Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Control Systems Laboratory: Analogue Computer
Control Systems Laboratory: Analogue Computer
College of Engineering
Electrical Department
EXP(8)
Analogue Computer
By
Hamza OSAMA
Supervisor
̈ ̇
̈ ̇
The analogue computer block diagram of the above differential
equation is shown below in fig. (2). Instead of using separate
summers, amplifiers, and integrators, we used summer-integrators,
this allowed us to greatly cu down on the number of components
needed.
IDEAL CHARACTERISTICS
In this experiment, we will be concerned only with the "ideal"
operational amplifier. It is
this model, which is the simplest to analyze and which describes the
operation that the
circuit designer would consider "perfect" were it not for real-world
limitations. The
symbol for an operational amplifier is shown in Figure 3. V+ and V-
are the input
Figure 3: Operational amplifier symbols. Pin numbers are
those of a 741 eight pin dual-inline package.
voltages and Vo is the output voltage. These are related by the simple
expression
Vo = Ao (V+ - V-), (3)
where Ao is the open-loop voltage gain and +VCC and –VCC are the
positive and negative
DC power supply voltages, respectively. There is no internal
"ground" or "common"
connection; voltages are measured relative to the common connection
of the two power
supplies. The numbers on the diagram refer to the pin numbers on
the 741 integrated
circuit (IC) package as shown in Figure 3. The pin numbers and the
supply voltages are
usually omitted in circuit diagrams as long as there is no ambiguity.
Pin 8 is not used.
Pins 1 and 5 do serve a useful purpose, but they will not be
considered in this lab.
Apparatus:
1. Power supply ( 18) V dc.
2. Function generator.
3. Oscilloscope.
4. Discrete components (op-amps, resistors, capacitors).
5. Computer and MATLAB program).
Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit shown in fig. (1) that represents equation
(1), using 741 op-amps and standard components available in
the lab.
2. Use thee function generator to supply a square wave (step)
signal of amplitude 2V pk-pk and find the output response
.
3. Construct equation (1) using Simulink and find the output
response
.
Discussion:
1. Compare experimental response with simulated outpt
response.
It would be rather surprising if despite these similarities
there were no differences between simulations and
experiments. For, if there were no substantial differences
why would people still invest large sums into highly
sophisticated experimental set-ups like that of a particle
collider when they could just as well buy a super computer?
Some philosophers believe that it is rather difficult to draw
a sharp line between simulations and experiments
(Morrison 2009, Winsberg 2010, Parker 2009), but we
believe there are at least three fundamental differences
between simulations and experiments which are highly
relevant for the epistemic status of either category.
First of all, experiments can provide us with new empirical
data, computer simulations cannot. While it is true that
computer simulations deliver results that may not have been
known or expected by us beforehand, computer simulations
can by their very nature only produce results that are
implied by the premises on which the simulation is built. It
is important here to understand the difference between
a) things that are not logically implied in our prior
knowledge,
b) things that are logically implied in our prior knowledge
but unknown to us and
c) things that are logically implied in our prior knowledge
and also known to us. For category a, simulations cannot
help us; only experiments can help. For category b,
simulations and experiments can help us. And for category
c, neither is needed, because we know it already. Another
way of putting it would be to say that simulations can only
deliver us results that fall within the deductive closure of
our prior knowledge.
Therefore, if the term “empirical data” is understood as
data of empirical origin then computer simulations do not
generate new empirical data. Sometimes the term
“empirical” is used in a wider sense. Barberousse et al.
(2009, p. 560), for example, speak of the data that is
generated by simulations as data about empirical systems.
But they, too, do not consider it to be new data of empirical
origin.
Another important difference is that some experiments
operate directly on the target system, while computer
simulations never do. More precisely, the kind of relation
that subsists between the experimental object and the target
system is typically one of the following: identity, being an
instance, being a part. For example, if a car tester wants to
know whether a car can drive faster than 100 mph and, in
order to find out, accelerates the car to that speed then the
object is identical with the target system. If physicists want
to know whether white light is composed of different colors,
they can let a beam of light fall through a prisma to find out.
In this case the object (a particular beam of light) is an
instance of the target system (light). If an archaeologist
intends to determine the age of an old building and takes a
stone of that building to submit it to certain tests than the
object is a part of the target system.
There are also experiments that do not operate directly on
the target system. If one experiments with an electrical
harmonic oscillator in order to learn something about a
mechanical oscillator (Hughes 1999, p. 138), then this
experiment does not operate on the target system itself. But
the fact that some experiments operate on the target system
or on an instance or a part of the target system, suffices to
set the two categories of experiment and simulation apart.
Because experiments can operate on the target system, the
experimental method has an epistemic reach beyond that of
simulations.
2. Explain the effect of changing the value of potentiometer of
the system response.
When the potentiometer resistance is decreased (the wiper
moves downwards) the output voltage from pin 2 decreases
producing a smaller voltage drop across R2. Likewise, when
the potentiometer resistance is increased (the wiper moves
upwards) the output voltage from pin 2 increases producing
a larger voltage drop. In a potentiometer, the entire input
voltage is applied across the whole length of the resistor, and
the output voltage is the voltage drop between the fixed and
sliding contact as shown below. A potentiometer has the two
terminals of the input source fixed to the end of the resistor.
Appendix:
Summer (adder)