TCP/IP

Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) is the language a computer

uses to access the internet. It consists of a suite of protocols designed to establish a
network of networks to provide a host with access to the internet.
TCP/IP is responsible for full-fledged data connectivity and transmitting the data end to
end by providing other functions, including addressing, mapping and acknowledgment.
TCP/IP contains four layers, which differ slightly from the OSI model.

Types of Layers
 Application Layer: The application layer provides applications with standardized
data exchange. Its protocols include the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), File
Transfer Protocol (FTP), Post Office Protocol 3 (POP3), Simple Mail Transfer
Protocol (SMTP) and Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP). Web
Browser is one of the common example.
 Transport Layer: The transport layer is responsible for maintaining end-to-end
communications across the network. TCP handles communications between
hosts and provides flow control, multiplexing and reliability. The transport
protocols include TCP and User Datagram Protocol (UDP), which is sometimes
used instead of TCP for special purposes. Online games are common example.
 Network Layer: The network layer also called the internet layer, deals with
packets and connects independent networks to transport the packets across
network boundaries. The network layer protocols are the IP and the Internet
Control Message Protocol (ICMP), which is used for error reporting.
 Physical Layer: The physical layer consists of protocols that operate only on a
link -- the network component that interconnects nodes or hosts in the network.
The protocols in this layer include Ethernet for local area networks (LANs) and
the Address Resolution Protocol (ARP).
 IPV4
Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4) is the fourth revision of the Internet Protocol and a widely
used protocol in data communication over different kinds of networks. IPv4 is a connectionless
protocol used in packet-switched layer networks, such as Ethernet. It provides the logical
connection between network devices by providing identification for each device. There are
many ways to configure IPv4 with all kinds of devices – including manual and automatic
configurations – depending on the network type.

IPV6

IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6) is a set of specifications from the Internet Engineering Task
Force (IETF) that's essentially an upgrade of IP version 4 (IPv4). The basics of IPv6 are similar to
those of IPv4 -- devices can use IPv6 as source and destination addresses to pass packets over a
network, and tools like ping work for network testing as they do in IPv4, with some slight
variations.

Following are the features of IPV6

 Supports source and destination addresses that are 128 bits (16 bytes) long.
 Requires IPSec support.
 Uses Flow Label field to identify packet flow for QoS handling by router.
 Allows the host to send fragments packets but not routers.
 Doesn't include a checksum in the header.
 Uses a link-local scope all-nodes multicast address.
 Does not require manual configuration or DHCP.
 Uses host address (AAAA) resource records in DNS to map host names to IPv6
addresses.
 Uses pointer (PTR) resource records in the IP6.ARPA DNS domain to map IPv6 addresses
to host names.
 Supports a 1280-byte packet size (without fragmentation).
 Moves optional data to IPv6 extension headers.
 Uses Multicast Neighbor Solicitation messages to resolve IP addresses to link-layer
addresses.
 Uses Multicast Listener Discovery (MLD) messages to manage membership in local
subnet groups.
  Uses ICMPv6 Router Solicitation and Router Advertisement messages to determine the
IP address of the best default gateway.

The Difference between IPV4 and IPV6

An IP address is binary numbers but can be stored as text for human readers. For example, a 32-bit
numeric address (IPv4) is written in decimal as four numbers separated by periods. Each number can be
zero to 255. For example, 1.160.10.240 could be an IP address.

IPv6 addresses are 128-bit IP address written in hexadecimal and separated by colons. An example IPv6
address could be written like this: 3ffe:1900:4545:3:200:f8ff:fe21:67cf

Switch
A switch, in the context of networking is a high-speed device that receives incoming data
packets and redirects them to their destination on a local area network (LAN). A LAN switch
operates at the data link layer (Layer 2) or the network layer of the OSI Model and, as such it
can support all types of packet protocols.

Essentially, switches are the traffic cops of a simple local area network.

Hub
A hub is the most basic networking device that connects multiple computers or other network
devices together. A network hub has no routing tables or intelligence on where to send
information and broadcasts all network data across each connection. Most hubs can detect
basic network errors such as collisions,

Network hubs are categorized as Layer 1 devices in the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
reference model. They connect multiple computers together, transmitting data received at one
port to all of its other ports without restriction. Hubs operate in half-duplex.

Router
A router is hardware device designed to receive, analyze and move incoming packets to
another network. It may also be used to convert the packets to another network interface, drop
them, and perform other actions relating to a network.

A router has a lot more capabilities than other network devices, such as a hub or a switch that
are only able to perform basic network functions.
A router may create or maintain a table of the available routes and their conditions and use this
information along with distance and cost algorithms to determine the best route for a given
packet. Typically, a packet may travel through a number of network points with routers before
arriving at its destination. Routing is a function associated with the network layer (Layer 3) in
the standard model of network programming, the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model.

The Difference between Switch, Hub and Router.

A hub simply connects all the nodes on the network -- communication is essentially in a
haphazard manner with any device trying to communicate at any time, resulting in many
collisions.

A switch, on the other hand, creates an electronic tunnel between source and destination ports
for a split second that no other traffic can enter. This results in communication without
collisions.

Switches are similar to routers as well, but a router has the additional ability to forward packets
between different networks, whereas a switch is limited to node-to-node communication on
the same network.

Wi-Fi Networks
Wi-Fi is a technology that uses radio waves to provide network connectivity. A Wi-Fi connection is
established using a wireless adapter to create hotspots - areas in the vicinity of a wireless router that are
connected to the network and allow users to access internet services.

Wi-Fi networks have no physical wired connection between sender and receiver by using radio
frequency (RF) technology -- a frequency within the electromagnetic spectrum associated with radio
wave propagation. When an RF current is supplied to an antenna, an electromagnetic field is created
that then is able to propagate through space.

Wi-Fi Schemes

802.11a: speed up to 54 Mbps, Frequency 5 Ghz

802.11b: Speed up to 11 Mbps, Frequency 2.4 Ghz

802.11g: Speed up to 54 Mbps, Frequency 2.4 Ghz