ASSIGNMENT

TOPIC NAME: IONOSPHERE

NAME:
MUHAMMAD RIZWAN

SUBMITTED TO:
DR.ABDUL RASHEED

SUBMISSION DATE:
15-06-2020

PROGRAMME:
M. PHIL (PURE PHYSICS)

INSTITUTE:
 GOVERNMENT COLLEGE
UNIVERSITY FAISALABAD
 We live at the bottom of an invisible ocean called the
atmosphere, a layer of gases surrounding our planet. Nitrogen and
oxygen account for 99 percent of the gases in dry air, with argon,
carbon dioxide, helium, neon, and other gases making up minute
portions. Water vapor and dust are also part of Earth’s
atmosphere. Other planets and moons have very different
atmospheres, and some have no atmospheres at all.The
atmosphere is so spread out that we barely notice it, yet its weight
is equal to a layer of water more than 10 meters (34 feet) deep
covering the entire planet. The bottom 30 kilometers (19 miles) of
the atmosphere contains about 98 percent of its mass. The
atmosphere is much thinner at high altitudes. There is no
atmosphere in space. The atmosphere can be divided into layers
based on its temperature, as shown in the figure below.
Troposphere
The troposphere is the lowest atmospheric layer. On average,
the troposphere extends from the ground to about 10 kilometers (6
miles) high, ranging from about 6 kilometers (4 miles) at the poles
to more than 16 kilometers (10 miles) at the Equator.Almost all
weather develops in the troposphere because it contains almost all
of the atmosphere’s water vapor. Clouds, from low-lying fog to
thunderheads to high-altitude cirrus, form in the troposphere. Air
masses, areas of high-pressure and low-pressure systems, are
moved by winds in the troposphere. These weather systems lead
to daily weather changes as well as seasonal weather patterns
and climate systems.Air in the troposphere thins as altitude
increases. There are fewer molecules of oxygen at the top of
Mount Everest, Nepal, for example, than there are on a beach in
Hawaii. This is why mountaineers often use canisters of oxygen
when climbing tall peaks. Thin air is also why helicopters have
difficulty maneuvering at high altitudes. In fact, a helicopter was
not able to land on Mount Everest until 2005.

As air in the troposphere thins, temperature decreases. This is why

mountaintops are usually much colder than the valleys beneath.
Scientists used to think temperature continued to drop as altitude
increased beyond the troposphere. But data collected with weather
balloons and rockets have showed this is not the case. In the lower
stratosphere, temperature stays almost constant. As altitude
increases in the stratosphere, temperature actually increases.
Solar heat penetrates the troposphere easily. This layer also
absorbs heat that is reflected back from the ground in a process
called the greenhouse effect. The greenhouse effect is necessary
for life on Earth. The atmosphere’s most abundant greenhouse
gases are carbon dioxide, water vapor, and methane.
Stratosphere
The troposphere tends to change suddenly and violently, but
the stratosphere is calm. The stratosphere extends from the
tropopause, the upper boundary of the troposphere, to about 50
kilometers (32 miles) above the Earth’s surface. Strong horizontal
winds blow in the stratosphere, but there is little turbulence. This is
ideal for planes that can fly in this part of the atmosphere.The
stratosphere is very dry and clouds are rare. Those that do form
are thin and wispy. They are called nacreous clouds. Sometimes
they are called mother-of-pearl clouds because their colors look
like those inside a mollusk shell.
The stratosphere is crucial to life on Earth because it contains
small amounts of ozone, a form of oxygen that prevents harmful
UV rays from reaching Earth. The region within the stratosphere
where this thin shell of ozone is found is called the ozone layer.
The stratosphere’s ozone layer is uneven, and thinner near the
poles. The amount of ozone in the Earth’s atmosphere is declining
steadily. Scientists have linked use of chemicals such as
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) to ozone depletion.

Mesosphere
The mesosphere extends from the stratopause (the upper boundary
of the stratosphere) to about 85 kilometers (53 miles) above the surface
of the Earth. Here, temperatures again begin to fall.The mesosphere has
the coldest temperatures in the atmosphere, dipping as low as -120
degrees Celsius (-184 degrees Fahrenheit, or 153 kelvin). The
mesosphere also has the atmosphere’s highest clouds. In clear weather,
you can sometimes see them as silvery wisps immediately after sunset.
They are called noctilucent clouds, or night-shining clouds. The
mesosphere is so cold that noctilucent clouds are actually frozen water
vapor ice clouds. Most shooting stars are the size of a grain of sand and
burn up before entering the stratosphere or troposphere.

Ionosphere
The ionosphere extends from the top half of the mesosphere all the
way to the exosphere. This atmospheric layer conducts electricity.The
ionosphere is named for ions created by energetic particles from
sunlight and outer space. Ions are atoms in which the number of
electrons does not equal the number of protons, giving the atom a
positive (fewer electrons than protons) or negative (more electrons than
protons) charge. Ions are created as powerful x-rays and UV rays knock
electrons off atoms.

Thermosphere

The thermosphere is the thickest layer in the atmosphere. Only the

lightest gases—mostly oxygen, helium, and hydrogen—are found here.
The thermosphere extends from the mesopause (the upper boundary of
the mesosphere) to 690 kilometers (429 miles) above the surface of the
Earth. Here, thinly scattered molecules of gas absorb x-rays and
ultraviolet radiation. This absorption process propels the molecules in
the thermosphere to great speeds and high temperatures. Temperatures
in the thermosphere can rise to 1,500 degrees Celsius (2,732 degrees
Fahrenheit, or 1,773 kelvin).

Exosphere

The fluctuating area between the thermosphere and the exosphere is

called the turbopause. The lowest level of the exosphere is called the
exobase. At the upper boundary of the exosphere, the ionosphere
merges with interplanetary space, or the space between planets.The
exosphere expands and contracts as it comes into contact with solar
storms. In solar storms particles are flung through space from explosive
events on the sun, such as solar flares and coronal mass ejections
(CMEs). Solar storms can squeeze the exosphere to just 1,000 kilometers
(620 miles) above the Earth. When the sun is calm, the exosphere can
extend 10,000 kilometers (6,214 miles).

Fig (A): Typical profiles of neutral atmospheric temperature with the

various layers designated, and ionospheric plasma density for both Day
time and night time.
 After knowing about the atmosphere and its layers, our
main purpose is to explore ionosphere and problems
concerning with ionosphere.
WHAT IS IONOSPHERE
Ionosphere is the region of the Earth’s upper atmosphere extending
from altitudes of approximately 60 km from the surface of Earth to the
altitudes beyond 1000 km, where the sufficient amount of charged
particles exists. In other words, this is the region of a shell of electrons
and electrically charged particles (atoms and molecules), also known as
plasma that surrounds the Earth. In plasma, the electrostatic force
attracts the negative free electrons and the positive ions to each other,
but they are too energetic to stay fixed together in an electrically neutral
molecule. The plasma concentration may amount to only about 1% of
the neutral concentration and the total ionosphere represents only less
than 0.1% of the total mass of the Earth's atmosphere (Kelley, 1989).
Even though it is such a small part, it is tremendously important and it
has a profound effect on the properties and behaviour of the medium .
Scientifically, the ionosphere is not another atmospheric layer.
During the daytime, the ionosphere separates into several layers or
regions depending upon the local time of day. The main layers are D-
region, E-region, F-region. The layers are generally characterized by a
density maximum at a certain altitude and a density decreases with
altitude on both sides of the maximum. The D-region ranges from about
60 km to 90 km and is controlled by ionization of neutrals by solar X-
Rays and Lyman alpha radiation, which cause two- and three-body
recombination and electron attachment.

THE LAYERS OR REGIONS OF IONOSPHERE

The different layers or regions in the ionosphere have different
characteristics and affect radio communications in different ways. There
are also differences in the exact way they are created and sustained. In
view of this it is worth taking a closer look at each one in detail and the
way they vary over the complete day during light and darkness.These
layers are following,

D REGION
When a sky wave leaves the Earth's surface and travels upwards, the
first region of interest that it reaches in the ionosphere is called the D
layer or D region. It is present at altitudes between about 60 and 90
kilometres and the radiation within it is only present during the day to
an extent that affects radio waves noticeably. It is sustained by the
radiation from the Sun and levels of ionization fall rapidly at dusk when
the source of radiation is removed. The D layer is chiefly generated by
the action of a form of radiation known as Lyman radiation which has a
wavelength of 1215 Angstroms and ionizes nitric oxide gas present in the
atmosphere. Hard X-Rays also contribute to the ionization, especially
towards the peak of the solar cycle. The D layer or D region mainly has
the affect of absorbing or attenuating radio communications signals
particularly in the LF and MF portions of the radio spectrum, its affect
reducing with frequency. At night it has little effect on most radio
communications signals although there is still a sufficient level of
ionisation for it to refract VLF signals. This region attenuates the signals
as they pass through. The level of attenuation depends on the
frequency. Low frequencies are attenuated more than higher ones. In
fact it is found that the attenuation varies as the inverse square of the
frequency, i.e. doubling the frequency reduces the level of attenuation
by a factor of four. This means that low
frequency signals are often prevented from reaching the higher regions,
except at night when the region disappears.
k
attenuation =
f2

Where:
k = constant
f = frequency of operation (Hz)

The D region attenuates signals because the radio signals cause the
free electrons in the region to vibrate. As they vibrate the electrons
collide with molecules, and at each collision there is a small loss of
energy. With countless millions of electrons vibrating, the amount of
energy loss becomes noticeable and manifests itself as a reduction in the
overall signal level. The amount of signal loss is dependent upon a
number of factors: One is the number of gas molecules that are present.
The greater the number of gas molecules, the higher the number of
collisions and hence the higher the attenuation.

E REGION
The E region or E layer is above the D region. It exists at altitudes
between about 100 and 125 kilometres. Instead of attenuating radio
communications signals this layer chiefly refracts them, often to a
degree where they are returned to earth. As such they appear to have
been reflected by this layer. However this layer still acts as an attenuator
to a certain degree. At the altitude where the E layer or E region exists,
the air density is very much less than it is for the D region. This means
that when the free electrons are excited by radio signals and vibrate, far
fewer collisions occur. As a result the way in which the E layer or E
region acts is somewhat different. The electrons are again set in motion
by the radio signal, but they tend to re-radiate it. As the signal is
travelling in an area where the density of electrons is increasing, the
further it progresses into the region, the signal is refracted away from
the area of higher electron density. In the case of HF signals, this
refraction is often sufficient to bend them back to earth. In effect it
appears that the region has the tendency for this "reflection" is
dependent upon the frequency and the angle of incidence. As the
frequency increases, it is found that the amount of refraction decreases
until a frequency is reached where the signals pass through the region
and on to the next. Eventually a point is reached where the signal passes
through the E layer on to next layer above it.

F-REGION
The most important region in the ionosphere for long distance HF
radio communications is the F region. During the daytime when
radiation is being received from the Sun, it often splits into two: the
lower one being the F1 region and the higher one, the F2 region. Of
these the F1 region is more of an inflection point in the electron density
curve (seen above) and it generally only exists in the summer. Typically
the F1 layer is found at around an altitude of 300 kilometres with the F2
layer above it at around 400 kilometres. The combined F layer may then
be centred around 250 to 300 kilometres. The altitude of the all the
layers in the ionosphere layers varies considerably and the F layer varies
the most. As a result the figures given should only be taken as a rough
guide. Being the highest of the ionospheric regions it is greatly affected
by the state of the Sun as well as other factors including the time of day,
the year and so forth.
The F layer acts as a "reflector" of signals in the HF portion of the
radio spectrum enabling world wide radio communications to be
established. It is the main region associated with HF signal propagation.
The action of the F layer in radio signals is the same as it is for the E
layer, although with the air density being less, there are fewer collisions
and les energy is lost. As a result, signals being reflected by the F layer,
and in particular the F2 later are subject to low levels of attenuation. As
a result, even low power signals can be heard at great distances. Like the
D and E layers the level of ionization of the F region varies over the
course of the day, falling at night as the radiation from the Sun
disappears. However the level of ionization remains much higher. The
density of the gases is much lower and as a result the recombination of
the ions and electrons takes place more slowly, at about a quarter of the
rate that it occurs in the E region. As a result of this it still has an affect
on radio signals at night being able to return many to Earth, although it
has a reduced effect in some aspects.

 SUMMARY OF FORMS OF RADIATION CAUSING

IONISATION IN THE IONOSPHERIC LAYERS OR REGIONS.

REGIONS PRIMARY IONISING

RADIATION FORMS
D Lyman, alpha,hard x- rays
E Soft x-rays and some ultraviolet
rays
F Extreme Ultraviolet and some
Ultraviolet
HOW IS IONOSPHERE IS FORMED?

The solar radiation of all wavelengths travels towards the Earth,

first reaching the outer regions of the atmosphere. When radiation of
sufficient intensity strikes an atom or a molecule, the photon transfers
its energy to the electron as excess kinetic energy. When this excess
energy under some circumstances exceed the binding energy in the
atom or molecule, the electron splits the influence of the positive charge
of the nucleus. This leaves a positively charged nucleus or ions and a
negatively charged electron, although as there are the same number of
positive ions and negative electrons, while the whole gas still remains
with an overall neutral charge. For example, Figure 2 shows helium atom
is incident by the solar radiation; electron is ejected from the atom and
get ionized giving the positively charged ion and free electrons. Similar
phenomena happens to other gases to form ionization and hence to
form ionosphere.

Fig (A): Ionization of molecules by solar radiation

Most of the ionization in the ionosphere results from ultraviolet

(UV) radiation. At each time of the ionization, an atom or a certain
amount of energy is used thereby reducing the intensity of radiation.
Because of this reason that the UV radiation causes most of the
ionization in the upper regions of the ionosphere, but at lower altitudes
the radiation that is able to penetrate further cause more of the
ionization. Accordingly, extreme UV (ultraviolet) radiation and X-Rays
give rise to most of the ionization at the lower altitude
The level of ionization varies over the extent of the ionosphere
with respect to altitudes as the level of radiation reduces with
decreasing altitude. So the density of the gases also varies with altitudes.
In addition, there is a variation in the proportions of monatomic and
molecular forms of the gases that is the monatomic forms of gases being
far greater at higher altitudes. Accordingly, the ionization constituent’s
also vary with altitudes with dominant of monoatomic charge in higher
altitudes.
The level of ionization in the ionosphere also varies with time of
day, seasons and many other external influences including the solar
activities. While the radiation from the Sun causes the atoms and
molecules to split into free electrons and positive ions, on the other
hand, when a negative electron meets a positive ion, they may combine.
Consequently, two opposite effects of splitting and recombination of
charges are taking place. This is known as a state of dynamic equilibrium.
Accordingly, the level of ionization is dependent upon the ionization and
recombination rate. This has a significant effect on radio wave
propagations and hence in communication systems.

IONOSPHORIC PROPAGATION
Since we know that the Radiation from the sun ionizes atoms and
molecules, liberating electrons from molecules and creating a space of
free electron and ions. Subjected to an external electric field from a
radio signal, these free and ions will experience a force and be pushed
into motion. However, since the mass of the ions is much larger than the
mass of the electrons, ionic motions are relatively small and will be
ignored here. Free electron densities on the order of 1010 to 1012 electrons
per cubic metre are produced by ionization from the sun's rays.

The major usefulness of the ionosphere is that the reflections

enable wave propagation over a much larger distance than would be
possible with line-of-sight or even atmospheric refraction eects. This is
shown graphically in Figure 2. The skip distanced max can be very large,
allowing very large communication distances. This is further enhanced
by multiple reflections between the ionosphere and the ground, leading
to multiple skips. This form of propagation allows shortwave and
amateur radio signals to propagate worldwide. Since the D layer
disappears at night, the best time for long-range communications is at
night
Where does the reflection come from? The reflections from the
ionosphere are actually produced by refraction as the wave propagates
through the ionosphere. The ionosphere is a concentrated region highly
charged ions and electrons that collective form an ionized gas or plasma.
This gas has a dielectric constant that is a function of various
parameters, including the electron concentration and the frequency of
operation
Figure (C): Altitude profile of ionosphere layers and
thermal structure of the atmosphere.
METHODS FOR STUDYING IONOSPHERE
The available techniques for observing the geospace can
be divided into three, viz – direct, indirect and remote sensing.
In the direct sensor method, an instrument is placed in the
medium to measure the properties of its immediate
surroundings, and they respond only to that which is to be
measured. Artificial satellites, rockets or balloon-borne
measurements comprise the direct method. In the second
method, an indirect sensor is placed within the medium but is
not instrumented with a detector. The properties of the
medium are monitored from afar by observing the motion of
the sensor. In the remote sensing method, however, no
instrument is placed in the medium. The properties are derived
from observations of waves that have traversed the medium or
those emitted from it.
The most commonly used remote sensing techniques and
devices for studying ionosphere are – ionospheric sounding,
transionospheric propagation, VLF propagation, whistlers,
partial reflections, coherent scatter radar, incoherent scatter
radar, MST radar, etc. Plasma probes are used for the
measurement of plasma density, temperature and electric
fields.These probes are simple devices based on current
measurements when the potential is applied to the sensor. One
of the most extensively used plasma probes is the Langmuir
probe in which plasma parameters are determined from the
current–voltage characteristics. The other probes are the
impedance probe and the resonance probe. If two probes are
used floating in the medium with a separation of few meters,
the electric field is measured from the potential difference
which in turn is approximated from the difference in the
current collected by the two sensors. Such probes are called
double probes.
 Mass spectrometers are used to determine the masses of
ions or neutral particles. Different types of mass spectrometers
are magnetic deflection mass spectrometer, Various kinds of
techniques are used to observe and measure the properties of
ionospheric plasma. Bennett–high frequency mass
spectrometer and quadrupole mass spectrometer.
Magnetometers are used to explore the magnetic fields in the
neighbourhood of the atmospheric dynamo at 100–130 km and
in satellites to explore the electric field in the neighbourhood of
the magnetopause. In recent times, the study of the
interplanetary magnetic field has become important due to the
role of space weather in radio communication. Various types of
magnetometers include – proton precession magnetometers
and alkali vapour magnetometers.
All these devices are used to study the ionospheric
parameters such as plasma density, temperature, ion
composition, current, neutral winds, etc. One basic problem
associated with these is that as soon as a space vehicle is sent
to the ionosphere, it can disturb the neutral atmosphere and
the ionospheric plasma. To avoid such disturbances and the
resulting contamination of the atmosphere by the gases
emitted from the measuring equipment, they are usually
degassed, and sealed up in a vacuum before launch. The seal is
broken only when they reach the desired height.
IMPORTANCE OF IONOSPHERE:
ROLE OF IONOSPHERE IN RADIO COMMUNICATION:
The ionosphere often plays a great role in broadcasting,
ship and aircraft communication and navigation by reflecting
the radio signals back to the receivers. However, its
effectiveness depends on the frequency of the transmitted
signal. This is critical because the behaviour of the ionosphere
often shows marked differences during day and night.
Moreover, it is known for changing its behaviour during
different seasons. What is relieving, however, is that the
variations are regular, and they may also be predicted. These
predictions help in the planning of radio services. The
propagation of the radio signal is influenced by the dispersive
nature of the ionospheric plasma and refraction of a signal
depends on the wave frequency. The ionospheric refractive
index represented by by the Appleton–Hartree equation is
n=¿ )^1/2 eq (1)
Where f p is the electron plasma frequency in Hz,and f is the
angular frequency.
It can be seen from this equation that the refractive index of
the ionosphere is less than unity and depends on the frequency
of the wave. At a certain frequency, it becomes zero while at
the lower frequency it becomes negative.
From (1), the magnitude of the phase velocity can be derived
as,
w c
vp = k =n
where “n” be the refractive index of ionosphere given by eq (1)
As the refractive index is less than unity, phase velocity exceeds the
velocity of light in free space. It also depends on the frequency. When
the information is modulated with the radio wave, it travels with the
group velocity which is always less than the velocity of light. The group
velocity can be obtained by the equation
∂w
vg = ∂k its values can be inserted from eq (1) and eq (2).

From these equations, it can be seen that the propagation speed of

radio waves varies along their path through the ionosphere as the
refractive index varies with the plasma density and the radio wave
frequency. When the velocity of the wave varies with the frequency, the
medium is known as a dispersive medium. Because of this dispersion,
the idea of group velocity is introduced to represent the velocity of the
crest of a group of interfering waves, where the component waves have
different individual frequencies and phase frequencies.

ATTENUATION OF SIGNAL AT IONOSPHERE

When a radio wave enters and interacts with the ionosphere, some
amount of energy of the radio wave is transferred to the electrons and
ions of the ionosphere, resulting in the oscillation of the interacting
particles at the same frequency as that of the radio wave. As a result,
the radio wave is attenuated when passing through the ionosphere.
Attenuation is more in the D region where neutral particle density is
more as compared to the upper regions. Moreover, the collision
frequency of the electrons with the neutral particles is inversely
proportional to the square of the frequency of the radio waves. As a
result, attenuation is greater as the frequency is lower or wavelength is
longer. Accordingly, when radio signals pass through higher levels of the
ionosphere, the signals suffer little loss of strength.
Furthermore, from (1) it can be seen that for a given frequency, the
refractive index decreases while passing from a medium of lower to
higher electron density. Hence a beam of radio wave going upwards will
be refracted downwards. Now let us consider a radio wave of frequency
f. At first, the electron density N in eq (1) is small and the velocity of the
wave is nearly equivalent to that of light in free space. But as altitude
increases, N also increases and phase velocity must increase while the
frequency remains the same. Consequently, refractive index decreases,
and at a certain condition, it becomes zero. At this condition, the
electron density is called the “critical electron density”, and the radio
wave can no longer be propagated in the upward direction and is
reflected back to the earth. In this way, the ionosphere is being used for
long distance radio communication in the HF band.

IONOSPHERIC EFFECTS ON SATELITTES COMMUNICATION :

 In view of the preceding discussions, it will be appreciated that the
ionosphere is a useful tool for long-distance radio communication in the
HF band. A completely opposite situation arises in connection with the
communication from a satellite or a space probe to Earth where waves
of very high frequency (VHF) i.e.well above the critical frequency of the
F2 region are used to avoid their reflection back to space. For satellite
and space based systems, the ionosphere acts as a deteriorating
medium and affects the performance of these systems. Inhomogeneities
in the refractivity occur due to the presence of ionospheric irregularities
between 200–1000 km altitudes. The signal amplitude and phase of a
radio wave propagating through the ionosphere fluctuates, and the
phenomenon is known as ‘scintillation’. The ionospheric scintillations
can also disturb satellite communications, global positioning systems,
radat systems and astronomical observations.

Radio waves are affected by the phenomena of reflection,

refraction, diffraction, absorption, polarization and scattering when
traveling through the ionosphere as similar to the form of
electromagnetic radiation, like lighting waves . Radio propagation is the
behaviour of radio waves when they are transmitted, or propagated
from one point on the earth to another, or into various parts of the
atmosphere. When the radio waves are transmitted from the surface of
the Earth, they are reflected back from the ionosphere and able to reach
the transmitter (as shown in Figure 4). So the ionosphere has Figure 3.
Model calculation of electron density (or plasma density) profile of the
equatorial ionosphere at noon (solid lines) and midnight (dashed lines)
for solar minimum (blue lines) and solar maximum conditions (red lines).
Practical importance because, among other functions, it influences radio
propagation to distant places on the earth.
Radio wave was being used on a daily basis for broadcasting as
well as for two-way radio communication systems. Radio waves,
microwaves, infrared and visible light can be used for communication
system. For instance, radio waves are used to transmit television and
radio programs, while the microwaves are used to transmit satellite
television and for mobile phones. Additionally, infrared wave can be
used to transmit information from remote controls.
The radio wave propagation is affected by many factors such as by
the daily changes of water vapour in the troposphere and ionization in
the upper atmosphere, due to the Sun. Understanding the effects of
varying conditions on radio propagation has many practical applications,
from choosing frequencies for international shortwave broadcasters, to
designing reliable mobile telephones systems, or radio navigation, to
operation of radar systems. Moreover, radio wave propagation is also
affected by several other factors determined by its path from point to
point. This path can be direct line of sight path or an over-the-horizon
path added by refraction in the ionosphere, which is a region between
approximately 50 and 600 km. In addition, factors influencing
ionospheric radio signal propagation can include ionospheric variability
such as sporadic-E, Spread-F and ionospheric layer tilts, and solar
activities such as solar flares, geomagnetic storms, and solar proton
events and so on.

Fig(D): Radio
wave propagation
from Ionosphere

Radio wave
was being used on
a daily basis for
broadcasting as
well as for two-way radio communication systems. Radio waves,
microwaves, infrared and visible light can be used for communication
system. For instance, radio waves are used to transmit television and
radio programs, while the microwaves are used to transmit satellite
television and for mobile phones. Additionally, infrared wave can be
used to transmit information from remote controls.

SUMMARY
The ionosphere is a continually changing area of the atmosphere.
Extending from altitudes of around 60 kilometres to more than 400
kilometres it contains ions and free electrons. The free electrons affect
the ways in which radio waves propagate in this region and they have a
significant effect on HF radio communications.
The ionosphere is a continually changing area. It is obviously affected
by radiation from the Sun, and this changes as a result aspects including
of the time of day, the geographical area of the world, and the state of
the Sun. As a result radio communications using the ionosphere change
from one day to the next, and even one hour to the next. Predicting how
what radio communications will be possible and radio signals may
propagate is of great interest to a variety of radio communications users
ranging from broadcasters to radio amateurs and two way radio
communications systems users to those with maritime mobile radio
communications systems and many more.

REFRENCES:

1) The Earth’s Ionosphere: Plasma Physics and

Electrodynamics book by M C KELLEY .
2) Introduction to Ionospheric Physics by H RISHBETH, O
K GARRIOT.
3) Plasma Physics An Introduction to Laboratory,
Space,and Fusion Plasmas book by ALEXANDER PIEL.
4) Research paper on Ionosphere and its influence on
radio communications by R S DABAS.
5) Plasma Physics book by F F CHEN.
6) Plasma Physics book by SURESH CHAND.