Koya university

Faculty of Science and Health

Biology Department

Report Title : Urinary System

Student Name : Rayan Ali Hussen

Stage :first

Subject : Animal Science

Lecturer Name : Dr.Fakhir Najim

Marking :

Theory :

Practical :

Total Mark:

Date :

(2019-2020)
Contents
Abstraction.............................................................................................................................................................2
THE URINARY SYSTEM............................................................................................................................................2
Urinary System Function........................................................................................................................................3
Filtration, Reabsorption, and Secretion...........................................................................................................3
functions Kidney and urinary system parts............................................................................................................5
Two kidneys........................................................................................................................................................5
Two ureters........................................................................................................................................................5
Bladder...............................................................................................................................................................5
 Two sphincter muscles...............................................................................................................................6
 Nerves in the bladder.................................................................................................................................6
 Urethra.......................................................................................................................................................6
Facts about urine....................................................................................................................................................6
Conclusion..............................................................................................................................................................7
REFRENSES.............................................................................................................................................................8

Practical................................................................................................................................................10
Abstraction..........................................................................................................................................................11
STREPTOCOCCI..............................................................................................................................................11
Group A Streptococcus.....................................................................................................................................12
Culturing techniques.....................................................................................................................................12
Conclusion............................................................................................................................................................16

1
Abstraction

During this report l want to talk about Urinary System and Urinary System
Function and functions Kidney and urinary system parts and Facts about urine

THE URINARY SYSTEM

The urinary system, also known as the renal system, produces, The urinary system produces, stores,
and excretes urine via a filtration mechanism in which potentially harmful molecules are removed from
the body. It also plays a crucial role in water homeostasis, electrolyte and acid-base balance, and red
blood cell production.The human urinary tract is comprised of two kidneys, two ureters, one bladder,
two sphincters, and one urethra.

The urinary system is susceptible to a variety of infections and other problems, including blockages and
injuries. These can be treated by a urologist or another health care professional who specializes in the
renal system.

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Urinary System Function

The main urinary system function is to filter the blood of excess water, salts, and waste products,
temporarily store these within a reservoir, and intermittently expel these products from the body.

Filtration, Reabsorption, and Secretion

Each kidney contains approximately one million nephrons. Nephrons play a crucial role in removing
waste products and adjusting concentrations of water, ions and smaller molecules in the blood. A single
kidney contains enough nephrons to filter the blood and produce urine – for this reason, kidney
transplants can use organs from living donors. When both kidneys are damaged, ions, salts, water, and
small molecules accumulate in the body, causing complete organ failure and death if left untreated. A
kidney cannot generate new nephrons – once they are damaged, they can not be replaced.

A nephron is an entire system within itself with different parts of its structure situated in different areas
of the kidney. The long Loop of Henlé (some nephrons only have a short loop) can be found in the
central region of the kidney – the medulla. Other structures are found in the renal cortex or outer layer.
Nephrons receive a blood supply via an afferent arteriole and return filtered blood back into the
circulation via an efferent arteriole. These are two ends of a long, convoluted group of capillaries which
surrounds the nephron, allowing the diffusion of water, ions, salts, and other molecules. The image
below shows the blood flow into the kidney and nephron (in red), the production and excretion of
urine.

A nephron has three functions: glomerular filtration (of water and solutes within the blood), tubular
reabsorption (the return of water and required molecules to the circulation), and tubular secretion (of
waste or excess molecules – including water) into a distal tube. This secreted fluid is known as urine.
Every minute, approximately 125 ml of blood is filtered by the nephrons of both kidneys. The majority
of filtrate is reabsorbed – meaning in a period of 24 hours, around 180 liters of filtrate are produced but
only 1.5 liters of this is excreted as urine. Filtration occurs within the glomerulus, tubular reabsorption
in the proximal convoluted tubule, and tubular secretion in the distal convoluted tubule. The loop of
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Henlé maintains a concentration gradient so that water and ions are more easily reabsorbed. In the
image below, the achievement of equal concentrations of a solute on either side of a membrane by the
process of diffusion is depicted. Both osmosis and diffusion occur within nephrons. Osmosis is the
movement of water, not solute, through a semi-permeable membrane.llow), and the return of
reabsorbed products and filtered blood into the circulatory system (blue Reabsorbed molecules include
glucose, amino acids, sodium chloride, and water, as well as calcium, potassium, hydrogen and
bicarbonate ions.

Secreted molecules are urea, uric acid, creatinine and hydrogen, and potassium ions. Uric acid is a
product of nitrogenous metabolism, a mechanism that breaks down ingested purine proteins. Urea is a
byproduct of ammonia which is formed in the liver, also from the breakdown of amino acids.
Creatinine phosphate or phosphocreatine is a by-product of cellular energy production when adenosine
triphosphate (ATP) is converted to adenosine diphosphate (ADP). In order to form another ATP
molecule, an extra phosphate molecule is necessary – creatinine phosphate. The liver and kidney
produce creatinine phosphate, and it can also be ingested from meat sources.

Larger molecules such as proteins and glucose are usually unable to pass into the nephron, yet in
kidney diseases and their symptoms such as diabetic nephropathy or nephrotic syndrome, the glomeruli
of the nephrons leak and large molecules and even blood cells can be found in the ultrafiltrate (urine).
For this reason, the protein content of urine is often measured in at-risk patients such as diabetics and
pregnant women. A simple urine test strip will indicate levels of various large cells or molecules within
the urine, including white blood cells, proteins, ketones, and glucose.

4
functions Kidney and urinary system parts
Two kidneys. This pair of purplish-brown organs is located below the ribs toward the middle of
the back. Their function is to:

 Remove waste products and drugs from the body

 Balance the body's fluids

 Release hormones to regulate blood pressure

 Control production of red blood cells

The kidneys remove urea from the blood through tiny filtering units called nephrons. Each nephron
consists of a ball formed of small blood capillaries, called a glomerulus, and a small tube called a renal
tubule. Urea, together with water and other waste substances, forms the urine as it passes through the
nephrons and down the renal tubules of the kidney.

Two ureters. These narrow tubes carry urine from the kidneys to the bladder. Muscles in the ureter
walls continually tighten and relax forcing urine downward, away from the kidneys. If urine backs up,
or is allowed to stand still, a kidney infection can develop. About every 10 to 15 seconds, small
amounts of urine are emptied into the bladder from the ureters.

Bladder. This triangle-shaped, hollow organ is located in the lower abdomen. It is held in place by
ligaments that are attached to other organs and the pelvic bones. The bladder's walls relax and expand
to store urine, and contract and flatten to empty urine through the urethra. The typical healthy adult
bladder can store up to two cups of urine for two to five hours.

Upon examination, specific "landmarks" are used to describe the location of any irregularities in the
bladder. These are:
 Trigone: a triangle-shaped region near the junction of the urethra and the bladder
 Right and left lateral walls: walls on either side of the trigone

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 Posterior wall: back wall
 Dome: roof of the bladder

6
  Two sphincter muscles. These circular muscles help keep urine from leaking by closing
tightly like a rubber band around the opening of the bladder.

 Nerves in the bladder. The nerves alert a person when it is time to urinate, or empty the
bladder.

 Urethra. This tube allows urine to pass outside the body. The brain signals the bladder
muscles to tighten, which squeezes urine out of the bladder. At the same time, the brain signals
the sphincter muscles to relax to let urine exit the bladder through the urethra. When all the
signals occur in the correct order, normal urination occurs.

Facts about urine

• Normal, healthy urine is a pale straw or transparent yellow color.

• Darker yellow or honey colored urine means you need more water.
• A darker, brownish color may indicate a liver problem or severe dehydration.
Pinkish or red urine may mean blood in the urine

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Conclusion

I conclude in this report how the urinary system work and how much organs was share their function to
made this system to complete this function and also I understood the importance of the kidney to
maintain the balance of water and minarals of the body

8
REFRENSES

NOTE-the 8 at the first are for theory and the other for practice …
1. [ CITATION kim18 \l 2057 ] https://www.livescience.com/27012-urinary-system.html

2. [ CITATION Joh14 \l 2057 ] https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/urologic-diseases/urinary-

tract-how-it-works
3. [ CITATION Joh20 \l 2057 ] https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/wellness-and-
prevention/anatomy-of-the-urinary-system
4. [ CITATION BDE20 \l 2057 ] https://biologydictionary.net/urinary-system
5. [ CITATION ADA20 \l 2057 ] https://medlineplus.gov/ency/imagepages/1122.htm
6. [ CITATION Matth \l 2057 ]
7. [ CITATION Cle19 \l 2057 ] https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/articles/21197-urinary-system
8. http://
bcache.googleusercontent.com/search?
q=cache:tDS_A7BEHxMJ:www.lamission.edu/lifesciences/lecturenote/AliPhysio1/Urinary.pdf+
&cd=1&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=iq
9. [ CITATION Pat98 \l 1033 ] https://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?
q=cache:DoRq6CVxFPIJ:https://www.jfmed.uniba.sk/fileadmin/jlf/Pracoviska/ustav-
mikrobiologie-a-imunologie/VLa/STREPTOCOCCI.pdf+&cd=1&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=iq
10. [ CITATION Vie94 \l 1033 ] https://www.etymonline.com/word/streptococcus

11. [ CITATION Ash18 \l 1033 ]https://www.everydayhealth.com/strep-throat/different-types-

streptococcal
12. [ CITATION Bar16 \l 1033 ] https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK343617
13. [ CITATION Gra97 \l 1033 ] ttps://microbewiki.kenyon.edu/index.php/Streptococcus
14. [ CITATION ICG20 \l 1033 ] https://www.groupbstrepinternational.org/what-is-group-b-strep.html/?
url=https://www.groupbstrepinternational.org/what-is-group-b-
strep.html&id=5&gclid=Cj0KCQjwuJz3BRDTARIsAMg-
HxWUTrprt_l9pDIaBk665nvQ7DPyvlckuQc2Rx7rWHkxTlI8ghDvFEAaAiWiEALw_wcB
15. [ CITATION Fre \l 1033 ] https://www.slideshare.net/doctorrao/group-a-streptococcus

9
Koya university
Faculty of Science and Health
Biology Department

Report Title : Streptococcus Bacteria

Student Name : Rayan Ali Hussen

Stage : first
Subject : lab_ animal science
Lecturer Name : Hawkar jaafar ahmad

Marking :
Theory :
Practical :
Total Mark : -20
Date :
(2019_2020)

10
Practical

11
Abstraction

In this report I want to talk about streptococci and streptococcus A and the Culturing techniques and
the type B of the streptococcus …..

STREPTOCOCCI

Streptococcus is a genus of gram-positive coccus or spherical bacteria that belongs to the family
Streptococcaceae, within the order Lactobacillales, in the phylum Firmicutes. Cell division in
streptococci occurs along a single axis, so as they grow, they tend to form pairs or chains that may
appear bent or twisted. 

Scientific name: Streptococcus
Class: Bacilli
Phylum: Firmicutes
Rank: Genus
Order: Lactobacillales
Higher classification: Streptococcaceae

Streptococci are Gram-positive, nonmotile, nonsporeforming, catalase-negative cocci that

occur in pairs or chains. Older cultures may lose their Gram-positive character. Most
streptococci are facultative anaerobes, and some are obligate (strict) anaerobes. Most require
enriched media (blood agar).
Streptococci are subdivided into groups by antibodies that recognize surface antigens (Fig.
11). These groups may include one or more species. Serologic grouping is based on antigenic
differences in cell wall carbohydrates (groups A to V), in cell wall pili-associated protein, and
in the polysaccharide capsule in group B streptococci. Rebecca Lancefield developed the
serologic classification scheme in 1933. β-hemolytic strains possess group-specific cell wall antigens,
most of which are carbohydrates. These antigens can be detected by immunologic assays and have
been useful for the rapid identification of some important streptococcal pathogens. The most
important groupable streptococci are A, B and D. Among the groupable streptococci,
infectious disease (particularly pharyngitis) is caused by group A. Group A streptococci have
a hyaluronic acid capsule. Streptococcus pneumoniae (a major cause of human pneumonia)
and Streptococcus mutans  and other so-called viridans streptococci (among the causes of
dental caries) do not possess group antigen. Streptococcus pneumoniae has a polysaccharide
capsule that acts as a virulence factor for the organism; more than 90 different serotypes are
known, and these types differ in virulence

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Group A Streptococcus

Group A strep, sometimes called GAS, tends to affect the throat and the skin. People may carry GAS in

these areas yet not show any symptoms of illness. Most strep A infections cause relatively mild illness,

but on rare occasions, these bacteria can lead to severe and even life-threatening disease.

Culturing techniques

Streptococci are generally grown on agar media supplemented with blood. This technique allows the
detection of β-hemolysis, which is important for subsequent identification steps, and enhances the
growth of streptococci by the addition of an external source of catalase. Selective media for culturing
Gram-positive bacteria (such as agar media that contains phenylethyl alcohol, or Columbia agar with
colistin and nalidixic acid) also provide adequate culturing conditions for S. pyogenes. Optimal
incubation conditions for the vast majority of streptococcal strains include a temperature range of 35°C
to 37°C in the presence of 5% CO2 or under anaerobic conditions. These conditions are optimized for
culturing streptococcal species that belong to the viridans group, but they may not be ideal for
growing S. pyogenes.
Special procedures have been developed to optimize the identification of S. pyogenes in throat cultures.
When properly performed and interpreted, culturing throat swabs on a 5% sheep blood agar with
trypticase soy base incubated in air remains the gold standard and reference method for the diagnosis
of S. pyogenes acute pharyngitis (Murray, Wold, Schreck, & Washington, 1976; Shulman, et al., 2012).
These conditions represent reliable and well-accepted methods with a sensitivity of 90% or higher, as
shown with studies using duplicate throat cultures (Bisno, 2001; Murray, Wold, Schreck, &
Washington, 1976). In most cases of acute streptococcal pharyngitis, ample growth of typical colonies
can be observed after 24 hours of incubation at 35-37°C. If only a few colonies of S. pyogenes appear
after incubation under these conditions, interpretation becomes more difficult, and these patients are
most likely to be streptococcal carriers, rather than acutely infected individuals (Bisno, 2001).
Differentiation between a carrier and an acutely infected individual could also reflect inadequate
specimen collection, a lack of optimal conditions for incubation, and inaccurate reading of plates. False
negative results with small numbers of organisms most likely occur because of overgrowth of upper
respiratory tract microorganisms that produce toxic materials to mask hemolysis. To increase detection
rates after the initial 18 to 24 hours of incubation, negative cultures should be re-examined after an
additional 24 hours of incubation. For presumptive identification of S. pyogenes, cultures should be
tested for bacitracin susceptibility and PYR activity (as described below). A definitive diagnosis should
include a positive Lancefield group A antigen test. Negative results can be confirmed after a total
culture time of 48 hours.
A number of studies have been performed to enhance S. pyogenes isolation, including analysis of
incubation conditions in anaerobic or CO2 enriched atmospheres, as well as the use of various media
13
selective for β-hemolytic streptococci (Kellogg, 1990; Kurzynski & Meise, 1979; Welch, Hensel,
Pickett, & Johnson, 1991; Milatović, 1981). In view of existing cost limitations and uncertain benefits,
these additional efforts are not generally recommended. Incubation in anaerobic or a CO2-enriched
atmosphere more frequently leads to the isolation of non-S. pyogenes β-hemolytic streptococci (Altun,
Almuhayawi, Ullberg, & Özenci, 2013). To suppress the growth of commensal respiratory microbiota,
including other β-hemolytic streptococci, Streptococcus-selective media may be used, which is highly
sensitive for the isolation of S. pyogenes (Welch, Hensel, Pickett, & Johnson, 1991). Another option is
the addition of a blood agar plate that contains sulfamethoxazole-trimethoprim to inhibit the normal
respiratory microbiota (Kurzynski & Meise, 1979). Details of these study results have been
summarized in several publications (Bisno, Gerber, Gwaltney, Kaplan, & Schwartz, 1997; Kellogg,
1990).
A concern rarely addressed when culturing pharyngeal specimens for S. pyogenes on blood agar plates
is the role of nonhemolytic S. pyogenes isolates. Culture based screening relies on the detection of β-
hemolytic colonies and subsequent identification steps. However, clinical nonhemolytic S.
pyogenes isolates that carry deletions of SLS genes have been published (Yoshino, et al., 2010).
Moreover, nonhemolytic S. pyogenes strains have repeatedly been implicated as causing pharyngitis, as
well as invasive infections (James & McFarland, 1971; Cimolai, Trombley, & Bhanju, 2002; Dierksen
& Tagg, 2000; Jantsch, et al., 2013). Standard throat cultures will not detect these strains and it is
currently unknown if there is a true burden of disease caused by nonhemolytic S. pyogenes strains.

Type A

Streptococcus

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What is Group B Strep?

Group B Streptococcus (GBS), or Streptococcus agalactiae, is a type of bacteria that is naturally found

in the digestive and lower reproductive tracts of both men and women.  (Please note that GBS is also
the acronym for Guillain-Barré syndrome, a rare, autoimmune disorder in which a person’s own
immune system damages the nerves, causing muscle weakness and sometimes paralysis.)

About 1 in 4 pregnant women "carry" or are "colonized" with group B strep (GBS). Carrying GBS
does not mean that you are unclean.  Anyone can carry GBS. GBS is not considered to be a sexually
transmitted disease or infection as it can occur on its own even in someone with no prior sexual
experience. However, bacteria can be passed between sexual partners, including through oral contact.
Unfortunately, babies can be infected by GBS before birth and up to about 6 months of age due to their
underdeveloped immune systems.

There are three types of perinatal GBS disease, each with their own prevention challenges:
 
  Prenatal-onset GBS disease (before birth)

  Early-onset GBS disease (birth through the first 6 days of life)

  Late-onset GBS disease  (7 days of age through usually 3 months of age, but also less commonly up to
6 months of age)

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16
Conclusion

I conclude in this report how many types of the streptococcus was occur and how they culturing at the
lab and also how they look like , and I understand the how they classified and their classification based
of what .

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