In ‘equation set a’ the quantities b1, b2, ⋯ bn as well as the functions f1, f2 ⋯ ⋯fn
are known.
To solve the equation set an initial guess is made; the initial guesses be denoted
as x1(0), x2(0), ⋯ xn(0).
First order Taylor’s series expansions (neglecting the higher order terms) are
carried out for these equation about the initial guess
⋮
𝝏𝒇𝒏 𝝏𝒇𝒏 𝝏𝒇𝟐
fn(x1(0), x2(0) ⋯ ⋯ xn(0)) + ∆𝒙𝟏 + ∆𝒙𝟐 + ⋯ + ∆𝒙𝒏 = bn
𝝏𝒙𝟏 𝝏𝒙𝟐 𝝏𝒙𝒏
‘Equation d’ is the basic equation for solving the n algebraic equations given in
‘equation set a’. 75
NR Method Flowchart
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−𝑗10 𝑗10 0
YBus = 𝑗10 −𝑗30 𝑗20
0 𝑗20 −𝑗20
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Quantities Quantities to be
Bus No Bus Type
Specified obtained
Generator Bus
Two 𝑃2 , 𝑉2 δ2 , 𝑄2
PV
Load Bus
Three 𝑃3 , 𝑄3 𝑉3 , δ3
PQ
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𝟐
𝟎. 𝟓 = 𝟐𝟎 𝑽𝟑 𝒄𝒐𝒔 −𝜹𝟑 +𝜹𝟐 − 𝟐𝟎 𝑽𝟑 Eq.3
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𝑽𝟑 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟔𝟖𝟗 pu
𝑸𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟕𝟔 pu
𝑸𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟕𝟔 pu 84
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Bus No V 𝜹 P Q
One 1 0𝑜 1 0.05
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