SLFT 05201: Food Analysis and Instrumentation

SLFT 05201: FOOD ANALYSIS AND INSTRUMENTATION
Food analysis is the discipline dealing with the development, application and study of analytical
procedures for characterizing the properties of foods and their constituents.
These analytical procedures are used to provide information about a wide variety of different
characteristics of foods, including their composition, structure, physicochemical properties and
sensory attributes.
This information is critical to our rational understanding of the factors that determine the
properties of foods, as well as to our ability to economically produce foods that are consistently
safe, nutritious and desirable and for consumers to make informed choices about their diet.
PROPERTIES ANALYSED
Food analysts are interested in obtaining information about a variety of different characteristics
of foods, including their composition, structure, physicochemical properties and sensory
attributes.
i) Composition
The composition of a food largely determines its safety, nutrition, physicochemical
properties, quality attributes and sensory characteristics.
Most foods are compositionally complex materials made up of a wide variety of

different chemical constituents. Their composition can be specified in a number of
different ways depending on the property that is of interest to the analyst and the type
of analytical procedure used: specific atoms (e.g., Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen,
Nitrogen, Sulfur, Sodium, etc.); specific molecules (e.g., water, sucrose, types of
molecules (e.g., fats, proteins, carbohydrates, fiber, minerals), or specific substances
(e.g., peas, flour, milk, peanuts, butter).
Government regulations state that the concentration of certain food components must
be stipulated on the nutritional label of most food products, and are usually reported
as specific molecules (e.g., vitamin A) or types of molecules (e.g., proteins).
ii) Structure
The structural organization of the components within a food also plays a large role in
determining the physicochemical properties, quality attributes and sensory
characteristics of many foods. Hence two foods that have the same composition can
have very different quality attributes if their constituents are organized differently.
For example, a carton of ice cream taken from a refrigerator has a pleasant
appearance and good taste, but if it is allowed to melt and then is placed back in the
refrigerator its appearance and texture change dramatically and it would not be
acceptable to a consumer. Thus, there has been an adverse influence on its quality,
even though its chemical composition is unchanged, because of an alteration in the
structural organization of the constituents caused by the melting of ice and fat
crystals.
Another familiar example is the change in egg white from a transparent viscous liquid
to an optically opaque gel when it is heated in boiling water for a few minutes. Again
there is no change in the chemical composition of the food, but its physiochemical
properties have changed dramatically because of an alteration in the structural
organization of the constituents caused by protein unfolding.
iii) Physicochemical Properties

The physiochemical properties of foods (rheological, optical, stability, flavor)
ultimately determine their perceived quality, sensory attributes and behavior during
production, storage and consumption.
- The optical properties of foods are determined by the way that

they interact with electromagnetic radiation in the visible region
of the spectrum, e.g., absorption, scattering, transmission and
reflection of light. For example, full fat milk has a whiter
appearance than skim milk because a greater fraction of the light
incident upon the surface of full fat milk is scattered due to the
presence of the fat droplets.
- The rheological properties of foods are determined by the way
That the shape of food changes, or the way that the food flows
in response to some applied force. For example margarine should
be spreadable when it comes out of refrigerator, but it must not be
so soft that it collapses under its own weight when it is left on a
table.
-The stability of a food is a measure of its ability to resist changes in its

properties over time.
These changes may be chemical, physical or biological in origin.
Chemical stability refers to the change in the type of molecules present in a

food with time due to chemical or biochemical reactions, e.g., fat
rancidity or non-enzymatic browning.
Physical stability refers to the change in the spatial distribution of the

molecules present in a food with time due to movement of molecules
from one location to another, e.g., droplet creaming in milk.
Biological stability refers to the change in the number of microorganisms
present in a food with time, e.g., bacterial or fungal growth.
-The flavor of a food is determined by the way that certain molecules in

the food interact with receptors in the mouth (taste) and nose (smell) of
human beings.
The perceived flavor of a food product depends on the type and

concentration of flavor constituents within it, the nature of the food
matrix, as well as how quickly the flavor molecules can move from the
food to the sensors in the mouth and nose. Analytically, the flavor of a
food is often characterized by measuring the concentration, type and
release of flavor molecules within a food or in the headspace above the
food.
Foods must therefore be carefully designed so that they have the required
physicochemical properties over the range of environmental conditions
that they will experience during processing, storage and consumption,
e.g., variations in temperature or mechanical stress. Consequently,
analytical techniques are needed to test foods to ensure that they have the
appropriate physicochemical properties.
iv) Sensory Attributes
Ultimately, the quality and desirability of a food product is

determined by its interaction with the sensory organs of human
beings, e.g., vision, taste, smell, feel and hearing. For this reason
the sensory properties of new or improved foods are usually tested
by human beings to ensure that they have acceptable and desirable
properties before they are launched onto the market. Even so,
individuals' perceptions of sensory attributes are often fairly
subjective, being influenced by such factors as current trends,
nutritional education, climate, age, health, and social, cultural and
religious patterns. To minimize the effects of such factors a
number of procedures have been developed to obtain statistically
relevant information. For example, foods are often tested on
statistically large groups of untrained consumers to determine
their reaction to a new or improved product before full-scale
marketing or further development. Alternatively, selected
individuals may be trained so that they can reliably detect small
differences in specific qualities of particular food products, e.g.,
the mint flavor of a chewing gum.
SELECTING ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES
Some of the criteria that are important in selecting a technique are listed
below:
Precision: A measure of the ability to reproduce an answer between

determinations performed by the same scientist (or group of scientists)
using the same equipment and experimental approach.
Reproducibility: A measure of the ability to reproduce an answer by

scientists using the same experimental approach but in different
laboratories using different equipment.
Accuracy: A measure of how close one can actually measure the true
value of the parameter being measured, e.g., fat content, or sodium
concentration.
Simplicity of operation: A measure of the ease with which relatively

unskilled workers may carry out the analysis.
Cost: The total cost of the analysis, including the reagents,

instrumentation and salary of personnel required to carry it out.
Speed: The time needed to complete the analysis of a single sample or

the number of samples that can be analyzed in a given time.
Sensitivity: A measure of the lowest concentration of a component that

can be detected by a given procedure.
Specificity: A measure of the ability to detect and quantify specific

components within a food material, even in the presence of other similar
components, e.g., fructose in the presence of sucrose or glucose.
Safety: Many reagents and procedures used in food analysis are

potentially hazardous e.g. strong acids or bases, toxic chemicals or
flammable materials.
Destructive/Nondestructive: In some analytical methods the sample is

destroyed during the analysis, whereas in others it remains intact.
On-line/Off-line: Some analytical methods can be used to measure the
properties of a food during processing, whereas others can only be used
after the sample has been taken from the production line.
If there are a number of alternative methods available for measuring a

certain property of a food, the choice of a particular method will depend
on which of the above criteria is most important. For example, accuracy
and use of an official method may be the most important criteria in a
government laboratory which checks the validity of compositional or
nutritional claims on food products, whereas speed and the ability to
make nondestructive measurements may be more important for routine
quality control in a factory where a large number of samples have to be
analyzed rapidly.
LABORATORY INSTRUMENTS
Commonly used laboratory instruments.
Picture Name Use
Compound Uses two lenses to make things

Microscope look larger.
Used to cover specimens on a

Cover Slip
microscope slide.
Used to place specimens on to
Glass Slide
observe under the microscope.
Magnifying Glass or
Uses one lens to make things
Hand Lens or
look larger.
Simple Microscope
An electrical device used to

Hot Plate
heat things up.
Used to measure liquid

Graduated Cylinders
volume. A very accurate tool.
(glass or plastic)
Graduated in mL.
Used to stir, heat (if glass), and
Beaker
measure liquid volume in mL
(glass or plastic)
(rough estimate).
Beaker Tongs Used to handle hot beakers.
Glassware used to heat and

Florence Flask
store substances.
Glassware used to heat and
Erlenmeyer Flask
store substances.
Used to plug a flask or

Rubber Stoppers
testtube for safe keeping.
Used to mix, heat, or store

Test Tube
substances.
Test Tube Rack Used to hold test tubes.
Test Tube Holder Used to hold a hot test tube.
Test Tube Brush Used to clean test tubes.

Aids in pouring liquids into
Funnel small openings without spilling
them.
Used to hold specimens for

Petri Dish observation and to grow
cultures.
Used to measure length in the

Meter Stick Metric System. One meter =
10 dm or 100 cm or 1000 mm.
Used to measure and transfer

Eye Dropper
small amounts of liquids.
Used to measure mass in
Triple Beam Balance
grams.
Used to measure temperature

Thermometer in degrees Celsius or
Fahrenheit.
To be worn when told to do so

Safety Goggles
to protect your eyes.
Used to clamp onto a ring

Ring Clamp
stand to sit a beaker or flask.
Used to clamp onto ring stand

Test Tube Clamp
to hold test tube.
A stand used to support a ring
Ring Stand
clamp or test tube clamp.
SENSORY EVALUATION TEST
Why using sensory evaluation test? Sensory evaluation can be used to:
 Evaluate a range of existing food products;

 Analyse a test kitchen sample for improvements;
 Gauge consumer response to a product;
 Check that a final product meets its original specification.
How To Perform Sensory Evaluation
1. Decide on the type of test you want to perform.
Preference test - asks whether people like or dislike a product, e.g. hedonic scale
Discrimination test - asks people to describe a particular attribute of a product, e.g. paired
comparison test.
2. Find a clear area to hold the sensory test. Try to make sure that it is away from noise
and cooking smells which may distract the people taking part in the test.
3. Place as many samples in serving containers as there are people taking part in the test.
Code each sample with a random number, letter or symbol.
4. Check that you have enough glasses of water for the people taking part.
5. Make sure the people taking part know what is expected from them.
6. Ask each person to taste one sample at a time, and record their responses. Allow time
between samples so that tasters can record their opinions.
TYPES OF TESTS
Preference Tests - these supply information about people's likes and dislikes of a product. They
are not intended to evaluate specific characteristics, such as crunchiness or smoothness. They
are subjective tests and include pair comparison, hedonic and scoring.
Discrimination Tests - these aim to evaluate specific attributes, i.e. characteristics of products
(crunchiness). They are objective tests and include pair comparison, duo trio and triangle.
a.) Hedonic Scale
1. Prepare the food samples.
2. Ask each person to taste each sample in turn and tick a box, from '1 Dislike Very Much' to '5.
Like Very Much' to indicate their preference. Use the word file below to help.
3. The person may also wish to make remarks about the products appearance, taste, odour and
texture.
4. Analyse the results. Which sample received the greatest/lowest scores?

Scoring Tests
1. Samples are scored on a scale, between like and dislike.
2. Allow people to evaluate samples and score (place) in order of preference.
3. Record their responses.
Duo Trio Test
1. Prepare three samples, two of which are the same.
2. Using one of the two identical samples as a control, decide which of the other samples is the
same as the control.
3. Record the tasters responses.
Triangle Test
1. Prepare three samples, two of which are the same.
2. Arrange the samples in a triangle.
3. Decide which of the samples is the odd one out.
4. Record the responses from the tasters.
Ranking
1. Decide on the attribute to be ranked, e.g. crunchiness.
2. Allow people to evaluate samples and place them in rank order.
3. Record the responses.

Star Diagram/Star Chart
This type of test allows a single food products, or range of food products, intensity of its sensory
attributes to be recorded. They are NOT intended to model general attributes such as 'nutrition',
'cost' or 'appearance', as they are more complex are better dealt with in other ways.
The test can be used to:
 evaluate differences in similar products;

 gauge consumer response;
 analyse specific attributes, e.g. shortness;
 check that a food product meets its original specification;
 compare similarities in a range of products
show new opportunities for product development.
How to Model Sensory Attributes
1. Choose a range of attributes that describe the characteristics of the product, e.g. crunchy, spicy
or smooth.
2. Decide on the intensity of each attribute, using a scale from 0 to 10 (the higher the number the
greater the intensity).
3. Use the information to product a star diagram/chart of the product's attribute
Paired Comparison Test
Paired Comparison Test (Preference)
1. Prepare two samples of the food product you wish to test.

2. Ask each taster which product they prefer.
3. Record the response from the tasters.
GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY
Gas chromatography - specifically gas-liquid chromatography - involves a sample being

vapourised and injected onto the head of the chromatographic column. The sample is transported
through the column by the flow of inert, gaseous mobile phase. The column itself contains a
liquid stationary phase which is adsorbed onto the surface of an inert solid.
Have a look at this schematic diagram of a gas chromatograph:
Gas Chromatography (GC or GLC) is a commonly used analytic technique in many research and
industrial laboratories for quality control as well as identification and quantitation of compounds
in a mixture. GC is also a frequently used technique in many environmental and forensic
laboratories because it allows for the detection of very small quantities. A broad variety of
samples can be analyzed as long as the compounds are sufficiently thermally stable and
reasonably volatile.
How does gas chromatography work?
Like for all other chromatographic techniques, a mobile and a stationary phase are required for
this technique. The mobile phase (=carrier gas) is comprised of an inert gas i.e., helium, argon, or
nitrogen. The stationary phase consists of a packed column in which the packing or solid support
itself acts as stationary phase, or is coated with the liquid stationary phase (=high boiling
polymer). Most analytical gas chromatographs use capillary columns, where the stationary phase
coats the walls of a small-diameter tube directly (i.e., 0.25 μm film in a 0.32 mm tube).
The separation of compounds is based on the different strengths of interaction of the

compounds with the stationary phase (“like-dissolves-like”-rule). The stronger the
interaction is, the longer the compound interacts with the stationary phase, and the more
time it takes to migrate through the column (=longer retention time).
A gas chromatograph is a chemical analysis instrument for separating chemicals in a complex

sample.
A gas chromatograph uses a flow-through narrow tube known as the column, through which
different chemical constituents of a sample pass in a gas stream (carrier gas, mobile phase) at
different rates depending on their various chemical and physical properties and their interaction
with a specific column filling, called the stationary phase.
As the chemicals exit the end of the column, they are detected and identified electronically. The
function of the stationary phase in the column is to separate different components, causing
each one to exit the column at a different time (retention time). Other parameters that can be
used to alter the order or time of retention are the carrier gas flow rate, column length and the
temperature.
In a GC analysis, a known volume of gaseous or liquid analyte is injected into the "entrance"
(head) of the column, usually using a microsyringe (or, solid phase microextraction fibers, or a
gas source switching system).
As the carrier gas sweeps the analyte molecules through the column, this motion is inhibited by
the adsorption of the analyte molecules either onto the column walls or onto packing materials in
the column.
The rate at which the molecules progress along the column depends on the strength of
adsorption, which in turn depends on the type of molecule on the stationary phase materials.
Since each type of molecule has a different rate of progression, the various components of the
analyte mixture are separated as they progress along the column and reach the end of the column
at different times (retention time).
A detector is used to monitor the outlet stream from the column; thus, the time at which each
component reaches the outlet and the amount of that component can be determined. Generally,
substances are identified (qualitatively) by the order in which they emerge (elute) from the
column and by the retention time of the analyte in the column.
Carrier gas
The carrier gas must be chemically inert. Commonly used gases include nitrogen, helium, argon,
and carbon dioxide. The choice of carrier gas is often dependent upon the type of detector which
is used. The carrier gas system also contains a molecular sieve to remove water and other
impurities.
Which factors influence the separation of the components?
1. Vapor pressure
The boiling point of a compound is often related to its polarity. The lower the boiling point is,
the higher the vapor pressure of the compound and the shorter retention time usually is
because the compound will spent more time in the gas phase. That is one of the main reasons
why low boiling solvents (i.e., diethyl ether, dichloromethane) are used as solvents to dissolve
the sample.
The temperature of the column does not have to be above the boiling point because every
compound has a non-zero vapor pressure at any given temperature, even solids. That is the
reason why we can smell compounds like camphor (0.065 mmHg/25 oC), isoborneol (0.0035
mmHg/25 oC), naphthalene (0.084 mmHg/25 oC), etc. However, their vapor pressures are low
compared to liquids (i.e., water (24 mmHg/25 oC), ethyl acetate (95 mmHg/25 oC), diethyl ether
(520 mmHg/25 oC)).
2. The polarity of components versus the polarity of stationary phase on column
If the polarity of the stationary phase and compound are similar, the retention time
increases because the compound interacts stronger with the stationary phase.
As a result, polar compounds have long retention times on polar stationary phases and
shorter retention times on non-polar columns using the same temperature.
Chiral stationary phases that are based on amino acid derivatives, cyclodextrins and chiral silanes
are capable of separating enantiomers because one enantiomer interacts slightly stronger than the
other one with the stationary phase, often due to steric effects or other very specific interactions.
For instance, a modified -cyclodextrin column is used in the determination of the enantiomeric
excess in the chiral epoxidation experiment (Chem 30CL).
3. Column temperature
A excessively high column temperature results in very short retention time but also in a very
poor separation because all components mainly stay in the gas phase.
However, in order for the separation to occur the components need to be able to interact with the
stationary phase. If the compound does not interact with the stationary phase, the retention time
will decrease. At the same time, the quality of the separation deteriorates, because the
differences in retention times are not as pronounced anymore. The best separations are
usually observed for temperature gradients, because the differences in polarity and in boiling
points are used here.
4. Carrier gas flow rate
A high flow rate reduces retention times, but a poor separation would be observed as well. Like
above, the components have very little time to interact with the stationary phase and are just
being pushed through the column.
5. Column length
A longer column generally improves the separation. The trade-off is that the retention time
increases proportionally to the column length and a significant peak broadening will be
observed as well because of increased longitudinal diffusion inside the column. One has to
keep in mind that the gas molecules are not only traveling in one direction but also sideways and
backwards. This broadening is inversely proportional to the flow rate. Broadening is also
observed because of the finite rate of mass transfer between the phases and because the
molecules are taking different paths through the column.
6. Amount of material injected
Ideally, the peaks in the chromatogram display a symmetric shape (Gaussian curve). If too much
of the sample is injected, the peaks show a significant tailing, which causes a poorer separation.
Most detectors are relatively sensitive and do not need a lot of material in order to produce a
detectable signal. Strictly speaking, under standard conditions only 1-2 % of the compound
injected into the injection port passes through the column because most GC instruments are
operated in split-mode to prevent overloading of the column and the detector. The splitless mode
will only be used if the sample is extremely low in concentration in terms of the analyte.
Conclusion
High temperatures and high flow rates decrease the retention time, but also deteriorate the
quality of the separation.
Detectors
There are many detectors which can be used in gas chromatography. Different detectors will give
different types of selectivity. A non-selective detector responds to all compounds except the
carrier gas, a selective detector responds to a range of compounds with a common physical
or chemical property and a specific detector responds to a single chemical compound.
Detectors can also be grouped into concentration dependant detectors and mass flow dependant
detectors. The signal from a concentration dependant detector is related to the concentration of
solute in the detector, and does not usually destroy the sample Dilution of with make-up gas will
lower the detectors response.
Mass flow dependant detectors usually destroy the sample, and the signal is related to the rate at
which solute molecules enter the detector. The response of a mass flow dependant detector is
unaffected by make-up gas.
Have a look at this tabular summary of common GC detectors:
Support Dynamic
Detector Type of flow Selectivity Detectability
gases range
Flame
Hydrogen
ionization Mass flow Most organic compounds. 100 pg 107
and air
(FID)
Thermal
conductivity Concentration Reference Universal 1 ng 107
(TCD)
Electron Concentration Make-up Halides, nitrates, nitriles, 50 fg 105
capture (ECD) peroxides, anhydrides,
organometallics
Nitrogen- Hydrogen
Mass flow Nitrogen, phosphorus 10 pg 106
phosphorus and air
Hydrogen Sulphur, phosphorus, tin,
Flame
and air boron, arsenic,
photometric Mass flow 100 pg 103
possibly germanium, selenium,
(FPD)
oxygen chromium
Aliphatics, aromatics,
Photo- ketones, esters, aldehydes,
ionization Concentration Make-up amines, heterocyclics, 2 pg 107
(PID) organosulphurs, some
organometallics
Hall
Hydrogen, Halide, nitrogen,
electrolytic Mass flow
oxygen nitrosamine, sulphur
conductivity
HACCP
Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point system(HACCP) is a process control system that
identifies where hazards might occur in the food production process and puts into place stringent
actions to take to prevent the hazards from occurring. By strictly monitoring and controlling each
step of the process, there is less chance for hazards to occur.
A HACCP System requires that potential hazards are identified and controlled at specific
points in the process. This includes biological, chemical or physical hazards. Any
company involved in the manufacturing, processing or handling of food products can use
HACCP to minimize or eliminate food safety hazards in their product.
Why is HACCP Important?

HACCP is important because it prioritizes and controls potential hazards in food
production. By controlling major food risks, such as microbiological, chemical and
physical contaminants, the industry can better assure consumers that its products are as
safe as good science and technology allows. By reducing food borne hazards, public
health protection is strengthened.
What are the Major Food Hazards?

While many public opinion studies report that consumers are concerned primarily about
chemical residues, such as from pesticides and antibiotics, these hazards are nearly non-
existent. The more significant hazards facing the food industry today are microbiological
contaminants, such as Salmonella, E. coli O157:H7, Listeria, Campylobacter, and
Clostridium botulinum. HACCP is designed to focus on and control the most significant
hazards.
Building a HACCP System
Implementing a HACCP System requires that both Prerequisite Programs and HACCP Plans are
implemented.
Prerequisite programs are programs that are put in place in the facility to control hazards in the
environment, preventing contamination of the product. Prerequisite programs ensure a hygienic
environment, and good manufacturing processes for personnel that reduce the risk of
contamination of the food product.
HACCP Plans are prepared for each process or product, and identify possible hazards and
controls in place to make sure the hazards are eliminated or controlled to ensure acceptable
levels in the food product.
Benefits of HACCP
The primary purpose of a HACCP system is to protect people from food borne illness, but the
benefits of the system also extend to the company.
 Increased confidence in your products

 Ability to reach markets and customers that require a HACCP based system
 Reduced Liability
 Effective process management
 Improved quality and consistency
HACCP is based on seven principles:
1. Conduct a Hazard Analysis

This is where you evaluate your processes and identify where hazards can be introduced.
Hazards can be physical (i.e. metal contamination), chemical (i.e. can a cleaning product
contaminate the product, are there toxins that could contaminate the product?) or
biological (at what points could bacteria or virus contaminate your product?). You will
need to make sure that you have the expertise to make an accurate evaluation of the
hazards. This means that if you do not have sufficient expertise in your organization you
will need to identify external resources that you can use to perform the hazard analysis.
The hazard identification is done in two steps, first the identification of hazards, then an
evaluation of the hazard. The hazard evaluation is a determination of the degree of risk to
the user from the identified hazard. Once the hazard is identified and evaluated the team
must identify critical control points. These are points where the hazard must be controlled
or it will present a risk to the end user.
2. Identify the Critical Control Points
At what steps in your process can controls be applied to prevent or eliminate the hazards
that have been identified? These are your critical control points. For each critical control
point you will identify the preventive measure. How will you prevent the hazard?: Use of
specific Temperature, ph, time, procedures?
3. Establish a maximum or minimum limit for temperature, time, pH, salt level, chlorine
level or other processing characteristic that will control the hazard. This is the critical
limit for the CCP. If this limit is ever exceeded corrective action must be taken, and all
affected product controlled.
4. Establish Critical Limits
Your next step is to establish criteria for each critical control point. What criteria must be
met to control the hazard at that point? Is it a minimum temperature? Are there regulatory
limits that you must meet for this control point?
5. Establish Monitoring Procedures
What will you measure and how will you measure it? You need to monitor the process at
the critical control point and keep records to show that the critical limits have been met.
Can you do continuous monitoring of the control point? If not, how often will the
measurements need to be performed to show that the process is under control?
The monitoring that takes place at the critical control points is essential to the
effectiveness of the HACCP program. The monitoring program will be made up of
physical measurement or observations that can be done in a timely manner, to provide the
information in a time frame that allows you to take action and control product if an out of
control situation occurs.
6. Establish Corrective Actions
You will establish what actions need to be taken if a critical limit is not met. This will be
identified ahead of time for each CCP. The action must make sure that no unsafe product
is released. There must also be an evaluation of the process to determine the cause of the
problem and an elimination of the cause.
The action or actions taken have two purposes, to control any nonconforming product
resulting from the loss of control, and to identify the cause, eliminate it and prevent the
situation from reoccurring. By identifying the corrective action before an out of control
situation occurs, you are prepared to take action quickly if and when it does occur.
7. Establish Record Keeping Procedures
You will determine what records are needed to show that the critical limits have been
met, and the system is in control. Address regulatory requirements and include records
from the development of the system and the operation of the system.
8. Establish Verification Procedures
The HACCP plan must be validated. Once the plan is in place, make sure it is effective in
preventing the hazards identified. Test the end product, verify that the controls are
working as planned. Perform ongoing verification of the system. Are measuring and
monitoring equipment in control? What are corrective actions showing? Are records
being maintained as required?
IN SUMMARY
How Does HACCP Work in Food Production?
There are seven principles, developed by the National Advisory Committee on Microbiological
Criteria for Foods, that serve as the foundation for a HACCP system. They are:
1. Conduct a hazard analysis to identify potential hazards that could occur in the food
production process.
2. Identify the critical control points (CCPs) -- those points in the process where the potential
hazards could occur and can be prevented and/or controlled.
3. Establish critical limits for preventive measures associated with each CCP. A critical limit is
a criterion that must be met for each CCP. Where appropriate, critical limits may reflect relevant
regulations and tolerances.
4. Establish CCP monitoring requirements (Establish a system to monitor control of the

CCP)- to ensure each CCP stays within its limit. Monitoring may require materials or devices to
measure or otherwise evaluate the process at CCPs.
5. Establish corrective actions if monitoring determines a CCP is not within the established
limits. In case a problem occurs, corrective actions must be in place to ensure no public health
hazard occurs.
6. Establish procedures for verifying that the HACCP system is working properly. Verification
procedures may include reviewing the HACCP plan, CCP records, critical limits as well as
conducting microbial sampling. Both plant personnel and FSIS inspectors will conduct
verification activities.
7. Establish effective record keeping procedures that document the HACCP system is working
properly. Records should document CCP monitoring, verification activities and deviation
records. Establish documentation concerning all procedures and records appropriate to these
principles and their application.
How Would HACCP Be Applied From Farm to Table?

For the most successful implementation of HACCP, it should be applied from farm to table --
starting on the farm and ending with the individual preparing the food, whether in a restaurant or
home. On the farm, there are actions that can be taken to prevent contamination from occurring,
such as monitoring feed, maintaining farm sanitation, and practicing good animal health
management practices.
In the plant, contamination must be prevented during slaughter and processing. Once meat and
poultry products leave the plant, there should be controls in place during transportation, storage
and distribution.
In retail stores, proper sanitation, refrigeration, storage and handling practices will prevent
contamination. Finally, in restaurants, food service and homes, food handlers must store, handle
and cook foods properly to ensure food safety.
How Can Consumers Use HACCP?

Consumers can implement HACCP-like practices in the home by following proper storage,
handling, cooking and cleaning procedures. From the time a consumer purchases meat or poultry
from the grocery store to the time they cook and serve a meal, there are many steps to take to
ensure food safety. Examples include properly refrigerating meat and poultry, keeping raw meat
and poultry separate form cooked and ready-to-eat foods, thoroughly cooking meat and poultry,
and refrigerating and cooking leftovers to prevent bacterial growth.
HIGH PERFORMANCE LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY (HPLC)
High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC; formerly referred to as high-pressure

liquid chromatography), is a technique in analytical chemistry used to separate, identify, and
quantify each component in a mixture.
It relies on pumps to pass a pressurized liquid solvent containing the sample mixture through a
column filled with a solid adsorbent material. Each component in the sample interacts slightly
differently with the adsorbent material, causing different flow rates for the different components
and leading to the separation of the components as they flow out the column.
High-Performance Liquid Chromatography [HPLC] System
HOW DOES IT WORK?
The components of a basic high-performance liquid chromatography [HPLC] system are shown
in the simple diagram above.
1. A reservoir holds the solvent [called the mobile phase, because it moves].
2. A high-pressure pump [solvent delivery system or solvent manager] is used to

generate and measure a specified flow rate of mobile phase, typically milliliters
per minute.
3. An injector [sample manager or auto sampler] is able to introduce [inject] the
sample into the continuously flowing mobile phase stream that carries the sample
into the HPLC column.
4. The column contains the chromatographic packing material needed to effect the
separation. This packing material is called the stationary phase because it is held
in place by the column hardware.
5. A detector is needed to see the separated compound bands as they elute from the
HPLC column [most compounds have no color, so we cannot see them with our
eyes]. The mobile phase exits the detector and can be sent to waste, or collected,
as desired. When the mobile phase contains a separated compound band, HPLC
provides the ability to collect this fraction of the eluate containing that purified
compound for further study. This is called preparative chromatography.
The detector is wired to the computer data station, the HPLC system component that records the
electrical signal needed to generate the chromatogram on its display and to identify and
quantitate the concentration of the sample constituents (see Figure below).
Since sample compound characteristics can be very different, several types of detectors have
been developed. For example, if a compound can absorb ultraviolet light, a UV-absorbance
detector is used. If the compound fluoresces, a fluorescence detector is used. If the compound
does not have either of these characteristics, a more universal type of detector is used, such as an
evaporative-light-scattering detector [ELSD]. The most powerful approach is the use multiple
detectors in series. For example, a UV and/or ELSD detector may be used in combination with a
mass spectrometer [MS] to analyze the results of the chromatographic separation. This provides,
from a single injection, more comprehensive information about an analyte. The practice of
coupling a mass spectrometer to an HPLC system is called LC/MS.
Typical HPLC [Waters Alliance] System

A simple way to understand how we achieve the separation of the compounds contained in a
sample is to view the diagram in Figure below:
Understanding How a Chromatographic Column Works – Bands
Mobile phase enters the column from the left, passes through the particle bed, and exits at the
right. Flow direction is represented by green arrows. First, consider the top image; it represents
the column at time zero [the moment of injection], when the sample enters the column and
begins to form a band. The sample shown here, a mixture of yellow, red, and blue dyes, appears
at the inlet of the column as a single black band. [In reality, this sample could be anything that
can be dissolved in a solvent; typically the compounds would be colorless and the column wall
opaque, so we would need a detector to see the separated compounds as they elute.]
After a few minutes [lower image], during which mobile phase flows continuously and steadily
past the packing material particles, we can see that the individual dyes have moved in separate
bands at different speeds. This is because there is a competition between the mobile phase and
the stationary phase for attracting each of the dyes or analytes. Notice that the yellow dye band
moves the fastest and is about to exit the column. The yellow dye likes [is attracted to] the
mobile phase more than the other dyes. Therefore, it moves at a faster speed, closer to that of the
mobile phase. The blue dye band likes the packing material more than the mobile phase. Its
stronger attraction to the particles causes it to move significantly slower. In other words, it is the
most retained compound in this sample mixture. The red dye band has an intermediate attraction
for the mobile phase and therefore moves at an intermediate speed through the column. Since
each dye band moves at different speed, we are able to separate it chromatographically.
What Is a Chromatogram?
A chromatogram is a representation of the separation that has chemically [chromatographically]
occurred in the HPLC system. A series of peaks rising from a baseline is drawn on a time axis.
Each peak represents the detector response for a different compound. The chromatogram is
plotted by the computer data station [see Figure].
How Peaks are created
In Figure above, the yellow band has completely passed through the detector flow cell; the
electrical signal generated has been sent to the computer data station. The resulting
chromatogram has begun to appear on screen. Note that the chromatogram begins when the
sample was first injected and starts as a straight line set near the bottom of the screen. This is
called the baseline; it represents pure mobile phase passing through the flow cell over time. As
the yellow analyte band passes through the flow cell, a stronger signal is sent to the computer.
The line curves, first upward, and then downward, in proportion to the concentration of the
yellow dye in the sample band. This creates a peak in the chromatogram. After the yellow band
passes completely out of the detector cell, the signal level returns to the baseline; the flow cell
now has, once again, only pure mobile phase in it. Since the yellow band moves fastest, eluting
first from the column, it is the first peak drawn.
A little while later, the red band reaches the flow cell. The signal rises up from the baseline as
the red band first enters the cell, and the peak representing the red band begins to be drawn. In
this diagram, the red band has not fully passed through the flow cell. The diagram shows what
the red band and red peak would look like if we stopped the process at this moment. Since most
of the red band has passed through the cell, most of the peak has been drawn, as shown by the
solid line. If we could restart, the red band would completely pass through the flow cell and the
red peak would be completed [dotted line]. The blue band, the most strongly retained, travels at
the slowest rate and elutes after the red band. The dotted line shows you how the completed
chromatogram would appear if we had let the run continue to its conclusion. It is interesting to
note that the width of the blue peak will be the broadest because the width of the blue analyte
band, while narrowest on the column, becomes the widest as it elutes from the column. This is
because it moves more slowly through the chromatographic packing material bed and requires
more time [and mobile phase volume] to be eluted completely. Since mobile phase is
continuously flowing at a fixed rate, this means that the blue band widens and is more dilute.
Since the detector responds in proportion to the concentration of the band, the blue peak is lower
in height, but larger in width.
4. Problems with the Chromatogram
Many problems in an LC system show up as changes in the chromatogram. Some of these can be
solved by changes in the equipment; however, others require modification of the assay
procedure. Selecting the proper column type and mobile phase are keys to "good
chromatography."
A. Peak Tailing
Possible Cause Solution
1. Blocked frit 1. a. Reverse flush column (if allowed)
b. Replace inlet frit
c. Replace column
2. Column void 2. Fill void
3. Interfering peak 3. a. Use longer column
b. Change mobile-phase and/or column/
selectivity
4. Wrong mobile-phase pH 4. a. Adjust pH
b. For basic compounds, a lower pH
usually provides more symmetric peaks
5. Sample reacting with active sites 5. a. Add ion pair reagent or volatile basic
modifier
b. Change column
B. Peak Fronting
1. Low temperature 1. Increase column temperature
2. Wrong sample solvent 2. Use mobile phase for injection solvent
3. Sample overload 3. Decrease sample concentration
4. Bad column 4. Use a proper column
C. Split Peaks
1. Contamination on guard or 1. a. Remove guard column and attempt
analytical column inlet analysis

b. Replace guard if necessary

c. If analytical column is obstructed,
reverse and flush
d. If problem persists, column may be
fouled with strongly retained
contaminants
e. Use appropriate restoration procedure
f. If problem persists, inlet is probably
plugged
g. Change frit or replace column
2. Sample solvent incompatible with 2. Change solvent; whenever possible,
mobile phase inject samples in mobile phase
D. Distortion of Larger Peaks

1. Sample overload 1. Reduce sample size
E. Distortion of Early Peaks

1. Wrong injection solvent 1. a. Reduce injection volume
b. Use weaker injection solvent

F. Tailing, Early Peaks More Than Later Ones
1. Extra-column effects 1. a. Replumb system (shorter, narrower
tubing)
b. Use smaller volume detector cell
Acidic or Basic Peaks Tail

1. Inadequate buffering 1. a. Use 50–100 mm buffer concentration
b. Use buffer with pKa equal to pH of
mobile phase
I. Extra Peaks
1. Other components in sample 1. Normal
2. Late-eluting peak from previous 2. a. Increase run time or gradient slope
injection b. Increase flow rate
3. Vacancy or ghost peaks 3. a. Check purity of mobile phase
b. Use mobile phase as injection solvent
c. Reduce injection volume

J. Retention Time Drifts

1. Poor temperature control 1. Thermostat column
2. Mobile phase changing 2. Prevent change (evaporation, reaction,
etc.)
3. Poor column equilibration 3. Allow more time for column equili-
bration between runs
K. Abrupt Retention Time Changes

1. Flow rate change 1. Reset flow rate
2. Air bubble in pump 2. Bleed air from pump
3. Improper mobile phase 3. a. Replace with proper mobile phase
b. Set proper mobile phase mixture on
controller
L. Baseline Drift
1. Column temperature fluctuation 1. a. Control column and mobile phase
(even small changes cause cyclic temperature

baseline rise and fall; most b. Use heat exchanger before detector
often affects refractive index
and conductivity detectors, or
UV detectors at high sensitivity
or in direct photometric mode)
2. Nonhomogeneous mobile phase 2. a. Use HPLC-grade solvents, high-purity
(drift usually to higher salts, and additives
absorbance, rather than cyclic b. Degas mobile phase before use
pattern from temperature c. Sparge with helium during use
fluctuation)
3. Contaminant or air buildup in 3. a. Flush cell with methanol or other
detector cell strong solvent
b. If necessary, clean cell with 1 n
HNO3 (never with HCl)
4. Plugged outlet line after detector 4. a. Unplug or replace line
(high-pressure cracks cell b. Refer to detector manual to replace
window, producing noisy baseline) window
5. Mobile-phase mixing problem or 5. a. Correct composition/flow rate
change in flow rate b. To avoid, routinely monitor
composition and flow rate
6. Slow column equilibration, 6. a. Flush with intermediate strength
especially when changing solvent

mobile phase b. Run 10–20 column volumes of new
mobile phase before analysis
7. Mobile phase contaminated, 7. a. Check make-up of mobile phase
deteriorated, or prepared from b. Use highest grade chemicals and HPLC
low-quality materials solvents
8. Strongly retained materials in 8. a. Use guard column
sample (high k) can elute as very b. If necessary, flush column with strong
broad peaks and appear to be solvent between injections or periodi-
a problem ically during analysis
9. Mobile phase recycled but 9. a. Reset baseline
detector not adjusted b. Use new mobile phase when dynamic
range of detector is exceeded
10. Detector (UV) not set at 10. Change wavelength to UV absorbance
absorbance maximum but at slope maximum
of curve
M. Baseline Noise (Regular)
1. Air in mobile phase, detector cell, 1. a. Degas mobile phase
or pump b. Flush system to remove air from
detector cell or pump
2. Leak 2. a. See Section 3
b. Check system for loose fittings

c. Check pump for leaks, salt build-up,
unusual noises
d. Change pump seals if necessary
3. Incomplete mobile phase mixing 3. Mix mobile phase by hand or use less
viscous solvent
4. Temperature effect (column at 4. Reduce differential or add head
high temperature, detector exchanger
unheated)
5. Other electronic equipment on 5. Isolate LC, detector, or recorder to
same line determine if source of problem is
external; correct as necessary
6. Pump pulsations 6. Incorporate pulse dampener into system
N. Baseline Noise (Irregular)

1. Leak 1. a. See Section 3
b. Check for loose fittings


unusual noises
d. Change seals if necessary
e. Check for detector cell leak
2. Mobile phase contaminated, 2. Check make-up of mobile phase
deteriorated, or prepared
from low-quality materials
3. Mobile phase solvents immiscible 3. Select and use only miscible solvents
4. Detector/recorder electronics 4. a. Isolate detector and recorder
electronically
b. Refer to instruction manual to correct
problem
5. Air trapped in system 5. Flush system with strong solvent
6. Air bubbles in detector 6. a. Purge detector
b. Install back-pressure device after
detector
7. Detector cell contaminated (even 7. Clean cell by flushing with 1 n HNO3
small amounts of contaminants (never with HCl)
can cause noise)
8. Weak detector lamp 8. Replace lamp
9. Column leaking silica or packing 9. Replace column
material
10. Mobile phase mixer inadequate or 10. Repair or replace the mixer or mix off-
malfunctioning line if isocratic
O. Broad Peaks
1. Mobile-phase composition changed 1. Prepare new mobile phase
2. Mobile-phase flow rate too low 2. Adjust flow rate
3. Leaks (especially between column 3. a. See Section 3
and detector) b. Check for loose fittings
and unusual noises
d. Change seals if necessary
4. Detector settings incorrect 4. Adjust settings
5. Extra-column effects: 5. a. Inject smaller column (e.g., 10 µl vs.
a. Column overloaded 100 µl) or 1:10 and 1:100 dilutions of
b. Detector response time or cell sample
volume too large b. Reduce response time or use smaller
cell
c. Tubing between column and c. Use as short a piece of 0.007–0.010-
detector too long or ID inch ID tubing as practical
too large
d. Recorder response time too d. Reduce response time

high
6. Buffer concentration too low 6. Increase concentration
7. Guard column contaminated/worn 7. Replace guard column
out
8. Column contaminated/worn out; 8. a. Replace column with new one of same
low plate number type
b. If new column provides symmetrical
peaks, flush old column with strong
solvent
9. Void at column inlet 9. Open inlet end and fill void or replace
column
10. Peak represents two or more 10. Change column type to improve
poorly resolved compounds separation
11. Column temperature too low 11. Increase temperature; do not exceed
75°C unless higher temperatures
are acceptable to column
manufacturer
12. Detector time constant too large 12. Use smaller time constant
P. Loss of Resolution
1. Mobile phase contaminated/ 1. Prepare new mobile phase
deteriorated (causing
retention time to change)
2. Obstructed guard or analytical 2. a. Remove guard column and attempt
column analysis
b. Replace guard if necessary

c. If analytical column is obstructed,
reverse and flush; if problem
persists, column may be fouled
with strongly retained contaminants
d. Use appropriate restoration procedure;
if problem persists, inlet is probably
plugged
e. Change frit or replace column
Q. All Peaks Too Small
1. Detector attentuation too high 1. Reduce attenuation
2. Detector time constant too large 2. Use smaller time constant
3. Injection size too small 3. Use larger sample loop
4. Improper recorder connection 4. Use correct connection
R. All Peaks Too large

1. Detector attenuation too low 1. Use larger attenuation
2. Injection size too large 2. Use smaller sample loop
3. Improper recorder connection 3. Use correct connection
APPLICATION OF SKILLS OF PROFESSIONAL ETHICS TO PROMOTE THE PRODUCTION AND

PROFIT GENERATION
(Methods of maximizing profit in a food industry under consideration of ethics)
Product Differentiation
Companies that can differentiate themselves by providing top-quality products or services

often are able to command higher prices in the market. While price alone does not guarantee
profit, it does give companies the opportunity to maximize profit. All else being equal, the
higher the price that companies charge for their products' or services' superior quality, the
more profit companies can expect. The differentiation strategy works only if companies have a
target market in which customers are less price-sensitive, but more quality-conscious than
customers of other markets.
Low-Price Strategy
Customers in the market are not homogeneous. When customers look for products or services
with basic functions at competitive prices, companies catering to these customers may adopt
the low-price strategy. When the demand for a product or service is highly elastic, the lower the
price, the stronger the demand will be. While companies are expected to earn less revenue per
unit at a lower price, the much increased sales volume will lead to more total profit. The ability
to have mass production and expanded distribution is the key to the success of a low-price
strategy.
Control Cost
Companies can suffer losses at times not because of lacking sales revenue, but from cost
overruns. Controlling cost is a major step toward minimizing loss. When companies can operate
at a consistent low-cost level, they will be in a better position to absorb any price decline or
market downturn and stay profitable. The lower the cost, the larger the profit margin. If the
cost rises to a level that results in a thin profit margin, companies become vulnerable to any
price shock or sales deterioration and can sustain significant losses.
Maintain Market Share
Companies that experience anemic sales are unlikely to achieve profitability. While revenue
from each unit of sale may be enough to replace unit variable cost and earn some unit profit,
companies rely on the accumulation of unit profit from multiple units of sales to fully cover
fixed costs and break even. Without sufficient sales volume to maintain a necessary level of
market share, companies may not be able to cover all the fixed and overhead costs. To
minimize loss, companies must aim to achieve the break-even sales volume by maintaining a
satisfactory level of market share.
New Product Development
Product development involves either improving an existing product or its presentation, or

developing a new product to target a particular market segment or segments.
Consistent product development is a necessity for companies striving to keep up with changes
and trends in the marketplace to ensure their future profitability and success. A competitive
product development strategy should include a company-wide commitment to creating items
that fulfill particular consumer needs or characteristics. These characteristics might include consumers'
desire for the following: products that are high-quality or low-cost; products that provide the consumer
with speed or flexibility; or products that offer some other form of differentiation that posits them a
desirable purchase.
An eight step new product development process consists of new product strategy, idea generation,
screening, concept testing, business analysis, product development, market testing and
commercialization. New products pass through each stage at varying speeds.
New product strategy:
Senior management should provide vision and priorities for new product development. It should
give guidelines about which product or market the company is interested in serving. It has to
provide a focus for the areas in which idea generation should take place.
By outlining their objectives, for instance, market share, profitability, or technological leadership
for new products, the senior management can provide indicators for screening criteria that should
be used to evaluate these ideas.
A development team is likely to achieve better results if it concentrates its resources on a few
projects instead of taking shots at anything that might work. Since the outcome of new product
development process is unpredictable, a company might believe that it is taking a risk by
working on only a few new ideas.
However unpredictable the new product development process may be, chances of success will
definitely improve if the team knows precisely what it wants to achieve from the process, puts its
best people in the project, and has enough resources to commit to the project.
Idea generation:
Sources of new product ideas can be internal to the company. Scientists, engineers, marketers,
salespeople, designers can be rich sources of new ideas.
Companies use brainstorming to stimulate creation of ideas and financial incentives to persuade
people to put forward ideas they have. Though anyone can come up with a brilliant idea, a
company can work systematically to generate great ideas. A company can follow the following
practices:
i. A company can look outside markets that are currently being served. It may not be
manufacturing the precise product which the new market requires, but it may realize that it has
the competence and the technology to serve the needs of the new market.
When a company scrutinizes its core competences, it may discover that its various core
competences may be combined in a new way to serve a new market.
Apart from people who specialize in various technologies, it is important that a company has a
few market savvy people who understand all its technologies. These people will combine
technologies to serve customer needs in interesting ways.
ii. For too long, companies have viewed a market as a set of customer needs and product
functionalities to serve these needs. But they should begin to ask as to why the product has to be
like this. Can the customer needs be satisfied with some other product form?
Companies will realize that their products have shaped consumer expectations about the
appropriate solution to their needs but if the companies become bold and persistent, customers
will accept new solutions to their needs.
iii. A company should question conventional price and performance relationships. It should
explore the possibility of providing the same value at lesser price or try to make the customers
pay more by serving their needs in a new or better way. A more rigorous market research may
reveal more sophistication in customers’ needs which the company can serve with a novel
product.
A company should reject the idea that an existing product is the only starting point for new
product development. The greatest hindrance to development of novel products is the existing
product. Developers keep making mental references to the existing product in terms of how their
new product will be different or better than the existing ones.
Having some people from outside the industry will help the development team in distancing
themselves from the existing product. A development team comprising solely of outsiders can be
tried if the company desperately wants a novel product.
iv. Customers rarely ask for truly innovative products. A company can try to lead customers by
imagining unarticulated needs rather than simply following them. It involves a blend of creativity
and understanding the needs, lifestyles and aspirations of people.
The developers have to have an in- depth talk with customers and observe closely a market’s
sophisticated and demanding customers. But an innovation need not always be more
sophisticated than the current products. Customers might be using sophisticated products because
they do not have a choice but may be looking for a much simpler solution.
In quite a few markets companies have to reduce the sophistication of their products. Customers
are not using a quite a few features of the current products and it is a nightmare to use some of
these products. The customers need to acquire quite a few skills to use such products. They
would be happier using a simpler product at a lesser price.
v. A company should examine competitors’ products at frequent intervals. Though copying

competitors’ products may not inspire many developers, a company can use competitors’
products to identify features and benefits that its product lacks.
If a competitor’s product is more advanced or sophisticated the company can use the
competitor’s product as a base and develop the product further.
vi. Retailers deal in the company’s customers and can give very useful ideas. Retailers
experience the anguish and glee of customers firsthand and handle both repeat purchases and
product returns. These experiences of retailers can provide very useful information about
customers’ experience with the company’s offerings.
A company’s salespeople and even the top executives should be in constant interaction with
retailers so that they are able to glean customers’ opinions about their product from the retailers.
Retailers are also in contact with customers of competitors’ products and the company can get
feedback about the competitors’ product from the retailers.
vii. Customers are the original sources of new product ideas. Lead users, who are the most
sophisticated users of a product, are excellent sources of ideas for new products, as they are most
likely to encounter new problems due to the increased sophistication of their needs.
Business customers who are innovators and market leaders in their own marketplace are sources
of new product ideas, as they have advanced needs and are likely to face problems before other
product users.
But companies who focus on lead users may develop products which may be too sophisticated
for the average users of the product. It may contain features and benefits that the average
customer may not need, but will have to pay for.
viii. Customers can give feedback about the products that they are familiar with, and these inputs
can be used to drive innovations which will be incremental in nature. But for breakthrough
innovations, ideas must come from other sources such as the R&D team.
This is because the customer cannot talk beyond his realm of experience, which is constricted.
Therefore, if a company wants to launch a radical innovation, it has to look beyond existing
customers as a source of idea.
Idea screening:
Screening of ideas is done to evaluate their commercial worth. At this stage, the company needs
to ascertain whether the new products being developed fit in with the company’s strategy and
resource availability.
Simultaneously, the company also evaluates the market potential for the new product by
evaluating criteria such as projected sales, profit potential, extent of competition and return on
investments. Unique designs that lower costs or give performance advantages are also
considered.
Though it is difficult to accurately forecast the success of an idea at this stage, the process helps
the company to check if the idea is in alignment with the company’s objectives and
competencies, and that the idea has reasonable chances of success.
The process helps the company to wean out fanciful ideas. But some such fanciful idea may
entice the management at this stage and the originator of the idea may get permission to go ahead
with it.
Concept testing:
At the developmental stage, every idea can be developed into several product concepts. Each
concept is then tested with a small sample of customers from the target market to know their
degree of acceptance. A product concept is a particular combination of features, benefits and
price. Alternate product concepts are evaluated by customers.
Though it may still be a description rather than the actual product, customers have something
tangible to react to. This process allows customer feedback to seep into the new product
development process early enough for marketers to evaluate the degree of acceptance of the
potential new product.
As the physical product may not be available at this stage, companies go in for a verbal or
pictorial description of the product to let customers have an idea about the actual product.
Prospective customers present feedbacks regarding the attractiveness of the features and benefits
offered by the potential product.
Usually, the intention of the company is to gauge the most desirable combination of benefits that
customers are willing to pay for.
An instrument such as a questionnaire is used to know the likes and dislikes of customers, which
customers are likely to find the product most attractive, what price point would best suit the
customer, what trade-offs is the customer willing to make while evaluating the product, the
immediacy of the product requirement and how frequently he would buy the product.
These features or benefits are then incorporated into the product development process, which is
likely to lead to competitive advantage for the company.
Business analysis:
Estimates of sales, cost and profits are made. The company identifies the target market, its size
and projected product acceptance over a number of years. The company considers various prices
and their implications on sales revenues. Costs and breakeven point are estimated.
Sensitivity analysis is done in which variations from given assumptions about price, cost,
customer acceptance are checked to see how they would impact on sales revenue and profit.
The idea is to test if the proposed product will generate enough revenues and profits to justify the
expenses that its development and marketing will entail.
Though it is not possible to draw reliable conclusions from such futuristic analysis, it does force
company’s executives to peep into what the proposed product can or cannot achieve for the
company.
If they decipher that the proposed product has huge potential they can pump more resources and
expedite the project. The process permits the commercial instincts of the executives to be put to
test.
Product development:
The product concept that has found the best acceptance is then developed into a physical product.
Components have to be designed in terms of length, width, diameter, angle etc., and arranged to
be assembled in a manner which provides the features and benefits of the selected product
concept.
Multidisciplinary project teams are established to bring the product to the marketplace. The
product development process is faster and results in the development of better, high quality
products when engineers, technicians, marketers, finance and production specialists work
together in a synergistic fashion.
At this stage, the product is tested to analyse its functional performance and the degree of
customer acceptance. Paired comparison tests are used to compare the new product with existing
or potential competitors in order to give a realistic feel to the consumer decision making process.
Customers compare and judge the overall preference for the product, as well as preference for
specific features or benefits offered by various choices available to them.
Products are set up to fail during this stage of innovation process. It is important to exercise
certain precautions during this stage.
i. Developers are left to their own devices during this stage. They feel relieved that marketers and
other commercially minded people have finally got off their back. They feel that they can finally
get in their laboratories and on their workstations and do the real things of getting a blockbuster
product to the market. They feel that they can now work in solitude and in isolation.
This is dangerous. Developers have to be kept in the loop in this stage, as they may commit the
company to a product that was never envisaged or discussed in any of the earlier stages. It is
important to remember that the real and concrete innovation takes place only at this stage. In all
prior stages only ideas were being discussed, analyzed and evaluated.
However rigorously defined a product concept may be, it is only a description after all, and the
developers can interpret the description very differently from what other players think it should
have been.
And since developers give physical form to the idea, they have something more tangible to show
and prove their point when other people protest that the physical form is not really a replica of
the idea that they had endorsed.
Developers may claim that the physical form has turned out to be better than the idea itself and
since they have something tangible to show for their claim they will look more credible than the
people who will insist that the original idea was better.
Developers should not be allowed to run amok at this stage as they are capable of coming up
with a physical form that will nullify all the hard work of market research and commercial
analysis that the company might have put in.
ii. Developers are wary of showing their incomplete designs to other people in the organization
because they fear that anybody and everybody will have a suggestion to make, and if they went
about incorporating those suggestions there would be nothing in the product that they could call
their own. They insist on releasing only their final design.
And when this final design reaches manufacturing people, they may express their inability to
produce the design or at least not at a reasonable cost. The design is relayed back to the
developers who have to modify the design to make it fit for production.
This may happen many times and lot of time is wasted before developers and manufacturers
settle on a design fit for production.
But more dangerously, since the developer is modifying his original design to enhance its
reducibility he may lose sight of the customer needs that his original design was meant to serve.
So the modified design may be more easily produced but it may have digressed so much from
the original design that it may not be serving the customers’ needs truthfully. This often happens
because the focus of design modification is reducibility and not customer needs.
It is important that developers share their design with manufacturing before they freeze it, so that
they get feedback about the producibility of the design. It often happens that by agreeing to make
minor changes in the design, cost of manufacturing is reduced drastically.
It is possible to avoid buying new and expensive equipments and make the design on the existing
machines, to use less expensive material, to use components that the company is already
incorporating in some other model, or simplify manufacturing, if developers pay heed to the
suggestion of manufacturing people.
The irrefutable suggestion is that manufacturing people should be closely associated with
developers during the product development stage and should be provided preliminary designs
and be allowed to comment on its producibility. A good developer will keep a manufacturer as
his conscience keeper.
iii. A developer sets out to serve defined customer needs with available set of technologies. But
both customer needs and technologies are likely to change during the development process itself.
The developer has to anticipate these changes and allow them to be incorporated in the final
design.
The developer has to set up mechanisms by which the changing customers’ needs and
technologies are allowed to creep in and the design process forced to pay heed to them. The
developer can delay freezing those parts of the design which are likely to be impacted by
changing customer needs and technologies.
At some point in time the developer has to stop taking cognizance of changing customer needs
and technologies as it may delay the project by an unacceptable period. But a developer has to
realize that it is futile rushing to the market with a product, which is already obsolete at the time
of its launch to serve customer’s needs which no longer exist.
iv. Product concept has already been tested with customers but a description of the product can
never match the physical product in eliciting real reactions of customers. Before the developer
freezes the design he has to get it approved by customers.
The physical product has to tested by the customer in actual use, if true worth of the design has
to be known. It is undeniably costly and cumbersome to make limited number of products before
manufacturing facilities are set up, but companies have to manage it if they do not want to set up
manufacturing facilities for products, that customers would not like and would have told them so
if they had been given the opportunity to use the product.
To get the real product in as many customer hands as possible and keeping the option to redesign
the product in a wholesome manner based on customer feedback, rather than just tweak it, is
absolutely imperative to get a successful design.
Developers of information products like software routinely get customers’ feedback on their
design. There is an urgent need to replicate the concept in development of physical products.
It is also important to note that while virtual prototyping i.e. making a virtual model of the
product with the help of software is useful to the developer, to test if he is getting the desired
functions and benefits from the components and subsystems that he has designed; it is not useful
for getting customers’ feedback.
The nuances of product performance decide the success or failure of a new product and
customers can get a real ‘hang’ of the product only from a real product.
v. It is important to understand that a company should be willing to do ‘anything’ to increase the

probability of success of a new product. The probability of success of the new product should
govern every decision that the company takes about the innovation process.
If a new product fails, all the effort, time and money expended in developing it comes to naught.
If a few more million dollars, and a few more months can improve the chances of the new
product succeeding in the market, the company should go ahead and commit itself to them It is
never a good idea to save a few million dollars and few months and sink a few billion dollars and
few years in the bargain.
Market testing:
So far in the product development process, potential customers have been asked if they intend to
buy the product, but have never been placed in the position of having to pay for it. Now
customers are forced to vote with their money.
The company seeks to have a limited launch for the product in the market place so that it can
gauge the initial customer response in true test conditions.
The feedback obtained from this launch guides the company’s decision to continue with the large
scale commercialization of the project, or to abandon it.
Ideally, the feedback that is obtained from the test sample should be as realistic as possible, i.e.,
the profile of the sample of respondents should closely resemble the profile of prospective
customers in the actual marketplace, and they should be buying the product from a realistic retail
setup as they would actually do.
For instance, a sample of customers may be recruited to buy their groceries from a mobile
supermarket which visits them once a week. They are provided with magazines in which
advertisements for the new products appear. Key success indicators such as penetration (the
proportion of customers who buy the new product at least once) and repeat purchase (the rate at
which purchasers buy again) can be found out.
If the penetration is high but repeat purchase low, it is important for the company to ascertain the
reasons for lack of repeat purchase. In case of any problems pertaining to specific aspects of the
marketing mix, such as price points, product features, packaging, or availability, the company
can take corrective measures.
But if the company finds out that corrections are now impossible, or that the cost involved in
remedial actions would outweigh the benefits, it can decide to withdraw the product from the
market.
Test marketing involves the launch of the new product in one or few geographical areas chosen
to be representative of its intended market. The product is positioned and promoted the same way
as it would be done in case of a full-scale launch.
The new product is made available in select distribution outlets so that the real-time response of
customers in terms of parameters such as purchase, amount of time spent in evaluation, or repeat
purchase can be tracked vis-a-vis competing products.
As the characteristics and composition of customers in the test market resemble the
characteristics of customers in the entire target market, the results of test marketing can be
extrapolated for the entire market. Marketers take decisions about the modification of some part
of the marketing mix, and even about the continuation of the product launch according to the
results of test marketing.
Test towns and areas may not be representative of the national market and thus sales projections
may be inaccurate. Competitors may invalidate the test market by giving distribution incentives
to stock their product, thereby denying the new product shelf space.
Test markets need to be long enough to measure the repeat purchase rate for the product. This
can mean a delay in national launch stretching to many months and years.
In the meantime more aggressive competitors can launch a rival product nationally and therefore
gain pioneer advantage. Getting the co-operation of distributors is important. Distributors may
not want to cooperate for conducting test marketing, or they may charge exorbitant fees for the
activity.
The most important rationale for test marketing is that, the results obtained from it help the
company to concretize its marketing strategies for the full-scale launch of the product. This is
undoubtedly more efficient than making costly blunders after the full-scale product launch.
A company may also choose to test several combinations of the variables in the marketing mix to
ascertain the optimal one. This process is used very often for FMCG products where a test
market is typically conducted in a few cities in a country.
For very expensive equipment’s, it is impractical. Globally, when a company does a phased
product launch, it can apply the lessons learnt from one country market, in another country
where the product, consumer and market characteristics may bear close resemblance to each
other.
Commercialization and diffusion of innovation:
Choice regarding target market to whom the product should be sold first and product positioning
that will be attractive to the first target market has to be made. The fundamental process that
defines the success of an innovation is its diffusion rate.
Therefore, the target market for the innovation has to be decided by understanding the process of
diffusion of innovation. The spread of an innovation is called diffusion, and when an individual
customer unit buys the new product, it is called adoption.
Thus, when many customers adopt the new product quickly, the diffusion is fast, and the
diffusion rate is high. The new product is successful. And when either the number of customers
who adopt the new product is low, or the process of adoption is slow, the diffusion rate is low.
PRODUCT ADVERTISEMENT
Product advertising is the art of building and maintaining product awareness with potential buyers. A
good advertising program educates potential customers on why they need the product, how it is used
and the benefits derived from its use. A successful program also tells the consumer how the product is
better than similar offerings by competitors.
MARKET SURVEY
This is the gathering and evaluation of data regarding consumers' preferences for products and
services.
Market research describes the gathering and analysis of market data, such as consumer
preferences, trends in market prices and the presence of competing products. A market survey
can describe any study that gathers information directly from consumers by asking them
questions about their preferences, habits and experiences. The purpose of a market survey is to
provide business managers with insight about their target customers, such as how much money
they spend on certain types of products, whether they use competing products and the interest
level for new products.
COMMON UNETHICAL ISSUES PRACTICES IN FOOD INDUSTRY AND WAYS OF

CONTROLLING THEM
- Drunkardness.
- Fighting.
- Stealing.
- Improper wearing.
- Product forgery
- Under quality products
- Wrong labeling
CALIBRATION
What is Calibration?
Calibration is the process of characterizing a measuring instrument by determining its deviation
from a known standard, and thereby ascertaining the correction factors for that instrument.
Why Calibrate?
Calibration is an essential part of any corporate quality management program, provides

traceability to standards set by government agencies, and ensures accurate and repeatable
performance of instruments.
Calibration interval is dependent on different factor including:
 Measured quantity and allowable tolerance range

 Level of stress to which the equipment is subjected
 Stability of past calibrations
 Required measuring accuracy
 Quality assurance requirements
FACTORS AFFECTING INSTRUMENT CALLIBRATION
- Using the wrong calibrator values

It is important to closely follow the instructions for use during the calibration process.
Disregarding the instructions and selecting the wrong calibrator values will “teach” the
instrument incorrectly, and produce significant errors over the entire operating range.
- Calibrator formulation tolerance
It is important to use calibrators that are formulated to tight tolerance specifications by a
reputable manufacturer. There is a tolerance associated with formulating a
calibrator/control due to normal variations in the instrumentation and quality control
processes. This tolerance can affect the mean value obtained when using the calibrator.
DATA COLLECTION AND INTERPRETATION
Data interpretation is part of daily life for most people. Interpretation is the process of making sense of
numerical data that has been collected, analyzed, and presented. People interpret data when they turn
on the television and hear the news anchor reporting on a poll, when they read advertisements claiming
that one product is better than another, or when they choose grocery store items that claim they are
more effective than other leading brands.
A common method of assessing numerical data is known as statistical analysis , and the activity of
analyzing and interpreting data in order to make predictions is known as inferential statistics .
Data types
1.) QUANTITATIVE DATA
• Quantitative Data is presented in a numerical format collected in a standardized

Manner e.g. surveys, closed-ended interviews, tests analyzed using statistical
Techniques.
Do you want to report… ……

• how many people answered a, b, c, d?
• the average number or score?
• a change in score between two points in time?
• how people compared?
• how many people reached a certain level?
2.) QUALITATIVE DATA

Qualitative data is non-numerical information, such as responses gathered through
interviews, observations, focus groups, written documents or journals, or open-ended
survey questions. On its own, or in combination with quantitative information, qualitative
data can provide rich information about how programs work. At the simplest level,
qualitative analysis involves examining your data to determine how they answer your
evaluation questions.
• Qualitative data is thick in detail and description.

• Data often in a narrative format
• Data often collected by observation, open-ended interviewing, document review
• Analysis often emphasizes understanding phenomena as they exist, not following pre-
determined hypotheses
Summary for Data Interpretation (five steps to follow)

• 1.Go back to your original question
• 2.Describe the data
• 3.Play with the data graphically
• 4.Plug in additional information
• 5.Write down your conclusions and further
Questions
Steps of the operation procedures of a gas chromatography when using hydrogen carrier gas.
1. Before starting up the instrument, open the main valve on the carrier gas cylinder to
check that carrier gas is being supplied to the gas chromatograph.
2. Check that there are no leaks in the tubing system.
3. Start up the instrument according to the procedure described in the Gas Chromatograph
User's Guide.
4. Perform analysis.
5. When shutting down the instrument, perform Shutdown according to the procedure
described in the Gas Chromatograph Instruction Manual.
6. Close the main valve on the carrier gas cylinder.
How does the rate of sample passage through the column relate with temperature-in a Gas
chromatography??
The rate at which a sample passes through the column is directly proportional to the
temperature of the column. The higher the column temperature, the faster the sample
moves through the column. However, the faster a sample moves through the column, the
less it interacts with the stationary phase, and the less the analytes are separated. In
general, the column temperature is selected to compromise between the length of the
analysis and the level of separation.
A excessively high column temperature results in very short retention time but also
in a very poor separation because all components mainly stay in the gas phase.
However, in order for the separation to occur the components need to be able to
interact with the stationary phase. If the compound does not interact with the
stationary phase, the retention time will decrease. At the same time, the quality of the
separation deteriorates, because the differences in retention times are not as
pronounced anymore. The best separations are usually observed for temperature
gradients, because the differences in polarity and in boiling points are used here.

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SLFT 05201: FOOD ANALYSIS AND INSTRUMENTATION

Most foods are compositionally complex materials made up of a wide variety of

iii) Physicochemical Properties

- The optical properties of foods are determined by the way that

-The stability of a food is a measure of its ability to resist changes in its

These changes may be chemical, physical or biological in origin.

Chemical stability refers to the change in the type of molecules present in a

Physical stability refers to the change in the spatial distribution of the

-The flavor of a food is determined by the way that certain molecules in

The perceived flavor of a food product depends on the type and

iv) Sensory Attributes

Ultimately, the quality and desirability of a food product is

Precision: A measure of the ability to reproduce an answer between

Reproducibility: A measure of the ability to reproduce an answer by

Simplicity of operation: A measure of the ease with which relatively

Cost: The total cost of the analysis, including the reagents,

Speed: The time needed to complete the analysis of a single sample or

Sensitivity: A measure of the lowest concentration of a component that

Specificity: A measure of the ability to detect and quantify specific

Safety: Many reagents and procedures used in food analysis are

Destructive/Nondestructive: In some analytical methods the sample is

If there are a number of alternative methods available for measuring a

Commonly used laboratory instruments.

Picture Name Use

Compound Uses two lenses to make things

Used to cover specimens on a

An electrical device used to

Used to measure liquid

Beaker Tongs Used to handle hot beakers.

Glassware used to heat and

Used to plug a flask or

Used to mix, heat, or store

Test Tube Holder Used to hold a hot test tube.

Test Tube Brush Used to clean test tubes.

Used to hold specimens for

Used to measure length in the

Used to measure and transfer

Used to measure temperature

To be worn when told to do so

Used to clamp onto a ring

Used to clamp onto ring stand

SENSORY EVALUATION TEST

 Evaluate a range of existing food products;

1. Decide on the type of test you want to perform.

a.) Hedonic Scale

1. Prepare the food samples.

4. Analyse the results. Which sample received the greatest/lowest scores?

1. Samples are scored on a scale, between like and dislike.

2. Allow people to evaluate samples and score (place) in order of preference.

3. Record their responses.

Duo Trio Test

1. Prepare three samples, two of which are the same.

3. Record the tasters responses.

1. Prepare three samples, two of which are the same.

2. Arrange the samples in a triangle.

3. Decide which of the samples is the odd one out.

4. Record the responses from the tasters.