Location of the Caribbean

Greater Antilles
Cuba Hispaniola Puerto Rico Jamaica
Lesser Antilles
Winward Islands
St. Lucia St. Vincent Grenada Dominica Martinique Guadeloupe
Leeward Islands
Antigua Barbuda St. Kitts Montserrat Anguilla Virgin Islands
Netherland Antilles
Dutch Islands: Aruba Bonaire Curacao St. Marten
Mainland Countries
Guyana Belize Suriname French Guiana
No groups
Barbados TT Cayman Islands Bahamas Turks & Caicos

The Social
The totality of explanations describing how people react and make meanings from their experiences
The wide ranges of explanations people have for the same thing

Society and Culture

Society is the collection to people living in the same area over a period of time.
Culture is the way of life of a people.

Society
Is the largest unit/group to which individuals belong
Each society has a social structure that is a network of interrelationships among individuals and groups.
Sociologists study these various relationships in order to determine their effects on overall function of
society

Elements of Society

1. Population Characteristics
2. Social Behaviour
3. Social Institution
4. Cultural Influences
5. Social Change

1. Population Characteristics
These determine the general social patterns of a group of people living within a certain geographical
area
There are two kinds of population studies:
Demography – Systematic study of size, composition and distribution of the population.
Demographers usually analyse studies that include
People’s age Birth and Death Rate Marriage Rates Migration patterns
Human Ecology (Settlement and growth in towns and cities)
Deals with why and how cities and communities grow and change

2. Social Behaviour
Is examined from the point of view of the sociologist. They usually work with small groups and observe
attitude to change, conformity and leadership morale. They also study social interaction which is
generally the way members of a group respond to each other and to other groups.
Standards of behaviour are passed from one generation to the next thus, sociologists observe how
people adjust their behaviours to conform to these standards.
Sociologists also study social roles e.g. traditions (the function or expected behaviour of an individual
within a group) and status (person’s rank)

3. Social Institution
These organize relationships among the people which tend to perform specific actions within the
society. These include churches, government, hospital, families, schools.
As such, each institution has a direct effect on the society in which it exists.

4. Cultural Influences
Culture in the eyes of a sociologist can be defined as “The accumulated store of symbols, ideas and
material products associated with a social system, whether it be an entire society or a family member
(Johnson, 1995).
Some examples of broad definition of culture would include:
A society’s arts, beliefs, customs, institutions, languages, technologies, norms and values. As a result,
culture can produce similar behaviour and thought among most people in a particular society.

Characteristics of culture

1. A culture satisfies human needs in a particular way

2. Culture is acquired through learning
3. Culture is based on the use of symbols
4. Culture is made up of individual traits and groups of traits are called patterns

1. All cultures serve to meet basic needs shared by human beings. Every culture has family relationships,
economic and governmental systems, religious practices and forms of artistic expression.

2. Culture is acquired through learning not through biological inheritance i.e. a person is not born with a
culture though children take on the culture in which they are raised. Children learn their culture through
imitation, experience and observation children can also obtain aspects of culture unconsciously.

Note: Cultural learning results from verbal communication

3. Culture is based on the use of symbols

Cultural learning is based on the ability to use symbols. An example of a symbol is the words of a
language. In some instances, there are obvious connections between a symbol and what it stands for.
4. Cultures are made up of individual elements called cultural traits. A group of related traits or
elements is a cultural pattern.

Material Culture – consists of a society e.g. buildings, jewellery, machinery, cuisine, paintings and artistic
creations, economic organization.

Non-material Culture – This refers to a society’s norms, beliefs, superstitions and values that guide their
behaviours. E.g. handshakes, marriage ceremonies and the system of justice.

Culture as subculture

A subculture is used to describe variation within a culture. Social groups can develop some cultural
patterns that set them apart from a larger society. Subcultures can develop in business, ethnic groups
and religious groups e.g. maroons in Jamaica, Juka people in Suriname and Amerindians in Belize.

Pluralism

This is a society in which two or more racial or ethnic groups live together but where there is limited
mixing of cultures or intermarriage. Each culture has maintained its own social institutions.

Ethnocentrism

This is based on the belief of superiority e.g. clothing

Characteristics of Caribbean behaviour

1. They love making fun of other people

2. Celebrations festivals
3. Religion
4. Preference for white, western culture
5. Strong familiar ties
6. Informality

 Cultural diversity – This is the existence of subcultures within a main culture of different cultures in a
larger area such as the Caribbean and the US.
 Social Stratification – This is the social management of society based on criteria such as wealth, race
and education.
 Social Mobility – This is the movement, usually of individuals or groups from one social position to
another within the socially stratified system in a society
 Hybridization – This is a mixture of cultural traits and exchange of values from other cultures
 Cultural erasure – This is where tropes or practices of a culture are no longer practiced over time.
 Cultural retention – This may occur as a result of the deliberate desire to keep traditions alive and
help some groups to preserve their sense of identity. It is also defined as the process where past
cultural practices are practised presently
 Cultural renewal – This is where cultural practices that were once done are being received for the
fashioning of new practices based on those of the past e.g. Voodoo.
Impact of historical practices

Migratory movements

The ancestors of the pre-Columbian Amerindians may have come out of North-East Asia crossing the
frozen Bering Strait to Alaska during the 4th Ice Age 20000 years ago. Over hundreds of years, the
Amerindians moved and some settled. Some of these groups were the Aztec, Maya and Inca. The
Orinoco basin and the Guianas in South America were the original homeland of the Caribs and Arawaks
who migrated northwards through the Lesser Antilles to the Greater Antilles. By 1492, the main Arawak
groups which inhabited the West Indies were the Lucayans in the Bahamas and the Tainos in Cuba,
Jamaica and Puerto Rico. The greatest Amerindian civilizations flourished on the mainland of South
America and Mesoamerica.

Due to the constant movement of people into and out of the Caribbean, we developed a regional
migration tradition. The propensity to migrate took off immediately after emancipation in the 1830’s
where 1000’s of men and women from the smaller islands migrated to Trinidad and British Guiana in
search of higher wages and better conditions.

By 1845, more than 10000 migrants form small West Indies islands had travelled to Trinidad and over
8000 had gone to British Guiana. Many of the emigrants eventually returned home displaying the fruits
of they labour. The movement continued from for a long time as a feature of Caribbean people i.e. to
move from small islands to larger ones in a complex inter-island migration.

In the present day, however, migration patterns have reversed.

Present day, people from larger islands move to the smaller islands

(Guyana) People from countries who come to other countries to pursue tertiary education and to get
jobs

Encomienda System (System of unfree labour)

Hispaniola was a test ground for Spain’s Indian policy. The Arawaks had to present Columbus with a
certain amount of gold which are measured in ingots (calabash filled with gold nuggets and dust).
Columbus made the Tainos dive for pearls and many of them drowned. Taino chiefs were hunted and
killed by Spanish dogs if they did not adhere to the rules. Nicholas de Ovando who was the Spanish
governor was appointed by the crown to oversee the encomienda system. The rich Spanish (the
encomendero) gained jurisdiction over the land and had the Amerindians working for them. Nicholas de
Ovando had to protect the Taino but did nothing for them and as a result, many of them died of
starvation. In 1510, in Hispaniola, father Antonio Montesinos began to represent the Tainos. As a result,
the Laws of Burgos sought to alienate the tensions between Spanish and Amerindians.

Laws of Burgos

 All Amerindians were freed

 All had to be put to work for their encomenderos
 All were to be converted to Christianity
This system continued until 1542 where the new laws of the Indies prohibited the enslavement of
Indians and prevented doing personal services for encomenderos. By 1560, the encomienda system was
only partially banned as some encomenderos still practiced this system.

Repartimiento and Yanconaje system

Repartimiento was primarily practiced in Central Mexico. All adult males had to do rotation work. In
Spain, repartimiento was called Mita and the repartimiento was overseen by an encomendero.
Yanconaje was practiced in Peru and Bolivia. The Mayans and Aztecs and Incas were more likely to be
part of Repartimiento, Tainos and Caribs were more likely for encomienda. These were due to
settlement locations.

African Slaves (Slavery)

Labour to work on sugar plantations was sought from Africa because African slaves were accessible,
stronger, healthier, less prone to diseases, and had knowledge of tropical cultivation. The journey of
slave ships from Africa to the West Indies (Middle Passage) was horrific to say the least and was
characterized by a high mortality rate. African slaves were treated as commodities (Chattel).

Asientos a contract between a company and the Spanish crown.

Plantation Society

The plantation is a capitalist type of enterprise. In which land and in some cases people are treated like a
commodity. Race, colour, status, occupation and ethnicity affects the social pyramid of plantation
society

(Capitalism concerned with production)

Indentureship

Indentured labourers from India were assigned contracts in which they were paid wages to work for a
specified period of time. After the contracts expired, they were given the option to return to their
homelands or to receive a plot of land. Indentureship was supposed to differ from slavery but the
servants were treated as harshly as the slaves for a small wage.

 India was a poor land

 India did not have enough jobs
 Some women left their families due to harshness

Caribbean People’s Response to Oppression

Encomienda

In response to the encomienda system, the Amerindians committed genocide, suicide and infanticide.
Caribs fought back with bows and arrow with poison tips.

Slavery

Active Resistance: Revolts, rebellions, riots, stealing and damaging property, maroonage, poisoning
masters.
Passive Resistance: Idling, pretending ignorance, disobedience

During indentureship, conditions were so bad that people found different ways of resisting or
responding to it. Indians use to strike or protest a lot.

Movements towards independence

In the late 1930s, political parties and labour and trade unions were formed. The Foster Commission
1935 in Trinidad, and the Moyne Commission 1938, were put in place to examine the social and
economic conditions in each country.

Universal Adult Suffrage – Right to vote by everyone

Impact of Geographic Phenomena on The Caribbean

Plate tectonics – This is the study of the movement of plates and their resultant landforms. The earth’s
crust is made up of two plates, the continental plates and the oceanic plates. These plates move/float on
molten rock.

Types of Plate Margins

Convergent Plate Margins – At these margins, two plates move towards each other and it is called a
destructive plate margin. At a convergent plate margin, either a collision zone or a subduction zone may
be formed. A collision zone occurs where two continental plates collide forming fold mountains e.g.
Eurasian and Indian plates collided to form the Himalayan mountains. A subduction zone occurs where
an oceanic plate collides with a continental plate and the denser oceanic plate is forced under. At a
convergent plate margin, volcanoes and earthquakes occur e.g. the eastern end of the Caribbean plate
along the line of the Lesser Antilles and the North American plate and the Caribbean plate.

Divergent Plate Margins – At this plate margin, the plates move away from each other and is called a
constructive plate margin as new crust is formed. This results in gentle volcanic and earthquake activity.
Magma is forced upwards and a new crust is created e.g. The Caribbean and North American Plates
move away from each other to form the Cayman Island ridge.

Volcanoes

A Volcano is an opening in the Earth’s crust through which molten rock, ash and steam are ejected. In
the Caribbean Mount Pelee in Martinique erupted in 1902 and killed 30000 people.

A nuee ardente which is a flowing cloud filled with super-heated ash and gases descended on the village
and suffocated the residents.

Earthquakes

These are sudden earth movements or vibrations in Earth’s crust. They are caused by the development
of faults in the crust which results from collision of plates or from the movement of molten rocks below
or within the crust or the sudden release of stress that has slowly built up along a plate margin. The
focus is the point at which the earthquake originated. The epicentre is the point on the surface of the
Earth directly above the focus.
The Risks Involved with Earthquakes

1. Tremors – This occurs where the ground vibrates during an earthquake. During a tremor, waves
travel outwards from side to side, walls may crack, windows may break, utility poles fall and
buildings collapse.

2. Ground fissures – This is where the ground splits and cracks.

3. Liquefaction – This is the process whereby reclaimed land or loose sediments behave like a
liquid during an earthquake.

4. Fire

5. Flood

Port Royal Earthquake in Jamaica 1692 – The entire city of Port Royal slumped into the sea as a result of
liquefaction. Over 3000 people died as a result.

Kingston, Jamaica 1907 – 6 to 6.5 on the Richter scale. It caused fires where 85% of buildings were
destroyed. There were 800 deaths and ground fissures were over 15 cm apart.

Dominica 2004 6.3 mag destroyed 3 historic churches, hospitals. There were landslides and the walls of
buildings collapsed.

Indonesian earthquake and tsunami 2004 – occurred on Sumatra, upward displacement of 10 m.

Travelled at 800 Km/h.

Soils

Soil is the uppermost layer of loose material on top of the surface of the Earth. It consists of tiny
particles derives from the broken-down fragments of rock together with humus.

Soil erosion

Soil may be eroded by:

 Soil compaction by grazing animals and machinery.

 Deforestation
 Overgrazing
 The use of artificial fertilizer
 Monoculture
 Slash and burn cultivation
 Forest fires
 Bad agricultural practices
 Soil conservation
Soil may be conserved by:

 Terracing
 Mulching
 Windbreakers
 Contour ploughing/drainage
 Crop rotation
 Canopy cover
 Cover cropping
 Intercropping
 Reforestation

Hurricanes

A hurricane is a low-pressure system formed in warm waters. All hurricanes develop over the sea. They
do not develop close to the equator as they require a surface temp of 27 o.

Before hurricanes

 Calm weather
 High humidity
 Strong swells

As the hurricane approaches, cloud cover builds up and winds intensify.

During a hurricane

The wind is strongest near the eye of the storm. The eye of the storm is a calm draught of warm air in
the centre. After the eye passes, the wind drops but starts again.

After a hurricane

The wind speeds gradually stop and heavy rain may continue. There can be wind damage where 40%
increase in windspeed doubles the destructive power. Wave damage can occur. Waves may reach up to
8m high and there may be severe beach erosion. Marine life along with coral is damaged or killed.
Coastal structures are damaged and ships and boats at sea are at risk.

The storm surge

Near the eye of major hurricanes, sea levels are several meters above normal and are strengthened as
they approach the shore.

Flooding – also occurs by slowly rising waters. Landslides are triggered where steep hills are sodded with
rain.

Hurricane Ivan, Grenada Sept 2004 – 80 to 90% of houses were damaged or destroyed and 5000 to 6000
people slept in shelters. Power lines were down and the water supply was contaminated. A recently
built national stadium was destroyed along with most schools on the island. 90% of trees were
destroyed and fell. Roads were blocked and the airport was closed and phone and radio transmitters
were down and even the prison roof was blown off.
Impact of Societal Institutions on Caribbean people

Family (Primary Socialization)

The family is the most fundamental universal social institution and has several functions. These include
reproduction, socialization, economic unit to supply basic needs and emotional and psychological
support. The family ought to be the first to instill in a child, attitudes, norms and values so that his/her
own behaviour can be developed.

Education/School

The primary function of the education system is to promote socialization of young people. Schools
transmit a society’s values, attitudes, beliefs, norms, specific skills and system of knowledge to young
people. It also recruits young people for specific occupational and social roles in society. Schools also
help to keep people out of the labour market and promotes technological change in society by providing
the basis of knowledge and skills that enable technological innovation to occur.

Religion

Men in every society throughout the ages have pondered over questions dealing with such matters as
existence, purpose and divinity. To help explain the unexplainable, provide a sense of purpose in life,
and make the unknown future less threatening, every society has developed the institution of religion.
Historically, religion was influenced by the stratification of society where many Amerindians and
Africans practised hybridization.

Religious institutions therefore meet any basic human needs that are not met by other institutions. They
deal with the ultimate human concerns of life and death. It provides a set of beliefs that explain and
interpret occurrences in the social and physical environment that cannot be explained by other means.
They also serve as a basic human need for providing people with ethical principles, morality and a set of
guidelines for appropriate behaviour. They also provide a set of beliefs for interpreting the causes and
consequences of a person’s past, present and future conducts. Religious institutions provide people with
an identity as members of a specific group and a sense of connectedness with the past and future. Thus
it provides emotional support and consolation in the face of uncertainty, anxiety, defeat, alienation and
disappointment.

Family

Functionalist perspective

Functionalists say that the family should carry out several functions for order, stability and harmony in
society including reproduction, socialization, economic functions and the provision of love and a sense
of belongingness. The functionalist ideas and values provide a basis for the common interpretation of
the institution and of the family across the region. The family is seen as a basic unit of society. If these
functions are carried out in an optimal manner, and if everyone plays a role, then families would be
happy and society would not be threatened by a breakdown of social order. For the conflict theorists,
families are associated with exploitation, oppression and domination. Nuclear families in particular are
seen are products of capitalism where labour has to move where employment is located leaving behind
the extended family. Conflict theorists also argue that the values attributed to nuclear family units are as
a result of the values imposed by the rich and powerful in society. The nuclear family form also fits into
the capitalist plans that there is a sexual division of labour where the man works outside and the woman
stays at home and carries out the role of wife, mother and homemaker. Conflict theorists believe that
the assigning of roles in a family has contributed to family oppression, abuse and violence. This is
because what results is an unequal distribution of power that jeopardizes gender relations and even
produces general conflict. Even children are affected by this assignment of roles as they are expected to
be obedient and subservient and many of them are powerless because their voices are silent.

The Justice System

This refers to the ideas and beliefs that a society has about protecting and preserving the rights and
obligations of citizens through the political and judicial framework in a country. Political framework is
the idea that citizens entrust power to representatives to make decisions, defend and uphold their
interests. The legal framework is the system of laws which are fair to all persons and enshrined within a
constitution

The justice system has three main features:

1. The use of prisons and policing

2. The informal system which involves diversion and rehabilitation
3. Surveillance

Functionalist perspective of the justice system

Functionalists believe that values about justice, equality and fairness are universally acclaimed as good
and form the basic framework of society. Society has to have ways of dealing with those who break the
laws of society because they contribute to disorder and disharmony leading to chaos and confusion.
Functionalists created the institution of the justice system to take care of such deviance by one or more
of the following; punishment, deterance or rehabilitation. The police force and the court system have a
role to perform. Deviant behaviour is explained largely in terms of breakdown of the family socialization
process or how individuals react to changes in society.

Marxist Perspective

According to Marxist thought, the justice system is another institution that forms part of the state
apparatus. It functions to maintain the wealthy in power and by extension, seeks to oppress others and
discriminates against them. The view is that the inequalities of society are brought on by capitalism
which helps to isolate the poorer class who cannot access better jobs. So the acts of crime that these
individuals may commit could be regarded as a rebellion against their situation. Marxists believe that
there is a superstructure that includes the police service and the law courts which functions to control
the activities of the poor. Criminal statistics are used as a device to blame social problems on the social
class. This is evidence of unequal law enforcement because many of the crimes of the wealthy go either
unreported or unpunished in some, thus, social order is imposed by the powerful on the powerless and
is not based on shared values. The justice system serves the interest of the elites and is not about social
integration as functionalists believe.

Individuals

Laws may or may not respect an individual’s rights to cultural differences e.g. a man’s cultural rights to
have several rights may not be respected legally. Laws may be respected legally but not at another
organization such as a school e.g. a girl’s legal rights to wear whatever she wants may not be respected
in a school where there is a uniform.

Groups

Constitutions may restrict the rights of certain groups as they see fit. E.g. persons under 18 are not
allowed to vote. Laws may also discriminate between certain groups e.g. people over 65 are allowed to
retire while in certain jobs, people are not allowed to retire with benefits.

Institutions

Claims of justice may be represented to protect members of institutions such as the family through
family court.

Interacting with the wider world

Neo-Colonial

Postcolonial society

The dominant attitudes and cultural forms today still reflect the metropole rather then the periphery.
There is therefore a belief that the legacy of the colonizer is still hejemonic despite our independence.

The indigenous effort sto regain legitimacy of our cultures have been largely ignored. Where there is an
import export relationship where investors invest their profits outside the region. These relationships
between the ex-colonizers and the excolonized are labelled as neolocal

These relationships between the ex-colonizer and the ex-colonized today are labelled as neo-colonial.

Postcolonial society is a term to describe neo-colonial relationships of continued dominance and

subjugation affect people in the ex-colonies and continue to keep them where they are.

Ways in which extra-regional countries influence the Caribbean

Consumption patterns

Western countries have profoundly influenced consumption patterns in the Caribbean. Colonial patterns
for many years have skewed our economic relationships with them by prohibiting us from
manufacturing and encouraging dependency. Despite attempts to combat this, people still view
European products as superior so we can conclude that this reflects a mindset of privileging western
values.

Examples:

 Value of assessing what is foreign whether through clothes, ideas or music is somehow better
than the local alternatives which is viewed as a sort of self-hate imposed by the colonizer on the
colonized.
 The extreme importance placed on being modern. Having the most up to date western products
is a must because since the west is the pacesetter we just have to follow the trend.
  Building social capital through brand name has been seen as a way to confer approval from
peers. Those without these brands are seen as losers.

 The Caribbean feeling that the US is a must go place where it is even said that having a holiday
visa is a status symbol because ‘foreign’ is the center of the world.

Imports from Canada, USA and Europe

Fresh food, electronic items, motor vehicles, computers, appliances, music and entertainment, books,
magazines, clothes, consultants, experts and advisers.

Exports from the Caribbean

Freshly packed foods and other agricultural produce, fish, music, carnival costumes, songs, artists and
performers, migrants, students, tourists

Creative Expression

Our expressions are unique among themselves and show strong influences especially among extra
regional territories through:

Festivals, music, theatre and cuisine.

Festivals

Effects of the Caribbean on the outsiders

Western territories and other former colonizers directly influence our society and culture through
observances of certain religious days such as Easter and Christmas. We also celebrate them in a similar
way in the Caribbean including the immense role of mass media and commercialization on certain
religious holidays.

Secular festivals, such as New Years, Father’s Day and valentine’s Day have penetrated our culture due
specifically to the US.

Halloween hasn’t yet penetrated but is on the rise. All these celebrations have been immensely
commercialized and gained popularity due to mass media.

In the Caribbean diaspora, Valentine’s day is an everyday kind of thing festivals have come to play a big
role in the lives of the migrant

England and elsewhere large Caribbean festivals are staged featuring our music, food, craft fashion and
general culture

 Notting Hill Carnival (England)

 Caribana (Canada)
 Labour Day
 Point ____ Day (NY)
Notting hill Carnival (England)

This is staged in Notting Hill London the last weekend in August since the 1950s. It began with the black
immigrants from the West Indies particularly form Trinidad it served as a form of uniting the immigrants
who were facing racism, unemployment, poor housing and general oppression which led to suppression
of self-esteem.

Labour Day Festival (Brooklyn)

The West Indian American day carnival is the biggest parade in NY with 3 million participants each year

The parade depicts costumes, while illustrating beauty and pageantry with many masqueraders and live
performers. The parade begins at 1 am and ends at 6 pm and there are usually live performers in front
of the viewing stage at the Brooklyn library.

Music

Most of our successful music form developed from African, European and Asian mix with African music
having the dominant role.

Impact on Caribbean by colonizers

Most of our successful music forms have been developed through themes of resistance from our history
of oppression through colonization and stratification which would explain why they originated among
the poor. Calypso and Reggae are our forms of music

Reggae has always been associated with resistance as the message of defiance against British authority
has linked together all those who have been oppressed likewise calypso sought to oppress inequalities
like racism and political and religious oppression from the Roman Catholic church in Trinidad and
Tobago.

Impact of Caribbean on Colonizers

Steel band men/panists

Today steel band music is on curriculum of some schools in America and fashioning of pans is a growing
skill which has potential to contribute to economies of countries in NA and Europe.

Over 600 panists from NA, Europe and the Caribbean take part in the International Steel Band Festival.
There is also the Pan European Association which promotes development of Pan in Europe.

Cuisine

Cuisine in the Caribbean has a high degree of creative adaptations of the food traditions of Europe,
India, China and the Pre-columbian peoples. E.g. use of salt fish in Jamaica has its origins from the
importation of smoked fish from British colony of Canada to feed slaves.

Notably in modern times the Caribbean has seen the rise of fast foods.
Our influence on extra-regional territories as it relates to cuisine

There has been a limited acceptance of Caribbean culinary practices, foods, seasoning and beverages in
mainstream America and Europe. This little acceptance tends to focus in the large cities where there are
concentrations of Caribbean people e.g Miami, London, Toronto, NY. These foods and products are
largely purchased by immigrants. Evidence that Caribbean foods are not widely accepted can be seen in
the lack of representation in the menus across the UK, USA and Canada.

Politics

Extra Regional Influence that Political Influnce has on us

In the 60s and 70s, while the region was gaining independence, the model to the government that was
instilled was the Westminster system. This was prevalent in the British Empire and today these
independent former British Governments make up the Commonwealth. This system is a parliamentary
government where the head of Government is the Prime Minister and depends on the Parliamentary
body for his or her position. This simply means that there is no separation of powers.

During this era of decolonization, this system was imposed on us without our input.

In other Caribbean Islands, the electoral system was imposed was the First Past the Post System where
Candidates run for a seat in Parliament based on Constituency. This candidate who gains the most votes
in a constituency wins. Therefore, for a party to win the election, they must get the majority of seats in
Parilament.

Our Influence on Politics

Political Influence of the Caribbean on the outside world is based mainly on the issue of migration that
Caribbean Nationals have been associated with. From the beginning of the century where there is a
large immigrant population, the population is in a position to form groups to influence policy making
and issues such as education, discrimination and unionization. The Caribbean impact in politics is quite
evident in the US in the number of state and city legislators of Caribbean heritage during national
elections.

Migration

Extra-Regional Influence on us

The culture of migration that characterizes Caribbean societies sees migration as a means for a better
life. This has resulted in major cities in countries like the USA, Canada and England to be heavily
populated with Caribbean nationals.

Positive effects of migration

 Training of skilled individuals who migrate and contribute to the Caribbean

 Remittances from foreign workers.

Negative effects of migration

  Brain Drain.
 Racism and discrimination in these countries.
 Injustices felt by seasonal workers who are segregated by the general population on farms or
handed down menial jobs.

Our influence on Extra Regional Territories

According to New York newsday newspaper in the US, the Caribbean nationals are more
socioeconomically mobile than African American and Hispanic. Thus they represent not only very
significant power but they also generate jobs and contribute to the development of the areas they choose
to reside in, for eg, as a result of the brain gain, nations educated at the expense of Caribbean states
migrate to develop countries where they establish themselves thus contributing to their economy. Also,
carnival celebrations help to generate millions of dollars to the economy of Canada, USA and England
when Caribbean festivals are held. Thus, these celebrations boost tourism and the promotion of sales of
businesses.

Sports

Some of the European Influenced sports in the Caribbean are:

 Cricket
 Soccer
 Tennis
 Netball

Some sports and recreation influenced by North America are:

 Basketball
 Hip Hop
 Rap
 Halloween

The Caribbean region is the paste sector in cricket and track and field. In cricket, we invented cutting,
batting as well rejuvenated the sport in the 1930s. in track and field, Jamaica has a long standing tradition
of doing extremely well producing athletes such as Usain Bolt and Asafa Powel.
Tourism
Positive

 Foreign Exchange earnings

 Cultural and heritage retention
 Infrastructural development
 Popularity

Negative

 Prostitution
 Drug trafficking
 Environmental pollution such as damage to beaches and coral reefs, erosion of soil through hotel
construction and the destruction of natural vegetation.

Rastafarianism

Rastafarianism evolve as a cult in Jamaica. The cult perfected in the 1930s and leaders such as Marcus
Garvey, stimulated this movement with their belief in racial dignity. Rastafarians form tribes and live in
communes with each tribe having a leader who possesses power over all other tribe members. Within the
Rastafarian religion, women are regarded as inferior to men and exist only for their pleasure. Often times
the women are seen walking behind their men and never in front or even to the side. This has evolved in
modern times where women are no longer subservient but rather are treated equally.

MODULE 2
Concepts of Development
Development has been understood to have 3 different interpretations.
1. Development as an enactment of human values – This concept essentially says for anything to
develop, improvement must be based on some values which are being implemented. E.g. one may
argue that for an economy to develop there must be an implementation of values which raise the
standard of living. E.g. human rights

2. Development as increasing differentiation or complexity – This concept essentially means that for
anything to develop it must become more complex and differentiated where the component parts
will inter-relate

3. Development as liberation or human freedom – This states that for people to be developed there
must be an accompanied growth in autonomy. The options we can pursue and the self-efficiency
or the significance of their actions.
Approaches to development
1. Economic development – The specific goal of development in the Caribbean after slavery was
abolished was economic development through economic growth. Economic growth is referred to
as an increase in the value of goods and services produced by a country within a specific time
period thus all problems such as poverty and backwardness in the Caribbean would be solved by
economic growth.

Economic growth indicators – There were various indicators to measure development however they only
measured economic growth. These indicators included:
1. Gross National Product (GNP): The value of goods and services from a country plus any foreign
GNP
revenue. GNP per capita ¿ .
Population

2. Gross Domestic Product (GDP): This is the total market value of the goods and services of a
GDP
country in a given year. GDP per capita ¿ .
Population

3. Population growth rate: This is calculated by considering birth and death rates and migration
statistics. As such, if one has a smaller population, then the GNP and GDP per capita should rise.

4. The age-dependency ratio: This is the ratio of people under 15 and over 65 (dependents) to the
working age population i.e. those between 16 and 64.

The traditional emphasis placed on economic development was to implement measures which solely
increased production while limiting population growth. This formed the basis of economic policies in the
Caribbean from the 60s to the 80s. However, these approaches were modelled in a uniform way and did
not address the problems faced by citizens. Additionally, while production did increase to some extent, a
large part of the population did not benefit from this growth. Economic development has evolved since
then to focus not only on economic growth but also the welfare of the people and poverty reduction.
Economic Development Indicators
The economic and non-economic indicators of development are collectively used to assess the level of
development among countries. Some indicators of development include:
1. Levels of industrialization

2. Employment levels

3. Economic structures such as primary, secondary and tertiary industries.

4. The levels of local and foreign debt

5. Levels of foreign aid receipts

 6. National resource accounting which focuses on how natural resources are depleted to drive
productivity.

7. Purchasing power parity which assess the impacts of inflation, shortages and dislocation of the
economy.
Human development
The human development paradigm (HDP) in the 90s brought together ideas from economic
development and sustainable development to find a more holistic way of describing development by
putting humans at the center. The HDP has 3 basic views:
1. That people are the end means of development; thus if our quality of life increases, we observe
development.

2. Development is largely about broadening people’s choices so that they’ll have more opportunities
to improve themselves in ways that will make them satisfied and earn income

3. Poverty and income inequality are the major problems in human societies which prevent good
quality of life.
Therefore, human development according to the HDP includes improving the quality of life of people
through the four areas of empowerment, equity, productivity and sustainability
Sustainable Development
This is a concept of advancing a people’s quality of life through both economic and human growth and
development without compromising future generations and the capacity to meet their own needs. It deals
with the preservation of the environment.
In some places like Haiti, their daily survival is more of a priority than the wellbeing of future generations
the environment will be exploited out of necessity. Hence, measures must be implemented to reduce
inequality and poverty. Big companies often exploit the environment to make a profit. Therefore,
measures to increase the empowerment of citizens to raise issues against the interests of big businesses is
critical to ensure sustainability.
Goals of Sustainable Development
Equity
This refers to the commitment on the part of the people and Government of a country to enable all social
groups to access the opportunities that the country offers and to be fair to all groups including minorities
as they grasp these opportunities.
Productivity (Based on Equity)
This refers to an understanding that if people have equal access to educational and job opportunities then
their productivity will increase. As such, if a person has adequate job qualifications then in a system like
this, they most likely will not be in a dead end job where there is no challenge.
Empowerment (Based on Equity)
This refers to the degree to which individuals have a feeling of self-efficiency which means that they have
a knowledge that they are capable of doing things to improve their lives. As such if people have equal
opportunities to be productive citizens then most likely they will be happy and will have a high esteem
enabling them to make broad decisions in their best interests.
Non-Economic Indicators of development

 Life Expectancy
 Levels of Education
 Ratio of doctors to the population
 Labour productivity
 Distribution of income
 Improved institution and attitudes
 Urbanization
 Birth and death rates
 A nationally coordinated system of policy measures

Factors that influence development

Political Ideologies
These are systems of beliefs about governance and power that reflect the needs and aspirations that reflect
the needs of particular social groups e.g. capitalism, communism and socialism. In the Caribbean,
capitalism is the prevailing ideology.
During the postcolonial era, since the emphasis was economic growth through capitalism, but poverty
was still a problem. Some believed that to increase the way of life, alternative ideologies of the people
should be implemented. These people were influenced by the Dependency theorists of Latin America who
stated that the colonial conditions encouraged dependency, under development and poverty through an
imbalance in the trading relationships between the dependent and the mother country.
Ideologies can make countries vulnerable to external interference in the domestic affairs of the country
and can also limit the extent to which countries are able to forge a coordinated foreign policy on the other
hand, the region has been able to maintain stable and democratic governments which have provided
opportunities for economic stability with a favourable investment climate.

e.g Two examples include Cuba (communism) and Venezuela (dictatorship ideology). Both
communists USA doesn’t like. Interferes
The Marxists type revolutions which took place in Cuba 1959 and Grenada 1979 and the attempts to
establish such principles in Guyana in the 1960s and 1970s were focused on increasing human
development through increasing equality
Social Factors
These include poverty and inequality. I.e. the distribution of wealth and stagnant mobility. Distribution of
wealth and resources can either hinder or promote development. Caribbean societies have always been
characterized by social stratification where the elites owned the capital, the middle class owned some
property while the lower classes had only their labour to sell. If wealth is unevenly distributed, then this
can hinder development. When concentrated in the hands of a few, it can lead to a low level of
investment, high unemployment, a high level of unskilled labour force as there would be low expenditure
on education. It can also result in corruption. As a consequence, there is low productivity among high
income earners, and brain drain. It leaves the Government with a high borrowing from international
sources, which results in higher taxation rates and rising levels of inflation.
To solve this, incentives for production have to be offered to attract investors and the Government has to
increase its involvement in areas such as infrastructure, development, education, minimum wage, and
better auditing and accountability.
Most countries in the Caribbean e.g. Jamaica, display an unequal distribution of wealth. In Jamaica, the
system is in favour of the ruling class which consists of large landowning families local capitalists,
international capitalists and a small number of strategically placed professional managers. These groups
of people in Jamaica make up less than one percent of the population in the 1970s but controlled 70% of
the wealth in the economy. Today majority of the wealth. Is concentrated in the hands of 21 families.
Changing the Class Boundaries
If within society there are no avenues or scope for social mobility lead to antagonism as people will see
themselves as inferior or as less important than those who occupy higher status. A rigid class structures
breeds insecurity and mistrust which can have a negative impact on development. There must be an
avenue for upward social mobility to reward those who are industrious, visionary and productive.
Economic factors
These factors dictate how limited resources are used to satisfy needs and unlimited wants. Since resources
are limited, it is essential to allocate them in the most efficient way possible for the benefit of the most
people. Resources can be divided into land, labour, and visionary leadership. Leadership ensures stability
and is what will envision for the future what’s needed and have that available for when the time comes.
Some of the economic factors are:

 The maximum use of resources

 Efficient usage of time, money and energy
A country can increase its use of

 Discovery of natural resources

 Increasing foreign investments
 Expanding skilled labour force
 Technological advancements
When these resources are properly allocated:

 Goods and services in the local market will become more competitive
 Economic benefits will accrue
 Facilitating higher employment
 Social benefits will accrue increasing employment and when this increased revenue is well spent,
human development will increase
Technological Factors
These relate to the use of mechanical and electric instruments to solve the practical problems of
production. When technology is used properly, there can be increases in:

 Management effectiveness and performance efficiency

 Organized functions and intelligent workforce
 New products and services
However, competition from outside forces can reduce the demand in traditional goods and actually reduce
development and growth.
Environmental factors – These relate directly to nature but indirectly to economics because we need raw
materials in order to produce goods as well as land in order to dump our waste.
If the environment is sustainably taken care of, the carrying capacity of the land can increase leading to
boosts in the productive sectors that is primary, secondary and tertiary industries as well as through
tourism
Summary of The Factors That Promote or Hinder Development
1. Most Caribbean countries have the legacy of slavery and this has stratified the society under
factors of, economic status, race, colour, education, wealth and marriage. As a result of this, there
is a sense of inferiority and superiority among the classes which in turn hinder development
2. Unfair discrimination other than by merit hinders development a person should not be
discriminated against race, colour, religion, sex, status or creed. Where such discrimination
exists, low levels of production will occur
3. A country with high crime and violence can generate a fear throughout the population. As a
result, productivity is diminished and distorted and development is hindered.
4. Access to education and training is critical in assessing the development of a country.
5. Healthcare should be a priority of the Government as unhealthy workers will spend less time at
work and therefore they will be less efficient than expected.
6. Technology allows for increased knowledge. Knowledge can help to promote development as
new and modern techniques can be implemented.
Some features of under-development

 Poor economic performance

 High rates of population growth
 Low standard of living
 Relatively short life expectancy
 High unemployment
 High crime rate
 Poor educational opportunities
 Considerable dependence on agriculture
 High infant mortality rate
Problems of Development

 Economic dualism
 Unemployment
 Size of the population
 Migration
 Industrialization
 The role of education
 Role of information technology
 Problems of regional trade
 Structural adjustment

Globalization
Globalization is the process whereby there are flows of trade, finance and information between countries
which are broadened and deepened so that they function as one global market, as if they had no borders.
Globalization has been derived by the information and communication technologies or ICT sector in
recent times. E.g. the internet can exist without borders allowing for worldwide communication. This is
the logical meaning of globalization where when applied to trade, finance or communication the
commodity is available to all everywhere as if the nation states didn’t exist. A truly globalized world only
exists when there is a level playing field for all where everyone can benefit from trade in technology.
Information access has been able to allow ordinary citizens to access the prices globally of produce and
services to challenge old monopolies. Monopolies are therefore no longer as profitable as they were.
There is now a question as to how capitalist organizations can function in a globalized world.
Globalization is therefore a process which erodes distinctions between various places removing
advantages that only certain groups enjoy. Globalization produces knowledge in an area which can be
disseminated through all parts of the world
Internationalization
This is a more accurate term to describe the world now. Internationalization of Flows in trade And
Finance refers to increasing interactions among the countries of the world as their markets become more
integrated and as their trade volume increases. Internationalization recognizes the nation state, it concedes
interaction between nations and it conceives that nations are not equal. There is no deepening or
broadening of linkages in capital, trade and finance as is the case for globalization.
Global factors are:

 Submission to an economic model

 Constriction of capital flow
 Access to more markets
 Removal of preferential trade
 Erasure and/or hybridization of culture
 Social inequality
Globalization impacts communication, money and organization.
Multi/Transnational Organizations

This is a business organization/cooperation/enterprise that has its headquarters (parent company) in one
country (capitalist/industrialized country) and has branches/subsidiaries/franchises and plants in many
countries. They seek out the best profit opportunities and are largely unconcerned with issues such as
poverty, inequality and unemployment. Such organizations carry out substantial amounts of financing
production sales ,research and development in their foreign operations. They would also usually have
great economic power including a large capital base, stocks, bonds and technology and they are usually
based on manufacturing or mineral industries (extractive/primary industries).

The purpose of multitransnational organizations

These organizations are set up to take advantage of the lower cost of foreign labour and material. These
organizations are created to avoid paying tariffs and taxes on importing goods. They can obtain control
over the supply of resources.

The reason why these organizations invest in third-world countries are because of the access to cheap
labour, tax breaks and freedom and control of profits.

Disadvantages

 If the developing countries refuse to meet the demand of their organizations they can complain to
their home country and pressure can be applied to the third-world country by withholding foreign
aid, loans and terminating countries.
 The natural resources of third-world countries are exploited by these organizations.
 These overseas organizations pose threats to local industries

Advantages

 They provide jobs, introduce new technologies to improve production

 Diversify business practices
 Improve the standard of living (e.g. and health facilities)
 They earn foreign exchange
Technology (media and telecommunication)

Technological globalization impacts on all aspects of life on the planet. It is through technology and
communication that the world grew in the global village. Technology allows information to be
transmitted in real time via the internet, telephone, television and radio. This means that information or
communication is being carried out 24 hrs a day and you can view the events happening in other countries
at the same time. Mobile communication and the internet have irrevocably changed human relations both
negatively and positively. Exposure of the worldwide web on the communication industry along with
mobile technology is responsible for the speed at which globalization has been facilitated. Developing
countries in the Caribbean have 3G and 4G networks which can facilitate real-time video streaming on
cellphones.

Critiquing Globalization and Internationalization

As students we need to critically analyse the process of internationalization of markets. Not only the
economic dimensions of impacts but also the cultural and political responses as well. Developmental
agencies have used internationalization as a path to development for use by developing countries.
Internationalization occurs between unequal partners that is superpowers, industrialized countries,
developing countries and poorer ones.

1. The expansion of free trade – trade liberalization requires countries to remove tariffs placed on
imports to protect their own industries. Calls to do so when ignored can lead to restrictions from
larger free trade areas

2. Measures to tighten efficiency – When output is increased while reducing costs, this can lead to
an increase of mechanization which essentially replaces workers with machines. This is done to
increase competitiveness in industrial countries looking to take advantage of trade liberalization
with low production costs

3. The persistence of tariffs – This often subsidises production costs in developed countries to
remain competitive in foreign markets while maintaining their own. (Protectionism – where
companies help to reduce cost but reaches the higher markets

4. Market integration – Integration of trade markets between developing and developed countries
has increased the volume of trade in recent times. Opening markets to capital flow is one of the
main ways in increasing trade.

5. The dominance of transnational corporations – these firms operate as large internationally

integrated production systems with e.g. headquarters in Europe but factories in Guyana and mines
in Trinidad. They are driven more by the profit motive than the needs of the country and its
people often generating little employment due to high modernization and capital focus. E.g.
Exxon Mobil
6. Homogenization of institutions- Multilateral organizations such as the world bank and the
International Monetary Fund (IMF) lend money to assist the internationalization of markets as a key
factor of development. They coerce governments to accept recommendations regarding capital and
finance. As a result more countries have similar institutions.

7. Multilateral Agencies – These are agencies or institutions where many members are able to
participate on even footing dedicated to achieving certain goals and have devised procedures for all to
follow in pursuit of these goals. Most of these institutions began after world war II and were formed
at a UN meeting at Brettonwoods in New Hampshire in 1945 and are known as Brettonwoods
institutions. Their goal was to ensure economic development of all countries to prevent recurrences of
catastrophes such as the World Wars and The Great Depression.

The World Bank

This was originally called the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development. Its headquarters is
in Washington DC and has 187 member countries. The countries which fund the World Bank are Western
Europe, North America and the rich oil countries. The Presidents are customarily US Nationals. The bank
is involved in providing capital for projects to promote development. Its sole focus originally was based
on economic growth. However the bank switched to poverty reduction based on the new definitions of
development.

Benefits of the World Bank

 Low interest
 Financial and technical services
 Supposed poverty reduction

International Monetary Fund (IMF)

As a Brettonwoods institution, the IMF works closely with the World Bank. Having the same
membership and headquarters but instead having a customary European President. The IMF focuses on
fostering global monetary cooperation and ensuring financial stability worldwide. Extending loans and
technical assistance to expand trade and help countries balance payments. Globally the IMF is responsible
for overseeing the entire international. IMF industries are based solely on austerity and are the same for
all developing coutnies including:

 Keeping interest rates high to balance currency

 Devalue the currency to boost exports
 Reducing Government spending in nonproductive sectores e.g health and eeducation.
 Privitization of state owned enterprises

These austerity measures or structural adjustment policies have to be agreed upon by the respective
governments before giving assistance. Implementatinos of SAPs have resulted in widespread
unemployment before giving assistance and increase poverty while simultaneously ensureing a profit to
the debtor nations in all cases
World Trade Organization (WTO)

The WTO was formed in 1995 and its headquarters is in Geneva Switzerland and has 148 members. It
regulates trade in goods and services in telecommunication and banking. It is more modern than the IMF
or World Bank and clearly speaks of globalization. The WTO is the only international body established to
oversee the rules of international trade.

Main functions of WTO

 Administrating WTO trade polices and agreements

 Handling trade disputes or conflicts
 Providing technical assistance and training for developing countries

The US, EU and TNCs have been accused of exterting undue pressure on developing countries in the
decision-making process. WTO meetings all over the world have been met with demonstrations and
criticisms. Allegedly some developing countries refuse to accept some policies.
NB: It seems based on these meetings that when developed countries are faced with the prospect of
Globalization, they back down in favour of internationalization of free trade where they only benefit.

Economic Partnership Agreement (EPA)

This is a preferred trade agreement between countries that facilitate free trade. In 2008, members of
CARICOM signed an EPA with the EU.

Benefits of the EPA

 There is a free flow of goods

 There is an exemption from high taxes which would result in quota limits being higher.
 The EPA opens markets beyond WTO especially in service sectors such as entertainment
industries

Impact and response to Globalization in the Caribbean

The impact that globalization has on the Caribbean is characterized by the small size of Caribbean states,
the regions financial dependency on the industrialized world and its history of fragmentation on colonial
powers.

 Industry and commerce – Industrialization by invitation facilitated the development of

infrastructure and created jobs for thousands in the Caribbean

 Distributional sector (Supermarkets and Department Stores) – for commerce to compete the
distribution and retail centres must satisfy the demand for foreign goods while competing with
consumer products which have become more dominant than locally made goods.

 Labour – As labour is a major factor of production, it is one of the first elements to be affected by
globalization and the last to benefit from any short-term or long-term fix. Modernization and
public sector reform as a response to globalization i.e. private sector downsizing, cooperate
 mergers and buyouts have all contributed to massive layoffs. The economies of the Caribbean
have not been able to buffer unemployment and the results have been migration (brain drain).
One approach the Governments have taken is to give scholarships to students to work in the
region. In some instances, incentives are given to University graduates who work in the public
sectors.

 Ideology and Popular Movements – given the varied and complex impact that globalization has
on individual countries, economic, social and environmental processes they have been responses
from various groups within society. Globalization developed the growth of movement within the
civilized society; i.e. social groups that represent the interests and issues of people, especially
those at risk. E.g. NGOs (Non-Government Organizations) that function as a social movement
that is legally constituted for the purpose of carrying out social functions primary through
advocacy. ________ Caribbean Association for Feminist Research and Action (CAFRA).

General Effect Globalization has had on development

Caribbean exports have decreased for a variety of reasons including:

 The removal of trade preferences

 The underselling of local products by cheaper foreign goods and services
 The closure of both large and small firms who cannot compete with the technological efficiencies
of foreign manufacturers. This means that the context of unbalanced development for Caribbean
countries has been one of spiraling debt and decreasing productivity and output

The Caribbean is divided among European languages and traditions. Any form of regional integration was
relatively unthinkable until 1994 with the formation of the Association of Caribbean States (ACS). The
English-speaking Caribbean with its similarities has long founded different associations including the
West Indies Federation, CARIFTA and CARICOM. At the sub regional level, the ACS was formed.

Regionalism and Globalization

Under systems of increasing globalization, smaller nation states have found it more advantageous to
integrate some parts of their operations so that they can better deal with the threat posed by the free
market ideology. In the Caribbean, there was an attempt at political integration using the West Indian
Federation model which was not successful. Member states then began anew via CARIFTA. This was
aimed at using the free market idea to reap benefits through the functional cooperation of trade. However,
there was a limited amount of cooperation among the Caribbean countries. This led member states to seek
deeper association especially in the Free Market which was a strategy for development endorsed by world
bodies. This effort gave birth to CARICOM.

The West Indies Federation (WIF)

This was an early attempt at developing a political union ________ except: Guyana, Belize, the Bahamas
and the British Virgin Islands. Member of the West Indies Federation are: Antigua, Barbados, Dominica,
Jamaica, Montserrat, St. Kitts and Nevis, Anguilla, St. Vincent, St. Lucia and Trinidad and Tobago. A
federation is a group of self-governing territories which are states or nations in their own right but the
overarching authority for all of them is under a centralized federal Government. The WIF came into being
in January 1958. Legislatures of all the British Colonies in the region except those not a part of the
organization met and were a part of the regional economic summit. Committees were set up to investigate
means of achieving economic unity. A standing closer association committee was set up to devise a
federal constitution. A final agreement was reached in 1957 where the Imperial Government retained
responsibility for defense, external affairs and financial stability. There would be a senate of 19
nominated members and a house of representatives of 45 elected members. There would be a Governor-
general, prime minister and 10 ministers. The Federal seat of Government would be in Trinidad. Elections
were held in March 1958 with the West Indies Federal Labour Party (WIFLP) supported by Normal
Manley, Eric Williams and Grantley Adams. Defeating the Democratic Labour Party (DLP) supported by
Bustamante and Gomes with the WIFLP with 26 to 19 seats. This integration step was mainly a political
one and lasted only four years. This was due to Eric Williams of Trinidad and his refusal to accept
unrestricted freedom of movement between territories into his territory and Alexander Bustamante’s
referendum in 1961 to come out of the Federation which he won. Grantley Adams was the Prime Minister
of the Federation. During its brief existence, a number of fundamental issues were debated with the view
to strengthen the federation. Among these were direct taxation by the federal government, central
planning for development, establishment of a regional customs union and reform of the federal
constitution. The issue of direct taxation was particularly controversial. The federation was not permitted
to levy or impose income tax for at least the first 5 years of its life. Added to this were the greatly
differing positions among the territories with respect to how other federal taxes should be levied. In
addition, the Federation began to quickly seek toe establish federal institutions and supporting structures.
It created a federal civil service and established the West Indies shipping service in 1962.

Cooperation in tertiary education was consolidated and expanded during this period. The then University
College of the West Indies (UCWI) was established in 1948. Today, The University of the West Indies
has 5 campuses across the Caribbean.

The Federation faced several problems. These included:

 The Governance and administrated structures imposed by the British

 Disagreements among the territories over policies, particularly with respect to taxation and
central planning
 An unwillingness on the part of most territorial governments to give up power to the Federal
Government
 The location of the Federal capital

The main decision which led to the demise of the federation was the withdrawal of Jamaica which was
the largest member. After conducting a national referendum in 1961, on its continued participation in the
arrangement. The result of the referendum showed majority of support in favour of withdrawing from the
Federation. This led to a famous statement by Dr. Eric Williams of Trinidad that “1 from 10 leaves
naught” referring to the withdrawal of Jamaica and signifying and justifying his decision to withdraw
Trinidad and Tobago from the Federal arrangement a short while later.
CARIFTA

The Caribbean Free Trade Association (CARIFTA) was founded by Antigua and Barbuda, Barbados,
Guyana and Trinidad and Tobago on the 15th December 1965 with the signing of the Dickinson Bay
agreement. They were joined on July 1st 1968 by Dominica, Grenada, St. Kitts and Nevis, Anguilla, St.
Lucia and St. Vincent and the Grenadines and on August 1 st 1968 by Montserrat and Jamaica. In 1971,
British Honduras (Belize) joined the association. These Caribbean countries had recently become
independent and CARIFTA was intended to unite their economies and to give them a joint presence on
the international scene.
CARIFTA was specifically intended to encourage a balanced development of the region by:

 Increasing trade – Buying and selling more goods among the member states.
 Diversifying trade – Expanding the variety of goods and services available for trade
 Liberalizing trade – Removing tariffs and quotas on goods produced and traded within the area
 Ensuring fair competition – Setting up rules for all members to follow to protect the smaller
enterprises

In addition to providing for free trade, the agreement sought to:

 Ensure that the benefits of free trade were equitably distributed

 Promote industrial development
 Promote the development of the coconut industry (through an oils and fats agreement) which was
significant in many of the lesser developed countries
 Ratoinalize agricultural production and in the meantime facilitate the marketing of selected
agricultural products of particular interest to the LDCs through the agricultural marketing
protocol
 Provide a longer period to phase out customs duties on certain products which were more
important for the revenue of the LDCs
---------- At the 7th heads of governments conference decided to transform the Caribbean free trade
Association into a common market to establish the Caribbean Community of which th Common market
would be an integral part. The signing of the treaty establishing the Caribbean Community was called the
Treaty of Chaguaramas which was signed on the 4th of July 1973. This was a defining moment in the
history of the commonwealth Caribbean although a free trade area had been established, CARIFTA did
not provide for the free movement of labour and capital or the coordination of agricultural, industrial and
foreign policies. CARICOM came into being with the signing of the Treaty of Chaguaramas in the 4 th
July 1973 by Jamaica, Trinidad, Barbados and Guyana. It began operation on August 1 st and presently
membership includes CARIFTA members as well as Haiti and Suriname.

Main Objectives of CARICOM

 Improvement in economic development through trade liberalization

 Functional cooperation in areas such as health, education, culture, broadcasting, meteorological
services, technical assistance and disaster management
 Common policies in dealing with non-member states and transnational companies

Benefits of CARICOM:

 Services offered by many institutions

 Economic strength as resources are pooled
 Better negotiations with trading partners
 Larger markets for individual states
 Stronger persuasive voice in global matters
 Stronger Caribbean identity and a better appreciation of cultures
 Benefits of talents of individual member states
 Establishment of CCJ as well as CSME

Failures of CARICOM:

 Competition among member states

 Ideals of common currency and passports still not achieved

OECS

The Organization of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS) came into being on June 18 th 1981. When 7
Eastern Caribbean countries signed a treaty agreeing to cooperate with each other and promote unity and
solidarity among the members. The treaty became known as Treaty of Basseterre so named in honor of
the capital city of St. Kitts and Nevis where it was signed. The basis of the organization was that
following the collapse of the West Indies Federation and prior to the signing of the Treaty of Basseterre,
two caretaker bodies were created: The West Indies Associated States Council of Ministers in 1966 and
the Eastern Caribbean Common Market (ECCM) in 1968.

The OECS is now a 9 member grouping comprising of:

 Antigua and Barbuda

 Dominica
  Grenada
 Montserrat
 St. Kitts and Nevis
 St. Lucia
 St. Vincent and the Grenadines
 British Virgin Islands
 Anguilla

_____major regional institution contributing to the sustainable development of the OECS member states
by assisting them to maximize the benefits from their collective space by facilitating their intelligent
integration with the global economy by contributing to policy and program formulation and execution in
respect of regional and international issues by facilitation of bilateral and multilateral cooperation.

_________

 To deal more effectively with international bodies by forming __________

 OECS member states have a common currency
 They are small independent states, share common strategies for development, a common high
court, central bank

Association of Caribbean States (ACS)

The ACS was established in 1994 among 25 member states, 3 associate

states____________________________________________ of ________ and formed the world’s 4th
largest trading bloc. The primary aim in setting up this wider Caribbean body was to promote economic
cooperation and to encourage a coordinated approach to issues of importance such as trade,
transportation, health and science to all the countries in the region.

The objectives of the ACS are:

 Incorporating the collective human and physical resources of the Caribbean for economic, social,
cultural and technological advancement
 Maximising the potential of the Caribbean Sea by working with member states and other
organizations.
 To encourage increased trade and investment opportunities through cooperation.
 To provide new and improved measures to promote the cultural identities of its members