MTI 7101 

Highpass / Lowpass

Introduction
Highpass / Lowpass

Filter circuits are used for suppressing or attenuating unwanted component parts of a
mixed frequency. The following four-pole parameters are significant when describing the
transfer response:

Transfer function F(ω)=U2/U1

Phase response φ(ω)

Lowp
ass

High
pass

The frequency range over which a signal can pass through the filter without any
changes, is known as the pass band. The frequency range over which a signal is
suppressed (or blocked), is known as the stop band.

The transition from passband to the stopband region, or vice versa, should be as abrupt
as possible ("steep edge transient"). This steepness or slope, is dependent on the
Order of the filter in use:

Order number of the filter Slope in dB/Octave

1st. Order 6 dB/Octave
2nd. Order 12 dB/Octave
 3rd. Order 18 dB/Octave

In this exercise, the circuits incorporate RC-filters, 1st. Order, i.e. they have only one
energy accumulator in the form of a capacitor.

Lowpass

An RC-lowpass is generally
regarded as a 4-pole with the
following internal circuit:

The series circuit of R and C is a

frequency-dependent voltage
divider that generally speaking,
consists of the two impedances Z1
and Z2:

According to the rule for voltage

dividers:

The vector diagram for the RC-

lowpass takes the form as shown
here:

The response of the lowpass can be characterised by considering the following three
cases:

ω = 0:
 The response of a lowpass can thus be considered as purely resistive.

ω = very large:

Thus, the response of a highpass can be considered as pure capacitive.

ω = medium:

A "medium" ω is defined when R and XC are equal in magnitude.

In this case, the limit frequency is described as f3dB or ω3dB (fg or. ωg) ; the vector diagram
takes the form of an isosceles triangle.

It applies then that:

 
If the transfer function is considered in the complex level, the complex transfer function
is given:

The graphic representation of the complex transfer function with ω as parameter, is the
locus diagram in the complex level:

Locus diagram of the transfer function (U 2 normalised to U1 = 1V, here φ = -45°)

The following function graphs are given after division into the frequency response F(ω)
(here is meant the modulus of the complex transfer function) and the phase response,
φ(ω) :
Frequency response of the RC-lowpass (normalised to U1 = 1V) with f3dB = 1.59 kHz
 Phase response of the RC-lowpass with f3dB = 1.59 kHz

The simultaneous representation of frequency and phase response, is known as a Bode

diagram.

Highpass

An RC-highpass is generally
regarded as a 4-pole with the
following internal circuit:
 The series circuit of R and C is a
frequency-dependent voltage
divider that generally speaking,
consists of the two impedances Z1
and Z2:

According to the rule for voltage

dividers:

The vector diagram for the RC-

lowpass takes the form as shown
here:

The response of the highpass can be characterised by considering the following three
cases:

ω = 0:

Thus, the response of a highpass can be considered as pure capacitive.

ω very large:
 The response of a highpass can thus be considered as purely resistive.

ω = medium:

A "medium" ω is defined when R and XC are equal in magnitude.

In this case, the limit frequency is described as f3dB or ω3dB (fg or ωg) ; the vector diagram
takes the form of an isosceles triangle.

It applies then that:

If the transfer function is considered in the complex level, the complex transfer function
is given:

The graphic representation of the complex transfer function with ω as parameter, is

locus diagram in the complex level:
 Locus diagram of the transfer function (U2 normalised to U1 = 1V, here φ = 45°)

The following function graphs are given after division into the frequency response F(ω)
(here is meant the modulus of the complex transfer function) and the phase response,
φ(ω) :
Frequency response of the RC-highpass (normalised to U1 = 1V) with f 3dB = 1,59 kHz
 Phase response of the RC-lowpass with f3dB = 1,59 kHz

 
 MTI 7102 Bandpass Filter

Introduction
Bandpass filter

Bandpass filters usually consist of two individual resonant circuits coupled together.
Compared to RC bandpass filters, they exhibit a better edge steepness. Thus, they are
suitable for use in IF amplifiers in radio and TV equipment as they provide good
selectivity (or discrimination) of the signals due to their smaller bandwidth.

A bandpass
filter is
generally
regarded as a
4-pole with the
internal circuit
shown here:

In the case
here, the
coupling is
capacitive.

Another
method of
coupling is
inductive via
the coils in the
resonant
circuits:

The transfer characteristics of a 4-pole are described by the transfer function:

Edge steepness and bandwidth of the passband curve are mainly determined by the
coupling factor, k and the quality, Q-factor, of the individual circuits. A differentiation is
made between three cases:

1. Subcritical coupling

2. Critical coupling

3. Overcritical coupling

Bandfilter curves for various coupling

The two individual resonant circuits usually have the same resonant frequency f 0. The
centre-frequency, fm of the bandfilter is defined as the frequency at which the primary
circuit including the coupling capacitance Ck (capacitive coupling) is at resonance when
a short-circuit is applied to the secondary circuit; and vice versa.
 

With inductive coupling, the centre frequency, f m is equal to the resonant frequency f0 of
the individual circuits.

MTI 7103 Bandpass/Bandstop

Introduction
Bandpass/Bandstop

General

Filter circuits are used for suppressing or attenuating unwanted component parts of a
mixed frequency. The following four-pole parameters are significant when describing the
transfer response:

Transfer function

Phase response φ(ω)

The 1st. Order RC-bandpass and RC-bandstop filters used in this exercise, have the
following fundamental properties:

Band
pass
filter
 Band
stop
filter

The frequency range where the applied signal passes through without any change, is
known as the passband (PB). The frequency range where the applied signal is
suppressed (blocked), is known as the stopband (SB).

Bandpass

An RC
bandpass filter
is generally
regarded as a
4-pole with the
internal circuit
shown here:

The mixed
circuit
consisting of
the series
connection of
R1 and C1 in
series with the
parallel
connection of
C2 and R2 is a
frequency-
dependent
voltage divider,
 that can be
regarded as
consisting of
the two
impedances Z1
and Z2 :

According the
rules for
voltage
dividers: mit

und

The response of a bandpass is characterised by considering the following three cases:

ω = 0:

From this:

ω = very large:

From this:
 

ω = medium:

A "medium" ω is defined when R1 and 1/ωC1 or 1/R2 and ωC2 are equal in magnitude.
The centre (or "mid-") frequency is defined as fm or ωm.

It applies then, that:

If the transfer function is considered in the complex level, the complex transfer function
is given:

Here also, the consideration of a mid-value ω leads to the following (identical) result:
The bandwidth, Δf is described as the difference between the two frequencies f +45 and f-
45, where the phase angles are +45° and -45°, respectively.

The graphic representation of the complex transfer function with ω as parameter, is the
locus diagram in the complex level:

Locus diagram of the transfer function (U2 normalised to U1 = 1V, here φ = 0°)
 

The following function graphs are given after division into the frequency response F(ω)
(here is meant the modulus of the complex transfer function) and the phase response,
φ(ω) (Bode diagram) :

Frequency response of the RC bandpass (normalised to U 1 = 1V) with fm = 3,043 kHz

 
 Phase response of the RC bandpass with fm = 3,043 kHz

Bandstop

An RC-
bandstop is
generally
regarded as a
4-pole with the
following
internal circuit:
 The mixed
circuit
consisting of
the parallel
connection of
R1 and C1 in
series with the
series
connection of
C2 and R2 is a
frequency-
dependent
voltage divider,
that can be
regarded as
consisting of
the two
impedances Z1
and Z2 :

with
According the
rules for
voltage
dividers:

The response of a bandstop is characterised by considering the following three cases:

ω = 0:

From this:
 

ω = very large:

From this:

ω = medium:

A "medium" ω is defined when 1/R1 and ωC1 or R2 and 1/ωC2 are equal in magnitude.
The centre (or "mid-") frequency is defined as fm or ωm.

It applies then, that:

If the transfer function is considered in the complex level, the complex transfer function
is given:
Here also, the consideration of a mid-value ω leads to the following (identical) result:

The bandwidth, Δf is described as the difference between the two frequencies f +45 and f-
45, where the phase angles are +45° and -45°, respectively.

The graphic representation of the complex transfer function with ω as parameter, is the
locus diagram in the complex level:

Locus diagram of the transfer function (U2 normalised to U1 = 1V, here φ = 0°)
 

The following function graphs are given as a Bode diagram, after division into the
frequency response F(ω) (here is meant the modulus of the complex transfer function)
and the phase response φ(ω):

Frequency response of the RC bandstop (normalised to U1 = 1V) with fm = 3,043 kHz

 
 Phase response of the RC bandstop with fm = 3,043 kHz

MTI 7501 Amplitude Modulation (AM)

Contents
1. Presentation of the Principle of Amplitude Modulation

Aim: The students learn the principle of the usual amplitude modulation on the basis of
the available test circuit. Here the parameters (carrier oscillation, signal oscillation and
degrees of modulation), which are characteristic for this type of oscillation modulation
are dealt with in great depth.

 Presentation of the oscillogramme of the simple amplitude modulation

 Presentation of the modulation trapezium for different degrees of
modulations
 Demodulation of the amplitude modulated signal with a detector
 Demodulation of the amplitude modulated signal with multiplication
(mixer)
2. Presentation of the Double Sideband Modulation

Aim: The students are intended to recognise that for the DSB the amplitude of the
carrier is almost completely suppressed and only the two sidebands are transmitted. At
the same time the DSB is to be used for highlighting what the phase jump (which is
characteristic for the amplitude modulation in the zero crossings) looks like.

 Tuning the modulator at minimum residual carrier

 Presentation of the signal and the modulation trapezium of the DSB
 Presentation of the phase jump
 Demodulation of DSB with multiplication (mixer)

3. Presentation of the Single Sideband Modulation

Aim: Aim of the above exercise is to emphasise to the students the principles of the
single sideband modulation.

 Presentation of an SSB from a common AM signal

 Presentation of the SSB from a DSB signal
 Recovery of the source signal from the SSB using multiplication (mixer)

MTI 7501 Amplitude Modulation (AM)

Introductory Basic Information

The Amplitude Modulation

Amplitude modulation is a form of oscillation modulation. The principle of oscillation

modulation is based on the fact that the parameters of a sinusoidal carrier oscillation are
varied by a transmitted signal or also useful signal, whereby the magnitude of these
variations can be defined.

When the amplitude for the carrier oscillation is varied, then this is known as amplitude
modulation.

This form of signal modulation is the subject of this exercise.

The more important terms used in AM will be outlined in short explanations and
practical exercises.

AM can be represented mathematically as a multiplication of a carrier oscillation with

the frequency Ω and a modulating signal with the frequency ω.

The amplitude of the carrier signal is changed by the modulating signal. The modulating
signal is an envelope for the carrier signal.

When the above mathematical definition of the AM is transposed using trigonometry,

then the formula shown below is given for the case where the amplitudes of modulation
and the carrier signal are the same:

If one takes a closer look at this result, it is evident that from the two frequencies before
the modulation a frequency spectrum with the carrier frequency and two sidebands has
now been produced.
Here the frequency of the upper sideband is higher than the carrier frequency by the
amount of the frequency of the useful signal and the frequency of the lower sideband is
lower than the carrier frequency by the amount of the frequency of the usful signal.

One of the important characteristics of the amplitude modulation is the so-called degree
of modulation "m", which is quoted as an absolute value or in %.

The degree of modulation is the ratio of the amplitude of the transmitted signal to the
amplitude of the carrier frequency.

Since in normal AM the amplitude of the carrier is greater than that of the useful signal,
the degree of modulation is less than "1" or 100%.
When, due to selective fading (e.g. in radio transmission) or when incorrect setting of
the carrier amplitude are made, the carrier frequency can be heavily damped, which
under certain circumstances can produce values for the degree of modulation, which
exceed m =1 or 100%. This results in non-linear distortion of the demodulated signal.

In the usual form of AM, which in practice is used, for instance, in long, medium and
short wave transmissions, the amplitude of the carrier is greater than that of the useful
signal. Also, only 50% of the useful signal is in the two sidebands (see previous
formula). This means that the main part of the transmitter power is in the carrier. To
achieve a higher power component of the useful signal in the transmitted signal, use is
made of the fact that the carrier is not really needed for the transmission of information.
Therefore, with suitable circuits (e.g. filters) the carrier is suppressed and only the upper
(USB) and lower (LSB) sidebands remain.
This form of amplitude modulation is referred to as double sideband modulation (DSB).
This form of modulation is used, for instance, in the transmission of stereo information in
VHF broadcasting.

Because of the fact that the actual useful information is transmitted twice, i.e. in the
upper sideband and lower sideband, there is consequently another form of amplitude
modulation, namely Single Sideband modulation (SSB). Here, only one of the two
sidebands is transmitted and the frequency band can be used to an optimum. SSB is
used in carrier frequency techniques in multi-channel systems in the
telecommunications or in commercial short-wave transmissions.

MTI 7502 Frequency Modulation (FM)

Basic Introduction
The Frequency Modulation
The frequency modulation is a sub-type of the process for analogue oscillation
modulation. Here a continuous sinusoidal high-frequency wave is used as the carrier of
a signal oscillation which is to be transmitted.

The actual signal oscillation changes parameters of the carrier oscillation - in the case
of the FM the frequency - and is hence prepared for the transmission.

This form of signal modulation is the object of the available test description.

The FM can be described mathematically as follows:

The frequency of the carrier signal is varied in dependence on the modulating signal.

The ratio of the frequency shift ΔΩ to modulation frequency ω is termed modulation

index.

The frequency shift indicates the maximum frequency deviation for the FM.
In short explanations and practical tests the following exercises are intended to examine
this and other important terms of frequency modulation (FM), such as phase shift,
spectrum of the FM, bandwidth and many other things.