Physics: Kharkiv National University of Radio Electronics

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF UKRAINE
KHARKIV NATIONAL UNIVERSITY

OF RADIO ELECTRONICS
CENTER FOR STUDENTS TRAINING IN

FOREIGN LANGUAGES
PHYSICS
Students’ Manual for Laboratory

Works
Composed by Yuriy
T. Zholudov
Dmytro V. Snizhko
Kharkiv 2014
1
Методичні вказівки до лабораторних робіт з дисципліни «Фізика»
для студентів центру НСІМ, які навчаються англійською мовою за
напрямами 6.050102 «Комп’ютерна інженерія», 6.051402 «Біомедична
інженерія» / Упоряд.: Ю.Т. Жолудов, Д.В. Сніжко. - Харків: ХНУРЕ, 2014. -
53 с.
Упорядники: Ю.Т. Жолудов,

Д.В. Сніжко Рецензент: М.М. Рожицький, д.ф-м.н., проф. каф.
БМІ ХНУРЕ
2
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
......................................................................................................... 5 1
PROJECTILE MOTION
............................................................................................ 6 1.1 Goal of this
work ................................................................................................. 6 1.2
Methodical instructions ........................................................................................
6 1.3 Description of laboratory setup.
........................................................................... 8 1.4 Execution order
.................................................................................................... 9 1.5 Report
content .................................................................................................... 11 1.6
Control questions ...............................................................................................
12 2 BALLISTIC PENDULUM
...................................................................................... 13 2.1 Goal of this work
............................................................................................... 13 2.2 Methodical
instructions ...................................................................................... 13 2.3
Description of laboratory setup. .........................................................................
14 2.4 Execution order
.................................................................................................. 15 2.5 Report
content .................................................................................................... 16 2.6
16 3 CALORIMETRY
..................................................................................................... 17 3.1 Goal of
this work ............................................................................................... 17 3.2
Methodical instructions ......................................................................................
......................................................................... 18 3.4 Execution order
.................................................................................................. 18 3.5 Report
content .................................................................................................... 19 3.6
20 4 DIRECT CURRENT CIRCUITS AND OHM’S LAW
........................................... 21 4.1 Goal of this work
............................................................................................... 21 4.2 Methodical
instructions ...................................................................................... 21 4.3
.................................................................................................. 23 4.5 Report
content .................................................................................................... 26 4.6
27 5 DIRECT CURRENT CIRCUITS AND KIRCHHOFF'S RULES
.......................... 28 5.1 Goal of this work
............................................................................................... 28 5.2 Methodical
instructions ...................................................................................... 28 5.3
.................................................................................................. 30 5.5 Report
content .................................................................................................... 33 5.6
33 6 REFRACTOMETRY
............................................................................................... 34 6.1 Goal of this
work ............................................................................................... 34 6.2
......................................................................... 36 6.4 Execution order
.................................................................................................. 38
3
6.5 Report content
.................................................................................................... 38 6.6 Control
questions ............................................................................................... 39 7
LUMINESCENT SPECTROSCOPY
...................................................................... 40 7.1 Goal of this work
............................................................................................... 40 7.2 Methodical
instructions ...................................................................................... 40 7.3
.................................................................................................. 45 7.5 Report
content .................................................................................................... 45 7.6
46 8 ATOMIC ORBITALS
.............................................................................................. 47 8.1 Goal of this
work ............................................................................................... 47 8.2
......................................................................... 49 8.4 Execution order
.................................................................................................. 50 8.5 Report
content .................................................................................................... 51 8.6
51 REFERENCES
............................................................................................................ 52
4
INTRODUCTION
The cource of laboratory works of "Physics" is intended for assisting

students in obtaining knowledge of the course, the acquisition of practical skills
in the process of individual solution of a number of tasks that involve physical
processes and require knowledge of physics.
Execution of laboratory works assumes the student's knowledge of the
following fields: "Mathematics", "Basics of Computers".
The course of laboratory works on “Physics” is based on computer
simulation of certain physical phenomena using IBM PC.
Description of laboratory work includes brief theoretical information
needed to successfully execution of the laboratory work, description of the
software used in the work, the procedure of execution of experimental part of
the work, test questions and tasks.
5
1 PROJECTILE MOTION
1.1 Goal of this work The goal of this work is to study the motion of
objects under the influence of gravitational force and to learn methods of
related physical problems solution.
1.2 Methodical instructions The projectile motion is the particular form of
two-dimensional motion under the influence of gravitational force. Anyone
who has observed any object thrown into the air has observed projectile
motion.
1.2.1 One-dimensional motion with constant acceleration In order to
consider 2-dimensional motion one need to know the law of motion in 1
dimension under constant acceleration.
An expression for the displacement of an object as a function of time in
case of constant acceleration a is:
tatvxx =
i + 2· 2 , where acceleration
0 · + 1
xi – initial position of an object;
of an object.
v0 – initial velocity of an object; a –

In case of free falling all object have free-fall acceleration g, that has a
magnitude of 9.80 m/s2 and is directed downwards.
1.2.2 Vectors and components In order to describe 2-dimensional motion
one need to use a 2 dimensional coordinate system x0y and represent all
vectors in the problem as their x and y projections.
The projections of a vector along the axes of a rectangular coordinate
system are called components. Any vector can be completely described by
its components. For example, vector A can be presented as a sum of its
AAA = + (see Fig. 1). From that diagram you can see
two projections as x y
that length of components

of a vector A can be written as:
sin θ AAx
=
· cos θ AA
y= The length of vector A can be expressed through its components using

·
Pythagorean theorem as:
AAA = .
+
yx 22
6
Figure 1 – Components of a
vector
In order to define orientation of vector A in space (relative to coordinate

system) we will use angle between that vector and abscissa (x axis) θ that can
be determined using tangent function as:
y A
xA θ = tan
.
1.2.3 Projectile motion

Figure 2 – Scheme of a projectile motion of an
object
The projectile motion is simple to analyze if the following three

assumptions are made:
7
1. The free-fall acceleration, g, has a magnitude of 9.80 m/s2 and is
constant over the range of motion, and is directed downward.
2. The effect of air resistance is negligible. 3. The
rotation of the Earth does not affect the motion.
The initial velocity vector v0 makes an angle of θ

0 with the horizontal
axes x where
θ0 is called the projection angle. Thus, the components of velocity
vector are given

by:
θ vv = ,
cos θ vv =
sin
0 00 x 0 00 y
Motion in the x direction occurs without acceleration, i.e. 0 = xa

. This
means that the velocity component along the x direction remains constant:
const cos 0 00 = θ
== . The horizontal position of the projectile
vvv xx
as a function of time is given by: ( ) tvtvx x · = · = 0 0 0 cos

θ .
Finally, assuming constant acceleration g in the negative y direction:
tgvv yy · - = 0 , 21
20 tgtvy y · - · = . Obtained results
for position of an object assume that initial position of the object is 0, i.e. it is
located at the origin of coordinate system (Fig. 1). If the later is not the case
then those formulas must also include initial coordinates of an object x0 and y0.
1.3 Description of laboratory setup. In figure 3 there is a multi-flash

photograph of a popular demonstration in which a projectile is fired at a target
that is suspended by a magnet in the device at the top right of the photograph.
The conditions of the experiment are such that the projectile leaves the gun at
the instant the target is released from rest.
Within this laboratory work you are going to verify results of your
calculations using a simulation program “MonkeyHunter.exe” that simulates
projectile motion of a target, bullet depending on various experimental
conditions. The screen of MonkeyHunter simulation program is shown in Fig. 4.
8
Figure 4 – Screen of MonkeyHunter simulation
program
1.4 Execution order 1.4.1 Read the theoretic part of the work. 1.4.2 Solve the
presented physical problem to find the α angle of the gun towards the ground.
The corresponding scheme is shown in Fig. 5.
Figure 3 - Stroboscopic image of experimental
setup demonstrating projectile motion of two
objects
9
Figure 5 - Scheme of the
experiment
The initial data for calculation and further simulation should be taken
from Table 1 according to your computer case/brigade number. All data is given
in SI units: v0 [m/s], h [m], y0 [m]; L [m].
Table 1 - Initial parameters for

simulation
Computer 3 5 9 3.5 0.5 5 10 3.5 1.5 5
Number 5 12 5 0.7 7 8 4 0.7 6 12 5
1.5 7 12 4 0 9 12 2.5 1.5 8
12345678910
1112131415
h y0 L 10
4 0 7 11 4 1.5 7 12 3.5 0.5 7 11 2 1

In order to solve the task the corresponding equations should be derived.
Since in the x direction the motion of projectile has no acceleration, the
corresponding v×cos(α) according equation to the has scheme the form in
figure x=x0+v5.
0x×
t where
x projection of v0 is given as
vtx 1 )(
=
0× α
)cos( × t . The target does not move in the
xd irection, so its
xp
osition is constant and is equal to L.
Ltx 2 )(=
. Since both target and projectile are influenced by the force of
gravity, their motion in the y direction has constant acceleration -g. The
corresponding equation has the form y:=y0+v0y×t+1/2×g×

t2 where y
sin(α) according
projection of v is given as v× to the scheme in Fig. 5.
For the projectile corresponding equation has the form:
)(
vyty 1
)sin( tg ×

= 00 + × α × t - 2 2
.
For the target corresponding equation has the form:
)(
hty 2
tg ×
= - 2 2
.
1.4.3 Run the simulation program MonkeyHunter.exe. According to your
computer/brigade number substitute all initial conditions into appropriate
cells of the program. Also substitute the calculated angle of the gun α into
corresponding cell of the program.
Run the simulation. The computer simulation will give you the plot of
projectile and target trajectories and estimate whether the hit occurred. If
the results show that you have missed, try to solve the problem again.
1.5 Report content When you will finish your work, you should write a
report and defend it. Your report should contain the following information:
1) Name and objective of laboratory work. 2) Scheme of the experiment. 3)
Values of initial parameters corresponding to your computer/brigade
number. 4) Solution of present physical problem using equations of motion
for projectile
and target (the value of an angle of the gun towards horizontal
plane α a
nd coordinates of target/projectile collision).
5) Description of work execution (simulation). 6) Values of your parameters
and measured results. 7) Conclusions.
11
1.6 Control questions 1) Velocity and acceleration. Newton’s laws of motion.
2) Equation of one-demensional motion. 3) The universal law of gravity. 4)
Motion of an object under the influence of gravitational force. 5) Explain how
two-dimensional motion can be represented as a projections onto 2 coordinate
axes.
6) How to find angle α in the given laboratory work (analytical solution
of the problem).
12
2 BALLISTIC PENDULUM
2.1 Goal of this work The goal of this work is to study the conservation of
mechanical energy and momentum of the system on the example of the ballistic
pendulum.
2.2 Methodical instructions The ballistic pendulum is a device used to

measure the velocity of a fast- moving projectile such as bullet. The bullet is
fired into a large block of wood suspended from some light wires. The bullet is
stopped by the block, and the entire system swings through the vertical distance
h. It is possible to obtain the initial velocity of the bullet by measuring h and the
masses of bullet and pendulum.
2.2.1 Perfectly inelastic collisions. The collision of the bullet with the
pendulum/block is the example of perfectly inelastic collision. Consider two
objects of masses m1 and m2 moving with initial velocities v1i and v2i along a
straight line (figure 1). If the two objects stick together and move with some

common velocity, vf, after the collision, then only the momentum of the system
is conserved, and the total momentum before and after the collision are equal:
( ) f i i vmm
vmvm · + = +
21 22
11 .
Figure 1 - Perfectly inelastic collision
In a typical inelastic collision problem, only one quantity in the

preceding equation is unknown, and so conservation of momentum is sufficient
to tell us what we need to know.
13
2.1.2 Conservation of mechanical energy. After the collision the entire system
swings through the vertical distance h. During this process there is no gain or
loss of mechanical energy of the system (the friction of light ropes and air
resistance are negligible).
Conservation principles play a very important role in physics. One of the
most important is the conservation of energy. Conservation of a physical
quantity means that the value of the quantity remains constant. Although the
form of the quantity may change in some manner, its final value is the same as
its initial value.
= + .
KE PE KE PE +
ffii
The principle of conservation of mechanical energy states that the total
mechanical energy in any isolated system of objects remains constant if the
objects interact only through conservative forces. The total mechanical energy
consists of kinetic and potential energy of the system.
If the force of gravity is the only force doing work on an object, then the
total mechanical energy of the object remains constant, and the principle of
conservation of mechanical energy takes the form:
mgy mv mgy mv + = +
2 2 1
ffii 2
1
2 .
2.3 Description of laboratory setup. In figure 2 there is a multi-flash

photograph of a laboratory ballistic pendulum. The ballistic pendulum is a device
used to measure the velocity of a fast-moving projectile such as bullet. The
bullet is fired into a large block of wood suspended from some light wires. The
bullet is stopped by the block, and the entire system swings through the vertical
distance h (see scheme in figure 3 below). It is possible to obtain the initial
velocity of the bullet by measuring h a nd the masses of bullet and pendulum.
Figure 2 - Stroboscopic image of experimental setup demonstrating

operation of
ballistic pendulum
14
2.4 Execution order 2.4.1 Read the theoretic part of the work. 2.4.2 Run the
simulation program Lab2.exe. According to your computer/brigade number set
the selected values of bullet mass from the Table 1 below into the simulation
software.
Table 1 – The masses of bullets to be used in

simulation
Computer Bullet mass
number
m1 m2 m3 1 3g 5g 10g 2 5g 3g 11g 3 7g 8g

3g 4 6
g 9g 12g 5 4
g 10g 6g 6 8
g 12g
4g 7 1
0g 9g 5g 8 1
3g 6g 3g 9 1
1g 3g
7g 10 7 g 4g 12g 11 3
g 8g 11g 12 4g
9g 13g
Pick the mass of the block (pendulum) that will provide its motion within
visible screen area. Here you should consider that the higher mass the bullet
has, the higher mass of the block should be used.
Run the simulation. From the animation (generated in the simulation
software) determine maximum height the pendulum reaches (h o n Fig. 3).
Repeat the same step for all 3 masses in Table 1. 2.4.3 Using the measured
height of the pendulum h calculate the velocity v1 f 3
i o bullets using energy and
momentum conservation laws. The scheme of the ballistic pendulum is shown in
figure 3. Assume that collision between the block and the bullet is perfectly
inelastic and mechanical energy is conserved as the pendulum swings to its
topmost point.
15
Figure 3 – Scheme of the ballistic pendulum

operation
2.5 Report content When you will finish your work, you should write a report
and defend it. Your report should contain the following information:
1) Name and objective of laboratory work. 2)
Scheme of the experiment. 3) Description of
work execution process. 4) Values of your
parameters and measured results. 5) Calculation
of bullet velocity. 6) Conclusions.
2.6 Control questions 1) The definition of mechanical energy. 2)

Conservation of mechanical energy. 3) Conservative and
non-conservative forces. 4) Definition of momentum of the moving
object. 5) Conservation of momentum of the system. 6) How to find
velocity v1
i o
f a bullet in the ballistic pendulum experiment.
16
3 CALORIMETRY
3.1 Goal of this work The goal of this work is to get acquainted with
calormetry and methods of specific heat measurement for liquids.
3.2 Methodical instructions Situations in which mechanical energy is
converted to thermal energy occur frequently. We shall look at some of
them in examples and in the problems at the end of the chapter, but most
of our attention here is directed toward a particular kind of
conservation-of-energy situation. In problems using the procedure called
calorimetry, only the transfer of thermal energy between the system and its
surroundings is considered.
One technique for measuring the specific heat of solid or liquid is simply to
heat the substance to some known temperature, place it in a vessel
containing water of known mass and temperature, and measure the
temperature of the water after equilibrium is reached. Because a negligible
amount of mechanical work is done in the process, the law of conservation
of energy requires that the heat that leaves the warmer substance (of
unknown specific heat) equal the heat that enters the water. Devices in
which this heat transfer occurs are called calorimeters.
Suppose that mx is the mass of a substance whose specific heat we wish to
measure, cxits the

corresponding specific heat, and Tx values for the water
initial (Note:
temperature. cw=4.18·10Let 3 J/(kg·°K)). mw, cw, a
nd Tw
represent If T is the final equilibrium

temperature after everything is mixed,
then from equation
Q
c = Tm ∆ (1)

we find that the heat gained by the water is mwc w (T — Tw) and the heat lost
by the substance
of unknown specific heat, cw, is mxc x (Tx —
T). A
ssuming
that the system (water

+ unknown) neither loses nor gains heat, and if the
vessel has negligible mass, it follows that the heat gained by the water
must equal the heat lost by the unknown (conservation of energy):
) (
TTcmTTcm ww - w ) (
= xxx - (2) Solving for
cx gives
x = TTcm
)
TTm w
w xx
( ( - w )
-(3)
Do not attempt to memorize this equation. Instead, always start from first
principles in solving calorimetry problems. That is, determine which
substances lose heat and which gain heat, and then equate heat loss to
heat gain.
17
A word about sign conventions: it is necessary to use a sign convention
in which a positive sign for Q indicates heat gained by a substance and a
negative sign indicates heat lost. However, for calorimetry problems it is less
confusing if you ignore the positive and negative signs and instead equate heat
loss to heat gain. That is, you should always write ∆T as a positive quantity. For
example, if T
fis greater than
T
i, let ∆T = Tf- Ti. If Tfis less than Ti, let ∆T = Ti –
Tf.
3.3 Description of laboratory setup. In the figure 1 there is a screen of

Calorimetry simulation program that is used to perform experiments to
determine specific heat capacity of substances. The main screen of the program
contains virtual tools used in the experiment. The operations on theses tools are
done by clicking with a mouse pointer on appropriate tool icon. The program
allows you to mix different liquids selected from the list, heat them, measure
their weight and temperature. It also simulates the process of heat transfer
between 2 different liquids as you mix them, the process of cooling of liquids
heated above the ambient temperature.
Figure 1 – Screen of Calorimetry simulation

program
3.4 Execution order 1. Open the program Calorimetry.exe. 2. Select 3
investigated substances from the list according to your variant (from table 1
below).
3. Take one of the empty Bottles and put it on the Balance to measure
its weight.
4. Take empty Calorimeter and put it on the Balance to measure its
weight.
18
5. Click the “Fill in solutions” button to fill bottles with test solutions and
water. 6. Take the first bottle with test solution and measure its weight on the
Balance (Don’t
forget to subtract weight of empty bottle).
7. Do the same with the first bottle of water. 8. Place bottle of water to the
heater and turn heater on. Put there a thermometer to control temperature of
water.
9. Pour out hot water to the calorimeter and measure it’s temperature again. 10.
Pour out bottle with the first test solution to the Calorimeter with the hot water
and measure temperature of the mixture.
11. Using Formula (3) determine specific heat of the first test liquid. 12. Pour out
Calorimeter with the mixture to the bath. 13. Repeat steps 6-12 for the rest two
test liquids. 14. Repeat the whole experiment (steps 5-13) 3 times and find
mean values of specific heat for each substance according to your number in
the Table 1. Mean value can be found as cmean

= (c1+c2 + c3)/3. It is required to
minimize possible errors of the measurements.

Table 1. – List of substances for determination of specific heat. No

Substance 1 Substance 2 Substance 3
1 Acetone Ethyl alcohol Glycerin 2 Benzene Ethylene glycol Ethyl
alcohol 3 Glycerin Toluene Benzene 4 Toluene Benzene Acetone 5
Ethylene glycol Glycerin Benzene 6 Sulphuric acid Acetone Glycerin
7 Ethyl alcohol Glycerin Sulphuric acid 8 Acetone Toluene Ethyl
alcohol 9 Benzene Acetone Glycerin 10 Glycerin Ethylene glycol
Acetone 11 Toluene Ethylene glycol Benzene 12 Ethylene glycol
Sulphuric acid Glycerin 13 Sulphuric acid Benzene Ethylene glycol
14 Ethyl alcohol Acetone Toluene 15 Benzene Toluene Sulphuric
acid
1) Name and objective of laboratory work. 2) Scheme
of the experiment. 3) Formula for computing specific
heat of unknown liquid.
19
4) Table of measured results, calculated values of specific heat for each
run and mean values of specific heat for each of 3 substances.
5) Conclusions.
3.6 Control questions 1)

Temperature. Heat energy. 2)
Conservation of heat. 3)
Mechanisms of heat transfer.
4) Hindering of heat transfer.
20
4 DIRECT CURRENT CIRCUITS AND OHM’S LAW
4.1 Goal of this work The goal of this work is to study the use of Ohm’s law for
analysis of simple direct current circuits.
4.2 Methodical instructions When a voltage (potential difference) ∆V is

applied across the ends of a metallic conductor, the current in the conductor is
found to be proportional to the applied voltage, that is I = ∆V/R. The
proportionality constant R is called the resistance of the conductor. This
statement is known as Ohm's law after Georg Simon Ohm (1789-1854), who
was the first to conduct a systematic study of electrical resistance.
All electronic circuits are composed of electronic elements connected
together. The most important types of elements combination are series and
parallel combination. All real circuits can be divided into subcircuits containing
only mentioned two types of connection.
Figure 1 shows example of series combination of two resistors R

1 and
R2 and equivalent

circuit containing only one equivalent resistor R . When the
eq
voltage source
∆V is connected to such circuit the charge is transferred through
the circuit producing corresponding current in each element of series
combination. Since the charge is conservative magnitude and cannot be
accumulated in resistors the rate of charge transfer through each of them is the
same. So the currents in all resistors in a series circuit are the same, because
any charge that flows through R1 must also flow through
R2
.
Figure 1 – Series combination of two resistors (a) and equivalent
circuit (b)
The equivalent resistance of serial connection of n resistors is the sum

of corresponding resistances:
+ + = ... . (1)
R RRR +
n eq 21
21
From this equation we see that the equivalent resistance of a series
combination of resistors is always greater than any individual resistance.
The equivalent resistance can always be used for calculations for circuit in
order to simplify them. For example, the current through circuit presented
on Fig. 1 according to Ohm’s law will be ∆V/Req

.
Fig.2 shows example of parallel combination of two resistors R1 and R2 and
equivalent circuit containing equivalent resistor Req. The main property of
parallel combination of resistors is that potential differences across each
branch are the same. This can be understood considering the fact that
potential difference is related to potential energy of charge in electric field.
Since the electric force is conservative (and thus the electric potential
energy has sense) the work done by the field when transferring charge
between two points is independent on the path and is dependent only on
position of initial and final points. Thus the work done by the field and the
potential difference is the same between junctions of parallel combination
of resistors (points a a
nd b on Fig. 2).
Figure 2 – Parallel combination of two resistors (a) and equivalent circuit
(b)
Because the charge is conserved, the current I that enters junction point a
must equal the total current leaving that point (I1 + I2): III
= .
21 +
Summarizing for parallel combination of n resistors one can obtain the
following expression for equivalent resistance:
RRR
R
eq n 1
11
=+++ . (2)
1
...
21
From this equation we see that the equivalent resistance of a parallel
combination of resistors is always less than the smallest individual
resistance in combination.
22
Electronic WorkBench 5.12 simulation program that is used for analysis and
simulation of different electric circuits. The main screen of the program contains
virtual tools and electronic components used to create electronic circuits and to
conduct simulation of their operation.
Figure 3 – Screen of Electronic WorkBench 5.12 simulation
program
4.4 Execution order 1. Open video file EWB_usage.AVI to learn basic
operations with Electronic WorkBench 5.12 simulation software.
2. Open the program Electronic WorkBench 5.12. 3. Draw the circuitry of your
variant (using data in table 1 and schemes in Figures 4 – 8 according to your
computer number).
4. Insert appropriate number of ammeters into your circuit to be able to
measure the currents in all branches of your circuit.
5. Run the simulation and record the readings of all ammeters. 6. Using
equivalent conversions of series and parallel connection of resistors convert the
circuit into a single resistor.
7. Calculate the current through this equivalent resistor using the
Ohm’s law 8. Calculate currents flowing through each resistor of your
circuit.
23
Table 1 – Input data for simulation computer number
scheme
R1,
E1, number
Om
V 1 1 60 100 80 30 40 70 25 30 20 10 2 2 20 70 55 45 30 20 70 20 25 15 3
3 30 90 120 100 40 30 35 25 80 12 4 4 25 20 45 120 45 40 35 80 110 20 5
5 40 35 25 120 55 30 65 110 30 25 6 1 60 100 80 30 40 70 25 30 20 10 7 2
20 70 55 45 30 20 70 20 25 15 8 3 30 90 120 100 40 30 35 25 80 12 9 4 25
20 45 120 45 40 35 80 110 20 10 5 40 35 25 120 55 30 65 110 30 25 11 1
60 100 80 30 40 70 25 30 20 10 12 2 20 70 55 45 30 20 70 20 25 15 13 3
30 90 120 100 40 30 35 25 80 12 14 4 25 20 45 120 45 40 35 80 110 20
15 5 40 35 25 120 55 30 65 110 30 25
R2, Om
R3, Om
Figure 4 – Scheme #1
24
R4, Om
R5, Om
R6, Om
R7, Om
R8, Om
R9, Om
Figure6 – Scheme #3
25
1) Name and objective of laboratory work. 2)
Scheme of the experiment – your electric circuit.
26
3) Formulas and calculation result for currents flowing through each
resistors of the circuit.
4) Table with experimental data that is measured in virtual electronic
laboratory Electronic WorkBench.
5) Conclusions that should contain comparison of theoretical and
experimental result. 4.6 Control questions
1) Electric current. Charge carriers. 2)
Voltage. Electric potential energy. 3) Ohm’s
law. Resistance. 4) Series and parallel
combination of resistors. 5) Temperature
variation of resistivity in metals.
27
5 DIRECT CURRENT CIRCUITS AND KIRCHHOFF'S RULES
5.1 Goal of this work The goal of this work is to study application of Kirchhoff's
rules for investigation of complex direct current circuits.
5.2 Methodical instructions We can analyze simple circuits using Ohm's law
and the rules for series and parallel combinations of resistors. However, there
are many ways in which resistors can be connected so that the circuits formed
cannot be reduced to a single equivalent resistor. The procedure for analyzing
more complex circuits is greatly simplified by the use of two simple rules called
Kirchhoff’s rules:
1) The sum of the currents entering any junction must equal the sum of
the currents leaving that junction. (This rule is often referred to as the junction
rule.)
2) The sum of the potential differences across all the elements around
any closed-circuit loop must be zero. (This rule is usually called the loop rule.)
The junction rule is a statement of conservation of charge. Whatever
current enters a given point in a circuit must leave that point because charge
cannot build up or disappear at a point. If we apply this rule to the junction as in
figure 1, we get :
III + = .
321
Figure 1 – Illustration of junction rule
The loop rule is equivalent to the principle of conservation of energy.

Any charge that moves around any closed loop in a circuit (starting and ending
at the same point) must gain as much energy as it loses. It gains energy as it is
pumped through a source of EMF. Its energy may decrease in the form of a
potential drop, RI - , across a resistor or as a result of flowing backward through
a source of EMF - that is, from the positive to the negative terminal inside the
battery. In the latter case, electrical energy is converted to chemical energy as
the battery is charged.
5.2.1 Applying Kirchhoff's loop rule a) If a resistor is traversed in the direction of

the current, the change in electric potential across the resistor is RI - (Fig. 2a).
b) If a resistor is traversed in the direction opposite the current, the change
in
28
electric potential across the resistor is RI + (Fig.
2b).
c) If a source of EMF is traversed in the direction of the EMF (from - to +
ε+
on the terminals), the change in electric potential is (Fig.2c).
d) If a source of EMF is traversed in the direction opposite the EMF
ε-
(from + to - on the terminals), the change in electric potential is (Fig. 2d).
Figure 2 – Determination of potential difference for loop

rule
There are limits to the numbers of times the junction rule and the loop
rule can be used. You can use the junction rule as often as needed so long as,
each time you write an equation, you include in it a current that has not been
used in a previous junction-rule equation. (If this procedure is not followed, a
new equation will not be produced.) In general, the number of times the junction
rule can be used is one fewer than the number of junction points in the circuit.
The loop rule can be used as often as needed so long as a new circuit element
(resistor or battery) or a new current appears in each new equation. In general,
to solve a particular circuit problem, you need as many independent equations
as you have unknowns.
5.2.2 Problem-solving strategy 1) First, draw the circuit diagram and assign
labels and symbols to all the known and unknown quantities. Yon must assign
directions to the currents in each part of the circuit. Do not be alarmed if you
guess the direction of a current incorrectly; the resulting value will be negative,
but its magnitude will be correct. Although the assignment of current directions
is arbitrary, you must stick with it throughout as you apply Kirchhoff's rules.
2) Apply the junction rule to any junction in the circuit. The junction rule
may be applied as many times as a new current (one not used in a previous
application) appears in the resulting equation.
3) Now apply Kirchhoff's loop rule to as many loops in the circuit as are
needed to solve for the unknowns. In order to apply this rule, you must correctly
identify the change in electric potential as you cross each element in traversing
the closed loop. Watch out for signs!
4) Solve the equations simultaneously for the unknown quantities. Be
careful in your algebraic steps, and check your numerical answers for
consistency.
29
5.3 Description of laboratory setup. This laboratory work requires the
use of the same Electronic WorkBench 5.12 simulation program as
laboratory work #4 “Direct current circuits and Ohm’s law”. Read
Description of laboratory work #4.
5.4 Execution order 1. From the Table 1 below and your computer
number determine the number of your circuit (Figures 3-7) and the values
of corresponding elements of the circuit.
2. Open the software package Electronic WorkBench 5.12 on your
computer and draw your circuit.
3. Set all values for resistors and voltage sources in the circuit according to
your computer number and Table 1.
4. Use voltmeter and ammeter to measure voltage drops and currents in all
elements of your circuit. (Connect voltmeter in parallel to corresponding
resistor and ammeter in series with elements of corresponding circuit
branch; turn on the circuit to see the results. Please note the polarity of the
devices to determine correct direction of currents. Common or negative
terminal of volt- and ammeters is denoted by bold line).
5. Solve the same problem analytically using Kirchhoff's rules. 6. Write a
report containing your circuit, magnitudes of currents measured in
Electronics Workbench software, calculation of all currents in the circuit
using Kirchhoff's rules, conclusions.
Table 1 – Input data computer number
scheme number
R1, Om
R2, Om
R3, Om
R4, Om
R5, Om
R6, Om
R7, Om
E1, V
E2, V
E3, V 1 1 60 100 80 30 40 70 25 10 12 5 2 2 20 70 55 45 30 20 70 15 20
12 3 3 30 90 120 100 40 30 35 12 15 8 4 1 25 20 45 120 45 40 35 14 8 10
5 2 40 35 25 120 55 30 65 15 10 3 6 3 60 100 80 30 40 70 25 10 3 4 7 4 20
70 55 45 30 20 70 15 5 5 8 5 30 90 120 100 40 30 35 12 12 8 9 2 25 20 45
120 45 40 35 20 80 11 10 1 40 35 25 120 55 30 65 5 11 13 11 4 60 100 80
30 40 70 25 10 12 5 12 5 20 70 55 45 30 20 70 15 20 12 13 1 30 90 120
100 40 30 35 12 15 8 14 3 25 20 45 120 45 40 35 14 8 10 15 4 40 35 25
120 55 30 65 15 10 3
30
Figure 3 – Circuit #1
31
32
1) Name and objective of laboratory work. 2) Your electric circuit. 3) Table with
experimental data that is measured in virtual electronic laboratory Electronic
WorkBench 5.12.
4) Calculation of all currents in the circuit using Kirchhoff's rules. 5) Conclusions
that should contain comparison of theoretical and experimental results. 5.6
Control questions
1) Electric current. Charge carriers. 2)
Kirchhoff's junction and loop rules 3) Ohm’s
law. Resistance. 4) Series and parallel
combination of resistors.
33
6 REFRACTOMETRY
6.1 Goal of this work The goal of this work is to study method of refractive
index measurement for solid and liquid samples.
6.2 Methodical instructions
6.2.1 Refraction of light When a ray of light traveling through a transparent
medium encounters a boundary leading into another transparent medium,
part of the ray is reflected and part enters the second medium. The ray that
enters the second medium is bent at the boundary and is said to be
refracted. The incident ray, the reflected ray, the refracted ray, and the
normal at the point of incidence all lie in the same plane. The angle of
refraction, θ
2, depends on the properties of the two media and on the
angle of incidence, through the relationship
2
θ sin
sin
θ1=
2
v v1

= const
(1)
where v 1is the speed of light in medium 1 and v 2
is the speed of light in
medium 2. This law is known as Snell's law.
Figure 1 – Refraction of light beam at the interface of two mediums
34
6.2.2 The law of refraction When light passes from one transparent
medium to another, it is refracted because the speed of light is different in
the two media. It is convenient to define the index of refraction, n, of a
medium as the ratio:
n=
speed
c
of light ain medium = vspeed of light in vacuum (2)
The index of refraction is a dimensionless number that is greater than unity
because v is always less than c; furthermore n 1
= for a vacuum. As light
travels from one medium to another, its frequency does not change.
Because the relation fv = λ
must be valid in both media and because fff 21
:
==
fv = λ
fv = λ

1 1 2 2 Using refractive index definition we can express the
Snell’s law in a more widely used form:
θ = n · sin θ (3)
n · sin
1 21 2
6.2.3 Deflection of light beam When the light ray passes through the thick
block of transparent material, it is shifted laterally by a distance d
dependent on the thickness of block t, refractive index of material n and
incidence angle θ. This effect can be used to measure refractive index of
solid materials and liquids in thin-wall rectangular cell.
Figure 2 – Shift of light beam due to refraction in thick slab
Analysis of this problem is done on fig.3. The value of beam deflection d is
measured as a difference between position of the beam without the sample
and after refraction within the sample. The α angle on the drawing satisfies
Snell’s law:
35
sin(θ) = n·sin(α). From this relation we can obtain α as: α =
ArcSin(sin(θ)/n).
Then we can express l a s l = t/cos(α). According to the drawing, total of α
and angles is equal to θ: θ = α + γ. Thus we can express γ as γ = θ - α.
Using γ and l we write formula for d as: d = l·sin(γ). Substitution of values
gives final relation for d:
( )
( ) α θ α - = sin cost d (4) ( ) ( )n θ α sin arcsin = (5)
Figure 3 – Shift of light beam due to refraction in thick slab
Solution of above equation for n gives the following formula:
n
=
sin
⎛ │ arctan ⎛ │ tan
│⎝ │⎝ sin
( ( θθ
) )
-
t
⎞ │ ⎞
cos d ( θ
) │⎠
│ (6)
│⎠
LabRef simulation program that is used for execution of this laboratory
work.
The setup consists of a turntable that can rotate around its axis for the
given angle, source of directed light beam (laser) and a millimeter scale.
The test samples of different transparent materials are positioned at the
turntable. When the table with the sample is rotated you can observe
displacement of a laser beam from its initial position on the millimeter
scale. Using the measurement of d you can determine the value of
refractive index for given sample.
36
Figure 4 – Screen of LabRef simulation program
You can use reference data in Table 1 to determine which material
corresponds to which sample in the work.
Table 1 – Refractive indexes of certain mediums
Material Index of
Refraction
Material Index of
Refraction Diamond 2.42 Nylon 1.53 Ruby 1.80 Polyethylene 1.52
Sapphire (synthetic) 1.77 Pyrex (borosilicate glass) 1.52 Iceland spar 1.66
Window glass (soda-lime) 1.52 Flint glass (dense leaded) 1.66 Acrylic 1.50
Flint glass (dense barium) 1.62 Cellulose acetate 1.48 Vinylidene chloride
1.61 Cellulose acetate butyrate 1.47 Polystyrene 1.59 Ethyl cellulose 1.47
Flint glass (light leaded) 1.58 Fused quartz 1.46 Flint glass (light barium)
1.57 Water 1.33 Amber 1.55 Ice 1.30 Quartz crystal 1.54 Air 1.0003
Urea-formaldehyde 1.54 Vacuum 1.00
37
6.4 Execution order 1. Open the “LabRef.exe” program. 2. Turn on the laser. 3.
Select necessary sample from the drop-down box. 4. Set the turntable/sample
rotation angle equal to 0° and determine initial position of the beam on the
millimeter scale.
5. Change the angle of the turntable/sample relative to the beam to
some value and determine new position of the beam on the millimeter scale.
6. Find the difference of the beam positions d using results of steps 4 and 5. 7.
Determine value of refractive index n using formula (6). 8. Repeat steps 5 – 7
for two other rotation angles and find appropriate values of n. Use the average
of three values as your final result for refractive index n.
9. Do the same measurements for all samples according to your
computer number and table 2.
Table 2. – List of samples for determination of refractive

index.
Computer Samples
number
1 Samples 1, 3, 5 2 Samples 2, 4, 7 3
Samples 0, 2, 9 4 Samples 4, 6, 8 5
Samples 2, 4, 6 10 Samples 3, 7, 9 11
Samples 5, 7, 8 12 Samples 1, 6, 7 13
Samples 0, 1, 4 14 Samples 3, 5, 7 15
Samples 4, 6, 9
1) Name and purpose of work. 2) Scheme of the experiment. 3) Measurement
results and calculations of refractive indexes for 3 samples. 4) Estimation of the
materials corresponding to the samples using data in table 1. 5) Conclusions.
38
6.6 Control questions 1) Light
beam. Geometry optics. 2)
Reflection and refraction of light. 3)
Index of refraction. 4) Snell’s law of
refraction. 5) Total internal
reflection.
39
7 LUMINESCENT SPECTROSCOPY
7.1 Goal of this work The goal of this work is to study operation of luminescent
spectrometer and investigate luminescence and absorption spectra of organic
compounds..
7.2 Methodical
instructions
7.2.1 Dispersion of light An important property of the index of refraction is that

its value in anything but vacuum depends on the wavelength of light (Fig. 1).
This phenomenon is called dispersion. Snell's law indicates that light of different
wavelengths is bent at different angles when incident on a refracting material.
The index of refraction generally decreases with increasing wavelength. This
means that blue light (λ ≈ 470 nm) bends more than red light (λ ≈ 650 nm) when
passing into a refracting material.
Figure 1 – Dispersion of light in Crown glass, Acrylic, Fused

quartz
7.2.2 Prisms A prism (Fig. 2) as an optical device made of a transparent

material with polished surfaces in the form of triangle, rectangle or any other.
When a single ray of light that is incident on the prism from the left emerges
from it, it is bent away from its original direction of travel by an angle, called the
angle of deviation (Fig. 2a). When a beam of white light (a combination of all
visible wavelengths) is incident on a prism, because of dispersion, the blue
component of the incident beam is bent more than the red component, and the
rays that emerge from the second face of the prism
40
fan out in a series of colors known as a visible spectrum (Fig. 2b). The angle of
deviation, depends on wavelength.
a b Figure 2 – Light beam traveling through the

prism: (a) monochromatic light; (b) white light
7.2.3 Prism spectrometer Prisms are often used in an instrument known as a

prism spectrometer (Fig. 3). This instrument is commonly used to study the
wavelengths emitted by a light source. Light from the source is sent through a
narrow, adjustable slit and lens to produce a parallel, or collimated, beam. The
light then passes through the prism and is dispersed into a spectrum (Fig. 4).
The refracted light is observed through a telescope. The experimenter sees an
image of the slit through the eyepiece of the telescope. The telescope can be
moved or the prism can be rotated in order to view the various wavelengths,
which have different angles of deviation.
Figure 3 – A Simple prism

spectrometer
41
Figure 4 – Operation of a simple prism

spectrometer
In real spectroscopy systems the light is not observed directly but is

detected using special device – photo detector (photodiode, photomultiplier tube
(PMT)) – and recorded as a plot of light intensity versus wavelength. Emission
spectrum of all substances is quite unique and allows their recognition. In such
systems excitation of the analyzed substance is done using optical light of high
energy (shorter wavelength than emission of the analyzed substance).
Detection of spectra is done through a narrow slit instead of the screen (as on
Fig. 4) and prism is rotated around its axis to scan the whole spectrum.
7.3 Description of laboratory setup. The setup emulates operation of

photoluminescent spectrometer. On the “Setup” panel (Fig. 5) you can fill 3
different solutions of luminescent materials into flasks (each time a new random
set of solutions is created). By clicking right mouse button on each of the bottles
with the solution you can se its “Absorption spectrum”. You need this data to
determine, which wavelength of the excitation source to use for optimal
excitation. Any substance is well excited only when the excitation light has the
wavelength matching the maximum of absorbance spectra of the substance.
You can pour the content of the bottle into the quartz cell to put it into
the spectrometer. Quartz is used as a highly transparent material for ultraviolet
spectrum range. The cell has flat polished parallel planes for high quality optical
measurements. To turn on excitation source (Hg vapor arc lamp) press the red
button below it. To fill solutions again you need to pour all 3 into the waste bath.
42
Figure 5 – Setup panel of the
program
On the “Calibration” panel (Fig. 6) you can select the excitation light
source from the list (low and high pressure Hg arc lamp). The emission
spectrum of the selected lamp is shown on the image. Using track bars of the
“INPUT MONOCHROMATOR” panel you select the excitation wavelength from
the emission spectra of the lamp (according to absorbance spectra of the
substance you analyze). Be sure that the lamp has sufficient emission intensity
on the selected wavelength. To see this better you can magnify the desired
range of the emission plot by selecting appropriate range with the left mouse
button pressed (on the image).
Using track bars of the “OUTPUT MONOCHROMATOR CONTROL”
panel you determine the starting point (wavelength) of scanning/ recording of
luminescence spectrum and the scanning rate of the prism (equivalent to the
scanning wavelength range). On this panel you also select photodetector type
(PMT). See its sensitivity spectrum

by pressing “Spectrum” button. The detector
should be sensitive in the wavelength range of the expected luminescence
emission. (Usually 10-150 nm shifted to the longer wavelengths range from the
absorbance spectrum of the substance). The PMT supply voltage (800 – 2000
V) determines the amplification factor of the detector (its sensitivity). The same
effect can be reached by the “Current – Voltage” conversion factor. (PMT
produces current proportional to the light intensity. The PMT current should be
converted to voltage for recording).
43
Fig.7 – Plotter panel of the
program
On the “Plotter” panel (Fig. 7) you can record the spectrum of

luminescence according to setups given on previous stages. If all settings will
be done appropriately
Fig.6 – Calibration panel of the
program
44
then the spectrum will be recorded clearly. To record the spectrum press
“Record spectrum” button and to clear the record press “Reset plotter” button.
7.4 Execution order 1. Open the “Spectroscopy.exe” program. 2. Open the
“Setup” panel. 3. Fill 3 solutions into the flasks (bottles). 4. Copy the name and
absorption spectrum of each substance. For copying spectrum use at least 30
points or copy it in electronic format (use Print Screen function of operating
system).
5. Pour the solution of one bottle into the quartz cell, put it into the
spectrometer and turn on the excitation source.
6. Open the “Calibration” panel. 7. Select the excitation light source. The
excitation source should have considerable emission intensity in the spectral
range of analyzed substance absorption peak.
8. Select the “INPUT MONOCHROMATOR” wavelength to select
excitation wavelength using the same reasoning as in Step 7.
9. Set the minimal start wavelength and maximal scan range of the
“OUTPUT MONOCHROMATOR CONTROL” panel to localize the luminescence
spectrum.
10. Select the PMT (photodetector type) based on its sensitivity spectrum. 11.
Set the maximal PMT voltage and Current-Voltage conversion to have best
signal amplification.
12. Open the “Plotter” panel and record the spectrum. 13. If the intensity is too
high, decrease the PMT voltage and/ or Current- Voltage conversion factor to
reduce the signal and record again.
14. If the signal is not seen than the “Calibration” settings are wrong,
change settings and try again.
15. Set optimal start wavelength and scan range to obtain well resolved
clear spectrum.
16. Copy the luminescence spectrum to your report (Note that starting
wavelength and spectral range per scale grade are set on the “OUTPUT
MONOCHROMATOR CONTROL” panel).
1) Name and purpose of work 2) Scheme of the experiment. 3) Absorption
spectra and names of 3 analyzed substances. 4) All parameters set on
“Calibration” panel with reasoning/explanation of their choice.
5) Clear and well resolved luminescence spectra of 3 analyzed
substances.
45
6) Conclusions that should contain explanation of optical phenomena
that were used in this laboratory work.
7.6 Control questions 1) Wave nature

of light. Wavelength. 2) Refraction of
light. 3) Index of refraction. 4)
Dispersion of light. 5) Visible light
spectrum. Spectral graph. 6) Operation
of prism spectrometer.
46
8 ATOMIC ORBITALS
8.1 Goal of this work The goal of this work is to study structure of different
types of atomic orbitals and corresponding electronic wavefunctions.
8.2 Methodical instructions Atoms are composed of a nucleus containing

neutrons and protons with electrons dispersed throughout the atom. Electrons,
however, are not simply floating within the atom but are instead fixed within
electron orbitals. Electron orbitals are regions within the atom where electrons
have the highest probability of being found.
An atomic orbital is a mathematical function that describes the wave-like
behavior of either one electron or a pair of electrons in an atom. This function
can be used to calculate the probability of finding any electron of an atom in any
specific region around the atom's nucleus.
Each orbital in an atom is characterized by a unique set of values of the
three quantum numbers n, l, and m, which correspond to the electron's energy,
angular momentum, and an angular momentum vector component, respectively.
Any orbital can be occupied by a maximum of two electrons, each with its own
spin quantum number. The simple names s orbital, p orbital, d orbital and f
orbital refer to orbitals with angular momentum quantum number l = 0, 1, 2 and
3 respectively. These names, together with the value of n, are used to describe
the electron configurations. They are derived from the description by early
spectroscopists of certain series of alkali metal spectroscopic lines as sh arp,
principal, diffuse, and fu
ndamental. Orbitals for l >
3 are named in alphabetical
order (omitting j).
Atomic orbitals are the basic building blocks of the atomic orbital model
(alternatively known as the electron cloud), a modern framework for visualizing
the submicroscopic behavior of electrons in matter. In this model the electron
cloud of a multi-electron atom may be seen as being built up in an electron
configuration that is a product of simpler hydrogen-like atomic orbitals. The
repeating periodicity of the blocks of 2, 6, 10, and 14 elements within sections of
the periodic table arises naturally from the total number of electrons that occupy
a complete set of s, p, d a
nd f a
tomic orbitals, respectively.
8.2.1 Electron properties With the development of quantum mechanics, it was
found that the orbiting electrons around a nucleus could not be fully described
as particles, but needed to be explained by the wave-particle duality. In this
sense, the electrons have the following properties:
Wave-like properties: 1. The electrons do not orbit the nucleus in the sense of a
planet orbiting the sun, but instead exist as standing waves. The lowest possible
energy an electron can take is therefore analogous to the fundamental
frequency of a wave on a string.
47
Higher energy states are then similar to harmonicsof the fundamental
frequency.
2. The electrons are never in a single point location, although the
probability of interacting with the electron at a single point can be found from the
wave function of the electron.
Particle-like properties: 1. There is always an integer number of electrons
orbiting the nucleus. 2. Electrons jump between orbitals in a particle-like
fashion. For example, if a single photon strikes the electrons, only a single
electron changes states in response to the photon.
3. The electrons retain particle like-properties such as: each wave state
has the same electrical charge as the electron particle. Each wave state has a
single discrete spin (spin up or spin down).
Thus, despite the obvious analogy to planets revolving around the Sun,
electrons cannot be described simply as solid particles. In addition, atomic
orbitals do not closely resemble a planet's elliptical path in ordinary atoms. A
more accurate analogy might be that of a large and often oddly shaped
"atmosphere" (the electron), distributed around a relatively tiny planet (the
atomic nucleus). Atomic orbitals exactly describe the shape of this "atmosphere"
only when a single electron is present in an atom. When more electrons are
added to a single atom, the additional electrons tend to more evenly fill in a
volume of space around the nucleus so that the resulting collection (sometimes
termed the atom’s “electron cloud”) tends toward a generally spherical zone of
probability describing where the atom’s electrons will be found.
Atomic orbitals considered in this laboratory work are the hydrogen-like
"orbitals" which are exact solutions to the Schrödinger equation for a
hydrogen-like "atom" (i.e., an atom with one electron). Alternatively, atomic
orbitals refer to functions that depend on the coordinates of one electron (i.e.
orbitals) but are used as starting points for approximating wave functions that
depend on the simultaneous coordinates of all the electrons in an atom or
molecule. The coordinate systems chosen for atomic orbitals are usually
spherical coordinates (r, θ, φ) in atoms and cartesians (x, y, z) in polyatomic
molecules. The advantage of spherical coordinates (for atoms) is that an orbital
wave function is a product of three factors each dependent on a single
coordinate: ψ(r, θ, φ) = R(r) Θ(θ) Φ(φ).
The angular factors of atomic orbitals Θ(θ) Φ(φ) generate s, p, d, etc.
functions as real combinations of spherical harmonics Ylm(θ, φ) (where l a
nd m
are quantum numbers).

The hydrogen-like atomic orbitals are derived from the
exact solution of the Schrödinger Equation for one electron and a nucleus, for a
hydrogen-like atom. The radial function R(r) that depends on the distance from
the nucleus has nodes (radial nodes) and decays as Exp(−(constant ×
distance)).
8.2.2 Visualizing Electron Orbitals The magnetic quantum number (ml) can
range from –l to +l. This tells us how many

lobes (orbitals) there are in s, p, d,
and f subshells. The s subshell has one lobe, the p subshell has three lobes, the
d subshell has five lobes, and the f subshell has seven lobes. Each of these
lobes is labeled differently and is named due to which
48
plane the lobe is resting on. If the lobe lies along the x plane, then it is labeled
with an x such as 3px. If the lobe lies along the xy plane, then it is labeled with
an x and a y such as dxy. Electrons will be found where the lobes are found. The
plane (or planes) that

the orbitals do not fill are called nodes. These are places
where there is a 0 probability density of finding electrons. For example, if we
have the d orbital of d

yx, then
there are nodes on planes xz a
nd yz. T
his can be
seen in the diagrams shown in Fig. 1.
Figure 1 – The shapes of the atomic orbitals. The colors show the wave
function phase. These are graphs of ψ(x, y, z) functions which depend on
the coordinates of one electron

Wavefunc simulation program that is used for execution of this laboratory work.
This computer laboratory work concerns investigation of 3D
wave-functions. The program gives 3D spatial distribution of probabilities for
appropriate quantum states (or electronic orbitals) of atomic systems. The
spatial probability distribution is represented via density of points. Densely
painted areas correspond to high probability of electron detection and vice
versa.
To rotate image press left mouse button over the image and drag the mouse.
The main program window contains following controls: ORBITAL SELECTION
BOX - allows selection of 30 predefined atomic orbitals to be drawn.
RADIUS BOX - allows limitation of r coordinate (spherical coordinate
system), used for image generation. (Each predefined orbital has default radius
49
settings).
POINTS NUMBER BOX - allows setting of points number, used for
image generation.
VIEW CUTOFF TRACKBARS (FRONT AND BACK) - allows cutting of
image in view direction from both sides (front and back). The graphical
representation of CUTOFF effect is shown below TRACKBARS (top view of the
resulting image). The Image Cutoff allows investigation of internal structure of
electronic density "cloud".
DRAW BUTTON - forces image regeneration after changes in
parameters. (NOTE: changing ORBITAL setting forces automatic image
regeneration).
The mathematical formulation of appropriate wave functions is
displayed in the top of the screen. The formulation is given in spherical
coordinates, where σ stands for radial coordinate, θ and φ - stands for angles.
Figure 2 – Screen of Wavefunc simulation
program
8.4 Execution order 1. Open the “Wavefunc.exe” program. 2. Examine all
available orbitals (30 orbitals). 3. Using VIEW CUTOFF feature, determine the
radial probability distribution for the required orbitals and sketch appropriate
images into your notebooks (use orbitals according to your computer number
from Table 1).
Table 1 – List of orbitals for detailed

study.
50
Computer tals (wavefunctions)
number
Ψ , Ψ , Ψ , Ψ Ψ , Ψ , Ψ 4 f Ψ
1 Ψ s ,
1
3 d
3p
z x 2 -
y 2 2Ψ

2s , 3 d z2 4 d xz3
2p
x 3
s ( 2 2
) 4 2 p
y 3 y - x
, Ψ 4 d , Ψ 4 f Ψ , Ψ , Ψ Ψ , Ψ , Ψ Ψ , Ψ , Ψ 4
y x 2 - y 2 z3
5 2p
z 3 d xy
4 f xyz
6 3d
xz 3 p y 7
4s 3d
yz 4
p x
Ψ ,Ψ
Ψ , Ψ 4 f Ψ Ψ
d
z28 Ψ
2s ,
4
f
3p
x ( 2 2
x x - 3 y ) 9 Ψ s , 4 p
1 z 10 Ψ
1 Ψ
s , xy 11
3 d x 2 - y 2 , 4 d
xz 2

, Ψ , Ψ Ψ , Ψ , Ψ Ψ , Ψ , Ψ
2p
z 3 d xy 4 d yz
12 3d
xz 3 p y
4 f
yz 213
2p
z 3 d xy
4 f
( 2 2
14 Ψ
)
z x - y 1s ,
Ψ ,Ψ
Ψ ,Ψ

p z
3 4
p y 15 Ψ
2s ,
4
d
4p
x 8.5 Report content When you will finish your
z2
work, you should write a report and defend it. Your report should contain the
following information:
1) Name and purpose of work. 2) Sketches of your electronic orbitals and
formulas of corresponding wavefunctions.
3) Conclusions.
8.6 Control questions 1) Wavefunction.

Probability of locating a particle. 2) Atomic
structure. Bohr’s theory. 3) Electronic orbitals.
Atomic transitions. 4) Corpuscular-wave
dualism.
51
REFERENCES
1. M. Rozhit'skii, O. Churilov, V. Gorbachev, Y. Zholudov, Physics: Summary

of Lectures. Part 1 Mechanics, Thermodynamics, Electrodynamics, Kharkiv:
KNURE, 2005, 89p.
2. M. Rozhit'skii, O. Churilov, V. Gorbachev, Y. Zholudov, Physics: Summary

of Lectures. Part 2 Electric Circuits, Optics and Quantum Mechanics,
Kharkiv: KNURE, 2006, 89p.
3. R. Serway, J. Faughn, College physics / 5th edition, Saunders College

Publishers, 1999, 1029p.
4. R.P. Feynman, The Feynman Lectures on Physics, Addison-Wesley

publishing
company, Inc., 1964, 513 p.
5. Dull C.E., Clark Metcalfe H., Brooks W.O. Modern Physics New, York:
Henry
Holt and Company, 1955,
712p.
52
Навчальне
видання
МЕТОДИЧНІ ВКАЗІВКИ
до лабораторних робіт з
дисципліни “Physics”
для студентів денної форми навчання напряму підготовки 6.050102
«Комп’ютерна інженерія», 6.051402 «Біомедична інженерія», які
навчаються англійською мовою
Упорядники: ЖОЛУДОВ Юрій Тимофійович

СНІЖКО Дмитро
Вікторович
Відповідальний випусковий В.О.

Горбачов
Редактор Ю.Т.
Жолудов
Комп'ютерна верстка Ю.Т.

Жолудов
План 20__, поз. Підп. до друку ______ Формат 60×84 1/16. Спосіб
друку – ризографія Умов. друк. арк. Облік. вид. арк. . Тираж прим.
Зам. No Ціна договірна.
___________________________________________________________________________
__________
ХНУРЕ. Україна. 61166 Харків, просп. Леніна,
14
___________________________________________________________________________
__________
Віддруковано в навчально-науковому
видавничо-поліграфічному центрі
ХНУРЕ 61166 Харків, просп. Леніна,
14

Physics: Kharkiv National University of Radio Electronics

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MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF UKRAINE

KHARKIV NATIONAL UNIVERSITY

CENTER FOR STUDENTS TRAINING IN

Students’ Manual for Laboratory

Упорядники: Ю.Т. Жолудов,

The cource of laboratory works of "Physics" is intended for assisting

v0​ ​– initial velocity of an object; ​a ​–

that length of components ​

y= The length of vector ​A ​can be expressed through its components using

In order to define orientation of vector ​A i​n space (relative to coordinate

1.2.3 Projectile motion

The projectile motion is simple to analyze if the following three

The initial velocity vector v​0​ ​makes an angle of ​θ​

vector are given

Motion in the x direction occurs without acceleration, i.e. ​0 = ​xa

as a function of time is given by: ​( ) t​vtvx ​x ·​ = · = ​0 0 0 cos​

1.3 Description of laboratory setup. In ​ figure 3 there is a multi-flash

in SI units: ​v0​ ​[m/s], ​h ​[m], ​y​0 ​[m]; ​L ​[m].

Table 1 - Initial parameters for

4 0 7 11 4 1.5 7 12 3.5 0.5 7 11 2 1

corresponding equation has the form ​y​:=y​0​+​v​0​y​×​t+​1/2​×​g×

number. ​4) Solution of present physical problem using equations of motion

2.2 Methodical instructions ​The ballistic pendulum is a device used to

In a typical inelastic collision problem, only one quantity in the

2.3 Description of laboratory setup. ​In figure 2 there is a multi-flash

Figure 2 - Stroboscopic image of experimental setup demonstrating

Table 1 – The masses of bullets to be used in

m1 m2 m3 1 ​3g 5g 10g ​2 ​5g 3g 11g ​3 ​7g 8g

Figure 3 – Scheme of the ballistic pendulum

2.6 Control questions ​1) The definition of mechanical energy. 2)

measure, ​cx​i​ts the

represent If ​T i​s the final equilibrium

that the system (water

3.3 Description of laboratory setup. ​In the figure 1 there is a screen of

Figure 1 – Screen of Calorimetry simulation

the Table 1. Mean value can be found as ​cmean

minimize possible errors of the measurements.

Table 1. – List of substances for determination of specific heat. ​No

3.6 Control questions ​1)

4.2 Methodical instructions ​When a voltage (potential difference) ∆​V i​s

Figure 1 shows example of series combination of two resistors R

R​2 ​and equivalent

The equivalent resistance of serial connection of ​n r​esistors is the sum

on Fig. 1 according to Ohm’s law will be ∆​V/​​Req​

Figure 1 – Illustration of junction rule

The loop rule is equivalent to the principle of ​conservation of energy.​

5.2.1 Applying Kirchhoff's loop rule a) If a resistor is traversed in the direction of

Figure 2 – Determination of potential difference for loop

Table 2. – List of samples for determination of refractive

materials corresponding to the samples using data in table 1. ​5) Conclusions.

7.2.1 Dispersion of light An important property of the index of refraction is that

Figure 1 – Dispersion of light in Crown glass, Acrylic, Fused

7.2.2 Prisms A prism (Fig. 2) as an optical device made of a transparent

a b Figure 2 – Light beam traveling through the

7.2.3 Prism spectrometer Prisms are often used in an instrument known as a

Figure 3 – A Simple prism

Figure 4 – Operation of a simple prism

In real spectroscopy systems the light is not observed directly but is

7.3 Description of laboratory setup. ​The setup emulates operation of

(PMT). See its sensitivity spectrum

On the “Plotter” panel (Fig. 7) you can record the spectrum of

7.6 Control questions ​1) Wave nature

v0 – initial velocity of an object; a –

that length of components

y= The length of vector A can be expressed through its components using

In order to define orientation of vector A in space (relative to coordinate

The initial velocity vector v0 makes an angle of θ

Motion in the x direction occurs without acceleration, i.e. 0 = xa

as a function of time is given by: ( ) tvtvx x · = · = 0 0 0 cos

1.3 Description of laboratory setup. In figure 3 there is a multi-flash

in SI units: v0 [m/s], h [m], y0 [m]; L [m].

corresponding equation has the form y:=y0+v0y×t+1/2×g×

number. 4) Solution of present physical problem using equations of motion

2.2 Methodical instructions The ballistic pendulum is a device used to

2.3 Description of laboratory setup. In figure 2 there is a multi-flash

m1 m2 m3 1 3g 5g 10g 2 5g 3g 11g 3 7g 8g

2.6 Control questions 1) The definition of mechanical energy. 2)

measure, cxits the

represent If T is the final equilibrium

3.3 Description of laboratory setup. In the figure 1 there is a screen of

the Table 1. Mean value can be found as cmean

Table 1. – List of substances for determination of specific heat. No

3.6 Control questions 1)

4.2 Methodical instructions When a voltage (potential difference) ∆V is

R2 and equivalent

The equivalent resistance of serial connection of n resistors is the sum

on Fig. 1 according to Ohm’s law will be ∆V/Req

The loop rule is equivalent to the principle of conservation of energy.

materials corresponding to the samples using data in table 1. 5) Conclusions.

7.3 Description of laboratory setup. The setup emulates operation of

7.6 Control questions 1) Wave nature

8.2 Methodical instructions Atoms are composed of a nucleus containing

range from –l to +l. This tells us how many

have the d orbital of d

8.3 Description of laboratory setup. In the figure 2 there is a screen of

8.6 Control questions 1) Wavefunction.