Lecture 1 Dr.

Hasan Mahdi Al-Khateeb

Research Methodology: An Introduction

A- Meaning of Research
Research may be defined in deferent ways according to deferent basis as:-
1- A scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a
specific topic.
2- A careful investigation or inquiry specially through search for new
facts in any branch of knowledge.
3- Systematized effort to gain new knowledge.
4- A movement from the known to the unknown.
5- A logical and systematic search for new and useful information on a
particular topic.
6- The search for knowledge through objective and systematic method of
finding solution to a problem. It comprises defining and redefining
problems, formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting,
organizing and evaluating data; making deductions and reaching
conclusions; and at last carefully testing the conclusions to determine
whether they fit the formulating hypothesis.

B- Objectives of Research
The prime objectives of research are:-
1- to discover new facts.
2- to verify and test important facts.
3- to analyze an event or process or phenomenon to identify the cause and
effect relationship.
4- to develop new scientific tools, concepts and theories to solve and
understand scientific and nonscientific problems
5- to find solutions to scientific, nonscientific and social problems and
6- to overcome or solve the problems occurring in our everyday life.
Lecture 1 Dr. Hasan Mahdi Al-Khateeb

C- Motivation in Research
The common motives for doing research may be either one or more of the
following:-
1. Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits.
2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e.,
concern over practical problems initiates research.
3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work.
4. Desire to be of service to society.
5. Desire to get respectability.
However, this is not an exhaustive list of factors motivating people to
undertake research studies. Many more factors such as directives of
government, employment conditions, curiosity about new things, desire
to understand causal relationships, social thinking and awakening.
D- Types of Research
The basic types of research are as follows:-
1-Descriptive vs. Analytical
Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of
different kinds. The major purpose of descriptive research is description
of the state of affairs as it exists at present that the researcher has no
control over the variables; he can only report what has happened or what
is happening, including attempts by researchers to discover causes even
when they cannot control the variables. The methods of research utilized
in descriptive research are survey methods of all kinds, including
comparative and correlational methods.
In analytical research, the researcher has to use facts or information
already available, and analyze these to make a critical evaluation of the
material.

2-Applied vs. Fundamental.

Research can either be applied (or action) research or fundamental (to
basic or pure) research. Applied research aims at finding a solution for an
immediate problem facing a society or an industrial/business
organization, whereas fundamental research is mainly concerned with
generalizations and with the formulation of a theory.
Lecture 1 Dr. Hasan Mahdi Al-Khateeb

Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s sake is termed ‘pure’ or ‘basic’

research. Research concerning some natural phenomenon or relating to
pure mathematics are examples of fundamental research. Thus, the central
aim of applied research is to discover a solution for some pressing
practical problem, whereas basic research is directed towards finding
information that has a broad base of applications and thus, adds to the
already existing organized body of scientific knowledge.

3- Quantitative vs. Qualitative.

Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount.
It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity.
Qualitative research, is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, relating
to or involving quality or kind. The basic and applied researches can be
quantitative or qualitative or even both.
Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount.
Here a process is expressed or described in terms of one or more
quantities. The result of this research is essentially a number or a set of
numbers.
Some of the characteristics of quantitative research/method are:
• It is numerical, non-descriptive, applies statistics or mathematics and
uses numbers.
• It is an iterative process whereby evidence is evaluated.
• The results are often presented in tables and graphs.
• It is conclusive.
• It investigates the what, where and when of decision making.
Statistics is the most widely used branch of mathematics in quantitative
research. Quantitative research using statistical methods often begins with
the collection of data based on a theory or hypothesis or experiment
followed by the application of descriptive or inferential statistical
methods.
Qualitative research is concerned with qualitative phenomenon involving
quality. Some of the characteristics of qualitative research/method are:
• It is non-numerical, descriptive, applies reasoning and uses words.
• Its aim is to get the meaning, feeling and describe the situation.
• Qualitative data is not easy to be graphed.
• It is exploratory.
• It investigates the why and how of decision making.
We measure and weigh things in the study of substance or structure. Can
we measure or weigh patterns? We cannot measure or weigh patterns. If
one wishes to investigate why certain data are random then it is a
qualitative research. If the aim is to study how random the data is, what
is the mean, variance and distribution function then it becomes
quantitative.
Lecture 1 Dr. Hasan Mahdi Al-Khateeb

The detection of a particular compound is a qualitative analysis. This can

be done by carrying out physical or chemical tests. Determination of
exact amount of a particular compound present in a volume is essentially
quantitative analysis. This can be done by volumetric, gravimetric and
colorimetric methods or instrumental methods. Experimental and
simulation studies are generally quantitative research. In fact, qualitative
methods can be used to understand the meaning of the numbers obtained
by quantitative methods.

4- Conceptual vs. Empirical.

Conceptual research is that related to some abstract idea(s) or theory. It is
generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or
to reinterpret existing ones.
Empirical research relies on experience or observation alone, often
without due regard for system and theory. It is data-based research,
coming up with conclusions which are capable of being verified by
observation or experiment. We can also call it as experimental type of
research. In such a research it is necessary to get at facts firsthand, at their
source, and actively to go about doing certain things to stimulate the
production of desired information. In such a research, the researcher must
first provide himself with a working hypothesis or guess as to the
probable results. He then works to get enough facts (data) to prove or
disprove his hypothesis. He then sets up experimental designs which he
thinks will manipulate the persons or the materials concerned so as to
bring forth the desired information. Such research is thus characterized by
the experimenter’s control over the variables under study and his
deliberate manipulation of one of them to study its effects. Empirical
research is appropriate when proof is sought that certain variables affect
other variables in some way. Evidence gathered through experiments or
empirical studies is today considered to be the most powerful support
possible for a given hypothesis.

5- Some Other Types of Research.

All other types of research are variations of one or more of the above
stated approaches, based on either the purpose of research, or the time
required to accomplish research, on the environment in which research is
done, or on the basis of some other similar factor.
a- From the point of view of time, we can think of research either as
one-time research or longitudinal research. In the former case the
research is confined to a single time-period, whereas in the latter
case the research is carried on over several time-periods.
Lecture 1 Dr. Hasan Mahdi Al-Khateeb

b- Research can be field-setting research or laboratory research or

simulation research, depending upon the environment in which it is
to be carried out.
c- Research can as well be understood as clinical or diagnostic
research. Such research follow case-study methods or in depth
approaches to reach the basic causal relations. Such studies usually
go deep into the causes of things or events that interest us, using
very small samples and very deep probing data gathering devices.
d- The research may be exploratory or it may be formalized. The
objective of exploratory research is the development of hypotheses
rather than their testing, whereas formalized research studies are
those with substantial structure and with specific hypotheses to be
tested.
e- Historical research or Forecasted. Historical is that which utilizes
historical sources like documents, remains, etc. to study events or
ideas of the past, including the philosophy of persons and groups at
any remote point of time.
f- Research can also be classified as conclusion-oriented and
decision-oriented. While doing conclusion oriented research, a
researcher is free to pick up a problem, redesign the enquiry as he
proceeds and is prepared to conceptualize as he wishes. Decision-
oriented research is always for the need of a decision maker and the
researcher in this case is not free to embark upon research
according to his own inclination.
g- Normal research and revolutionary research.
In any particular field, normal research is performed in accordance
with a set of rules, concepts and procedures called a paradigm,
which is well accepted by the scientists working in that field.
Normal research is something like puzzle-solving: interesting, even
beautiful, solutions are found but the rules are remain same. In this
normal research sometimes unexpected novel results and
discoveries are realized which are inconsistent with the existing
paradigm. Among the scientist, a tense situation then ensues, which
increases in intensity until a scientific revolution is reached. This is
marked by a paradigm shift and a new paradigm emerges under
which normal scientific activity can be resumed.
 Lecture 1 Dr. Hasan Mahdi Al-Khateeb

E- Research Methods versus Methodology

Research methods may be understood as all those methods/techniques
that are used for conduction of research. For instance, the difference
between methods and techniques of data collection can better be
understood from the details given in the following table:-
Type Methods Techniques

1. Library research (i) Analysis of historical records.
(ii) Analysis of documents
2. Field research (i) Non-participant direct observation.
(ii) Participant observation.
(iii) Mass observation.
(iv) Mail questionnaire.
(v) Opinionnaire.
(vi) Personal interview.
(vii) Focused interview.
(viii) Group interview.
(ix) Telephone survey.
(x) Case study and life history.
3. Laboratory research Small group study of random behavior, play
and role analysis
Recording of notes, Content analysis,
Tape and Film listening and analysis.
Statistical compilations and
manipulations, reference and abstract
guides, contents analysis.
Observational behavioral scales, use of
score cards, etc.
Interactional recording, possible use of
tape recorders, photo graphic
techniques.
Recording mass behavior, interview
using independent observers in
public places.
Identification of social and economic
background of respondents.
Use of attitude scales, projective
techniques, use of sociometric scales.
Interviewer uses a detailed schedule
with open and closed questions.
Interviewer focuses attention upon a
given experience and its effects.
Small groups of respondents are
interviewed simultaneously.
Used as a survey technique for
information and for discerning
opinion; may also be used as a follow
up of questionnaire.
Cross sectional collection of data for
intensive analysis, longitudinal
collection of data of intensive
character.
Use of audio-visual recording devices,
use of observers, etc.

Research methods are all those methods which are used by the researcher
during the course of studying his research problem. Since the object of
research, particularly the applied research, is to arrive at a solution for a
given problem, the available data and the unknown aspects of the
problem have to be related to each other to make a solution possible.
Keeping this in view, research methods can be put into the following
three groups:
1. In the first group we include those methods which are concerned with
the collection of data. These methods will be used where the data already
available are not sufficient to arrive at the required solution.
Lecture 1 Dr. Hasan Mahdi Al-Khateeb

2. The second group consists of those statistical techniques which are

used for establishing relationships between the data and the unknowns.
3. The third group consists of those methods which are used to evaluate
the accuracy of the results obtained.
Research methods falling in the above stated last two groups are generally
taken as the analytical tools of research.

Research methodology is a way to systematically solve the research

problem. It may be understood as a science of studying how research is
done scientifically. In it we study the various steps that are generally
adopted by a researcher in studying his research problem along with the
logic behind them. It is necessary for the researcher to know not only the
research methods/techniques but also the methodology. Researchers not
only need to know how to develop certain indices or tests, how to
calculate the mean, the mode, the median or the standard deviation or chi-
square, how to apply particular research techniques, but they also need to
know which of these methods or techniques, are relevant and which are
not, and what would they mean and indicate and why. Researchers also
need to understand the assumptions underlying various techniques and
they need to know the criteria by which they can decide that certain
techniques and procedures will be applicable to certain problems and
others will not. All this means that it is necessary for the researcher to
design his methodology for his problem as the same may differ from
problem to problem.

F- VARIOUS STAGES OF A RESEARCH

Whenever a scientific problem is to be solved there are several important
steps to follow. The problem must be stated clearly, including any
simplifying assumptions. Then develop a mathematical statement of the
problem. This process may involve use of one or more mathematical
procedures. Frequently, more advanced text books or review articles will
be needed to learn about the techniques and procedures. Next, the results
have to be interpreted to arrive at a decision. This will require experience
and an understanding of the situation in which the problem is embedded.
A general set of sequential components of research is the following:
1. Selection of a research topic
2. Definition of a research problem
3. Literature survey and reference collection
4. Assessment of current status of the topic chosen
5. Formulation of hypotheses
6. Research design
7. Actual investigation
8. Data analysis
Lecture 1 Dr. Hasan Mahdi Al-Khateeb

9. Interpretation of result
10. Report