MANAGEMENT OF

MARINE SYSTEMS

Content
1. Understanding the marine environment

2. Theoretical integrated approaches

3. Legislation

4. Management and conservation of marine

systems

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UNDERSTANDING THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT

• Land and ocean are integrally connected, activities on

land are critically linked to marine health.

• The oceans are part of a closed planetary system.

• Large time and space scales.

• Coping with the threats require wide ranging,

comprehensive, transboundary responses that
incorporate human activities and that treat the entire
hydrological cycle as an integrated unit.

• Our knowledge of the sea and its life-supporting

processes is very limited.

Case Study
Arctic meltdown and geopolitics

Arctic melt does and will continue to pose

economic, military and environmental challenges
to governance of the region.

Technological factors will most likely be a barrier

to access in the short term and an enabler in the
longer term.
'Ice Wars' heating up the Arctic

July 15, 2011|By Kaj Larsen, CNN

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Arctic Ocean sea ice loss in summer
has occurred much faster than
projections had anticipated

Increased Melting on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Crack patterns in Arctic permafrost
as viewed from a helicopter.
Credit: Brocken Inaglory/cc by 3.0

The green color of water in a melt pond

atop Arctic sea ice hints at the growth of
algae under its surface.
Credit: Stefan Hendricks/Alfred Wegener Institute

The
decrease
of Arctic
sea ice

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Projected
changes
in the
Arctic
climate by
2090

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 Fossil fuel
resources
and oil and
gas
production
in the Arctic

Philippe Rekacewicz & Hugo Ahlenius

UNEP/GRID-Arendal

Natural Gas-to-Oil Ratio 3:1

The mix of
hydrocarbons is not
that attractive as it is
difficult to transport.
Natural gas requires
pipelines or
liquefaction. Difficult
to transport;
pipelines not an
option because they
would have to cover
large distances
Some of the means
of production may
not be ready until
2050
http://www.cge.uevora.pt/aspo2005/abscom/Abstract_Lisbon_Ronning.pdf - Statoil’s Arctic Assessment

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When would Arctic exploration and
production be attractive?

• High Oil Prices (not anymore)

• Ice-capable technology
• Increased geopolitical tensions in shipping
chokepoints (Middle East, South China
Sea, Straits of Malacca, Hormuz)
• Sense of clear delineation of boundaries
and legal frameworks

Northern Sea Route

and the Northwest
Passage compared
with currently used
shipping routes

Hugo Ahlenius, UNEP/GRID-Arendal

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In August 2009, two German vessels Current
moving Korean goods from Vladivostok marine
to the Netherlands along the Northern shipping
Sea Route became the first legal uses in
commercial ship crossings of the Arctic the Arctic
without icebreaker assistance.

http://maps.grida.no/go/graphic/
current-marine-shipping-uses-
in-the-arctic

Technology is a key barrier to Arctic access

Icebreakers, many nuclear powered, are necessary

for presence and power projection in the region
year-round. The various Arctic nations have widely
divergent capabilities. For example, Russia has 20
icebreakers; Canada has 12, and is working on
budgeting for 8 more; Finland has 5, Germany 2, the
US has just one functional icebreaker, China and
Japan one each.

These ships take eight to ten years to build, and cost

approximately $1 billion each.

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Cheaper
alternatives?

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Big game – big players
Chinese Ambition – April 16, 2013

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 The Big Picture
• Arctic states appear committed to
cooperation and are likely to build capacity
of existing frameworks
• Commercial and strategic benefits are real
but distant
• Arctic remains strategically important in the
long-run, with multiple potential flashpoints
which can be mitigated by focus on
cooperation

We could end up with the worst of all possible

worlds - neither a new Arctic nor an old Arctic,
but an Arctic wasteland

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 Content
1. Understanding the marine environment

2. Theoretical integrated approaches

3. Legislation

4. Management and conservation of marine

systems

MARINE CONSERVATION

Theoretical Legislation
integrated/systemic (international and
approaches regional agreements)

Management of
protected areas

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THEORETICAL INTEGRATED/SYSTEMIC APPROACHES

Several approaches have emerged to deliver conservation

and development effectively:

1. Bioregional planning
Coordinating the activities of the various government agencies and other
institutions charged with coastal zone resource management.

2. Integrated coastal (zone) management (ICZM)

3. Integrated ecosystem management
4. Ecosystem management
Management - Continuous, interactive, adaptive, participatory process

THEORETICAL INTEGRATED/SYSTEMIC APPROACHES

All these approaches have several features in common:

(1) They cover large areas;

(2) They advocate long-term management;

(3) They take an ecosystem-based approach, which treats

the land and the sea as a single integrated system;

(4) Aim at achieving sustainability of the productive potential

of ecosystem goods and services.

They represent a shift from highly focused short-term

sector-by-sector resource assessment and management
to larger spatial scale, long-term management aiming
sustainability.

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 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN TERRESTRIAL & MARINE CONSERVATION

Marine species and ecosystems have less

cultural and legal protection

– Large predators on land protected (e.g. bears,

wolves) but not in oceans (sharks, marlin)
– Structure-providing organisms protected
(trees/forests) but not sponges, kelp beds, deep
water corals etc (coral reefs an exception in some areas)
– Coastal national parks may prohibit hunting land
species, but promote hunting of marine species
– Extraction methods far more destructive than would
be acceptable on land (~ hunting deer with hand
grenades)

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN TERRESTRIAL & MARINE CONSERVATION

– Protection of land wildlife often under

conservation/environment departments but marine
wildlife under fisheries departments
• Less legal protection
• An extraction/exploitation focus rather than conservation
• Less experience/expertise in conservation biology

– Bodies dealing with marine conservation different

from land conservation – no control / input over land
activities impacting the marine environment

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 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN TERRESTRIAL & MARINE CONSERVATION

Less opportunities for ex situ conservation

(captive breeding etc)
– Larval stages of marine species very small, difficult
to feed and maintain
– Seawater chemistry and physics difficult to
maintain artificially
– Many species adapted/require wide-ranging, and
mobile habitat (especially pelagic species)
– Deep sea species are a particular problem
(100sx atmospheric pressure)
– Mortality rates frequently high
– Appropriate ex situ habitat extremely costly

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN TERRESTRIAL & MARINE CONSERVATION

• Much less spent on marine conservation!

• In 1999 – US$1,700 million spent on US
National Park Service
• US$ 14.3 million spent on National Marine
Sanctuaries
• x119 difference
– Disparity despite 71% of global being marine
– Despite 99% of the biosphere being marine

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 Content
1. Understanding the marine environment

2. Theoretical integrated approaches

3. Legislation

4. Management and conservation of marine

systems

LEGISLATION
There are about 300+ treaties that affect the seas.

Treaties that provide for protected areas in the marine

environment are few. They can be grouped into:

1. Treaties primarily designed to provide for protected

areas on land, but are also applied to marine areas.

2. Treaties that more specifically address the

establishment of marine protected areas.

3. International conventions of major importance.

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Growth in numbers of parties to selected Multilateral Environmental
Agreements (MEAs). Over 500 separate MEAs currently exist, even
though many—over 300—concern regional issues such as regulation
of local fisheries and have a limited set of signatories.

Limitations of MEAs

1. Slow negotiation and ratification

2. Compromising toward the lowest
common denominator
3. Lack of monitoring for compliance
or performance
4. Lack of provisions for enforcement
5. Lack of technical and financial
resources

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 LEGISLATION
1. GENERAL INTERNATIONAL TREATIES

The Wetlands Convention (Ramsar Convention)

(signed in 1971, totals 169 parties)
There are 2260 listed Ramsar sites, covering 2,152,762 sqkm of
which 48% include the coast and so may contain marine
components.

The World Heritage Convention (World Heritage

Convention) (signed 1972, ratified 1975, 193
parties)
The World Heritage List has 981 sites, of which 193 natural and
29 mixed. The Parties can nominate sites within their internal and
territorial waters.

LEGISLATION
2. SPECIFIC INTERNATIONAL TREATIES
FOCUSED ON MARINE SYSTEMS

UNEP ‘s Regional Seas Programme (adopted in

1983, at Cartagena) http://www.unep.org/regionalseas/
Was launched in 1974. In 975, in Barcelona, the
Mediterranean Action Plan was adopted.
A total of 143 countries are bound by Conventions, Action
Plans and Protocols in 13 Regional Seas plus an
additional 5 partner programmes.

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 REGIONAL SEAS PROGRAMME UNEP

LEGISLATION
3. INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS AND INITIATIVES
OF MAJOR IMPORTANCE

1. The United Nations Convention on the Law of the

Sea (UNCLOS)

2. The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)

3. FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries

(adopted in 1995).

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 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea

Basic data: Concluded in 1982, entered into force 1994, 160

States Parties

Objectives: Establishes a comprehensive legal framework

for use and development of the world’s oceans and their
resources, addressing all matters relating to the sea.

UNCLOS was designed to serve as a unifying framework

for numerous, more specific ocean law agreements, and as
a foundation for the progressive development of ocean law
at the global and regional levels.

It specifies the rights and obligations of each nation in its

use of the world’s oceans, as well as the general objectives
and principles which must guide the protection and
sustainable use of the marine and coastal environment
and its resources.

THE UNITED NATIONS CONVENTION ON THE

LAW OF THE SEA (UNCLOS)

a. It provides territorial rights to coastal areas:

• Territorial jurisdiction out to 12 nautical miles

(22.22 km) from the coastal baseline.
• Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZ) up to 200 n.m.
(370.4 km).
• Exclusive resources jurisdiction to the edge of
the continental margin (up to 350 n.m. from the
baseline).

b. Coastal states are obliged to conserve and manage

the living marine resources under their jurisdiction.

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Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZ)

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 Unwanted effects of UNCLOS
Promoting overfishing

1. Many nations augmented their fishing

industries to take benefit of the 200 mile
EEZ.

2. Nations without sufficient fishing capacity

to exploit the resources within their EEZ
made them available to other nations
against reimbursement (DWFN). This led to
resource depletion and major stress on
coastal communities.

The Convention on Biological

Diversity (CBD)
Three major goals:

1. Conservation of biodiversity
2. Sustainable use of the goods and
services provided
3. Equitable sharing of the benefits

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 The Convention on Biological
Diversity (CBD)
a. The Parties agreed to an Ocean Declaration
(1992);

b. The Jakarta Mandate (1995) identified

practical steps to apply the convention to
marine habitats;

c. Barbados Programme of Action for the

Sustainable Development of Small Island
Developing States (1994).

FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries (1995)

It is divided in six thematic articles on fisheries management,

fishing operations, aquaculture development, integration of
fisheries into coastal areas management, post-harvest practices
and trade, and fisheries research.

It is not legally binding.

The clear distinction that used to exists between MPA and

fisheries management is fading and tends to merge.

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 Content
1. Understanding the marine environment

2. Theoretical integrated approaches

3. Legislation

4. Management and conservation of marine

systems

What is a tipping point?

Threshold

Time lag

Self-perpetuating

Long lasting/hard to reverse

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Tipping Points – Coral reef collapse
Current Path Alternative Path
•Bleaching severe with Reduce local stressors including:
temperature rise greater than ca.
•Destructive fishing practices
2o C
•Coastal pollution
•Ocean acidification prevents
corals forming skeletons •Over-exploitation of herbivores
such as sea urchins and fish
•Reefs become degraded and
algae-dominated •Strict climate mitigation to keep
CO2 levels below 450 ppm and
•Livelihood threat to hundreds of
2oC.
millions through loss of fisheries
and tourism

Management and conservation

of marine ecosystems

1. MARINE PROTECTED AREAS

2. BIOSPHERE RESERVES

3. LARGE MARINE ECOSYSTEMS

4. INTERNATIONAL MARITIME ORGANIZATION

DESIGNATED AREAS

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 Protected areas increasing

Keep in mind that

land:water ratio is 1:2

Spatial distribution of the world’s protected areas

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 The majority are
located in the
Southern
Hemisphere

De Santo, J. Env. Manag. 2013

26 of the world’s 28 largest MPAs (defined as sites

greater than 30,000 km2)

Percentage of the marine areas within national

jurisdiction covered by protected areas

Thomas et al. 2014

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 INTERNATIONAL MARITIME ORGANIZATION
DESIGNATED AREAS

For international waters:

1. Special Areas (restrictions apply to operational

discharges from ships)

2. Particularly Sensitive Sea Areas are areas of the seas

and oceans that need special protection through action by
the International Maritime Organisation because of their
ecological, economic, cultural or scientific significance, and
their vulnerability to harmful impacts from shipping
activities.

3. Areas to be Avoided (with respect to vessel traffic)

Protected and management areas

MARINE PROTECTED AREAS

Definition:
An area of land and/or sea especially dedicated to the
protection and maintenance of biological diversity and
of natural and associated cultural resources, and
managed through legal or other effective means.

Goals:
• To protect habitat and biodiversity (conservation)
• To help maintain viable fisheries (development)

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 MARINE PROTECTED AREAS
Benefits of marine protected areas:

* Conservation of biodiversity and ecosystems

* Protection of rare or threatened species and communities
* Contributions to technology and scientific knowledge
* Conservation of scientific reference sites
* Conservation of cultural heritage
* Educational opportunities
* Contribution to sustainable tourism
* Potential contribution to ecosystem-based management of
fisheries

Zonation of MPA

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Reproduction of fish, as a function of the population demographic
structure in an overfished area, a MPA and an adjacent area. The
MPA exports adults (spillover), eggs and larvae.

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The effect of some environmental variation on an unexploited but
protected and exploited but unprotected fish population. Protection
can mitigate the effects of environmental fluctuation.

Shortcomings of existing MPA

1. Usually too small (2-8 km2 when they should be
30-80 km2).
2. Do not include vital habitats (e.g. seabottom)
3. Important related habitats are often not included.
4. Created in rapidly deteriorating areas
5. Limited resources available (staff, institutional,
resources) - paper parks
6. No baseline monitoring done
7. Local communities are not involved

Valid also for protected areas on land.

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 Spatial scale

Different species have home ranges of different sizes so they need

different sized marine reserves. To maintain healthy populations of focal
species, marine reserves should be larger than their home ranges.
Green et al. 2014. Coastal Management

2 1 6 | N AT U R E | VO L 5 0 6 | 1 3 F E B R U A RY 2 0 1 4

The conservation benefits of 87 MPAs investigated worldwide increased

exponentially with the accumulation of five key features:

1. no take zones,
2. well enforced,
3. old (>10 years),
4. large (>100 km2),
5. isolated by deep water or sand.

Global conservation targets based on area alone will not optimize

protection of marine biodiversity

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Case Study: Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary
Facts: During four years (1996-1999) coral cover decreased 38%.
Main stressors:
Atmospheric: African dust
Terrestrial: wastewater, stormwater, marina operations
Oceanic: pollutans and nutrients from Florida Bay, Mississippi River,
Cuba and Carribbean

Proposed solution
Bussiness Plan Approach
“If an MPA management system is not viable then it is not
worth implementing and that is should be restructured or
abandoned.”

MPA managers become providers of goods and

services, instead of protectors or enforcers.

MPA management should become the “business

of conservation”.

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 Finally, some conclusions …

• People seldom notice damage to

marine systems that would be readily
observed on land.

• There is no tradition of managing

marine areas for conservation.

• Even now, most of the ocean lies

outside the jurisdiction of states.

The progress
done so far
might not be
sufficient to
stop the
degradation
of marine
systems!

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