Geohazard Description Lefkosia 4 March 2014

EUROPEAN COMMISSION
Research Executive Agency
Seventh Framework Programme

Cooperation: Space Call 3
FP7-SPACE-2010-1
Grant Agreement: 262371
Enabling Access to Geological Information in

Support of GMES
D7.1. 17 Geohazard Description for Lefkosia

Version 1
December 2013
Dissemination Level: Public

Author: Zomenia Zomeni and Niki Date: December 2013
Koulermou, Cyprus Geological Survey
Checked by (WP Leader): [WP Leader Name, Organisation] Date:
Approved by (Coordinator): [Coordinator, Organisation] Date:
Date of Issue: [Date]
PanGeo D7.1. 17: Geohazard Description for Lefkosia
CHANGE RECORD
Version X.X of [Date] to Version X.X of [Date]
Section Page Detail of change
Dissemination Level: Public Page 2 of 81

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The broader urban area of Lefkosia was chosen for two reasons. Firstly, being the capital, it is the most
populated area on the island hosting important government institutions and infrastructure. Secondly, it is
an area with recent detailed bedrock, surficial, geotechnical and neotectonic data, the results of a 3-year
seismic hazard assessment research study with extensive digital geological and administrative vector data.
For this project, data from 20 scenes taken between November 2002 and December 2006 reveal up to
9mm/y subsidence in the southwest and up to 10 mm/y uplift in some scattered central city locations.
Seasonal movements (up to 2-4mm/year) occur in the southeast. Areas with substantial movement were
visited in the field and buildings were checked for failures. Possible causes for these ground movements
were evaluated taking into consideration the local geological and environmental conditions of the area.
Geological maps, geotechnical reports and borehole data were considered for deciding on the causes of
movement. The principle factors that arose were both geological and anthropogenic. Tectonics, seasonal
movements due to expanding/shrinking clays, underground cavities due to abandoned underground
quarries, ancient burial tombs, and landfill reclamation especially in in-filled channels are some of the key
players.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Change Record
Executive Summary
1 Authorship and contact details ..................................................................................................... 5

2 Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 5
3 PGGH_LeFKOSIA_001.................................................................................................................. 21
4 PGGH_LeFKOSIA_002.................................................................................................................. 25
5 PGGH_LeFKOSIA_003.................................................................................................................. 27
6 PGGH_LeFKOSIA_004.................................................................................................................. 28
7 PGGH_LeFKOSIA_005.................................................................................................................. 31
8 PGGH_LeFKOSIA_006.................................................................................................................. 35
9 PGGH_LeFKOSIA_007.................................................................................................................. 38
10 PGGH_LeFKOSIA_008.................................................................................................................. 42
11 GGH_LeFKOSIA_009.................................................................................................................... 45
12 PGGH_LeFKOSIA_010.................................................................................................................. 49
13 PGGH_LeFKOSIA_011.................................................................................................................. 54
14 PGGH_LeFKOSIA_012.................................................................................................................. 56
15 PGGH_LeFKOSIA_013.................................................................................................................. 61
16 PGGH_LeFKOSIA_014.................................................................................................................. 64
17 PGGH_LeFKOSIA_015.................................................................................................................. 68
18 PGGH_LeFKOSIA_016.................................................................................................................. 71
20 References: ................................................................................................................................. 81

1 AUTHORSHIP AND CONTACT DETAILS

Dr. Zomenia Zomeni (zzomeni@gsd.moa.gov.cy), Senior Geological Officer, General Geology, GIS and
Cartography Section
Niki Koulermou, MSc (nkoulermou@gsd.moa.gov.cy), Geological Officer, Engineering Geology Section
Mailing address:
Cyprus Geological Survey
Ministry of Agriculture Natural Resources and Environment
1415 Lefkosia
Physical address:
Cyprus Geological Survey
1 Lefkonos str.
2064 Strovolos,
2 INTRODUCTION
The urban area of Lefkosia (previously referred to as Nicosia) is located in the central broad valley of the
island which is bordered in the north by the steep mountains of the Pentadaktylos range and in the south
by the foothills of the Troodos ophiolite complex (Figure 2-1). Habitation in the study area goes back to
antiquity. Numerous underground room and pillar quarries for building blocks, kanats (chains of wells,
locally known as laoumia) and ancient cemeteries are some of the special artificial features in this area of
the island. The central core of the city was initially located on the banks of the Pediaios river and later
surrounded by Venetian city walls in the 14th century AD (Figure 2-2). Pediaios river was diverted during the
Venetian Period into the moat and to the north and outside the city walls Since then, the city has expanded
outside the walls and engulfed the nearby suburbs and villages (Figure 2-3). Today, the broader urban city
of Lefkosia is the biggest urban center on the island and houses the central government. As many as 50
municipalities share at least a small part of the study area. Another unique feature of this city is the broad
United Nations Buffer Zone established in 1974 after the military invasion of Turkey and the ongoing
military occupation of the northern part of the island. As a result, this European capital is the last divided
city of Europe.
This UN buffer zone coincides with the fault zone of the Ovgos, a major tectonic boundary between the
Keryneia terrane in the north and the Circum-Troodos sediments in the south. This is a zone of high angle
thrust and reverse faults that in downtown Lefkosia are geomorphologically expressed with the existence
of the broad Pediaios river bed. This river drains the north-facing steep Troodos mountains, forms broad
alluvial fans upon entering the Mesaoria plain, transects the lower levels of the valley and empties into the
Famagusta Bay on the eastern coast of the island forming complicated deltas and extensive swamps.
Where the river meets the Ovgos fault zone close to the city walls, it is diverted north following the western
and then northern boundary of the city and meets its original course again north east of the city. This
diversion of the river that is believed to have been engineered during the Venetian period was intended for
flooding the moat of the city walls but mainly for achieving flood control for the town inside the city walls.
Flooding of the city during extreme rainfall events (Machairas, 1932) continued up to the Ottoman Period

until the establishment of the municipal authorities in 1882 when measures had to be taken for the
unsanitary condition caused by stagnant waters in the abandoned river bed. The city authorities subsidized
merchants by giving land ownership to those who reclaimed parcels in the river bed and flood plain. In
summary, bedrock geology and tectonics played a vital role in land use over the centuries.
Figure 2-1: Location of the study area in the central valley of the island. The Troodos Ophiolite complex is visible to the SW of the
sturdy area and the Pentadaktylos range is the north. A visible line transecting the island (and the study area) represents the United
Nations Buffer Zone.
Figure 2-2: Venetian map of Lefkosia (Nicosia) showing Pediaios river entering the city from the west around Pafos Gate and exiting
the city from the east around Famagusta Gate. This plan of the Lefkosia city walls is from the book Universus Terrarum Orbis
Scriptorum Calama Delineatus by Savonarona (1713), with this specific plan being redrawn from the book by Camocio published
around 1570 (Navari, 2003).

532000 533000 534000
3894000
3894000
3893000
3893000
3892000
3892000
532000 533000 534000
Figure 2-3: Central core of the city of Lefkosia. The Venetian city walls are clearly identified in the centre of this 2003 Quickbird
image. The Pediaios river bed is visible in the SW corner of the picture flowing north after its diversion. A grey zone running from
west to east inside the city wall represents the abandoned river bed, later uninhabited United Nations buffer zone.
The bedrock geology of the study area (Figure 2-4) is represented by Miocene sediments, the Kythrea
Formation (aka Kythrea Flysch) in the north and the Pachna Formation in the south. These 2 geological
zones are divided by the Ovgos fault zone, at least a 5km wide W-E trending fault zone transecting the
northern part of the study area.
Overlaying the Kythrea and Pachna Formation are the Upper Miocene (Messinian) gypsum deposits of the
Kalavasos Formation representing the Messinian salinity crisis of the Mediterranean. In the northern part of
the study area, which falls in the Keryneia geological zone, part of the Upper Pachna Formation and
including the Kalavasos Formation, is represented by the Lapatza Formation. Re-flooding of the eastern
Mediterranean basin initiated a new Pliocene cycle of deposition of the Marl Member of the Lefkosia
Formation. Reaching a total thickness of up to 900m in the central part of the basin, the Lefkosia Formation
consists of 7 members with the most prominent ones being the Marl Member, the Kefales Member and the
Athalassa and Lithic Sand Members. The stratigraphy of the Formation reveals the geologic history of the
study area where the sea level of this Pliocene marine basin slowly dropped with sea water completely
draining until the end of the Gelasian (about 4 million years ago). The present landscape represents
deposits and landforms characteristic of a regressive environment with the Marl Member representing
deep marine sediments; the Athalassa Member; Littoral marine sediments and the Kefales member deltaic
sediments. One can trace various W to E trending coastlines suggesting a regression progressing from the
south to the north with the Troodos Foothills in the south being slowly exposed to sub-aerial processes.

Figure 2-4: Bedrock geological map of Lefkosia (Harrison et al., 2008).


Figure 2-5: (continued)
Figure 2-5: Legend for the bedrock map (Harrison et al., 2008).
The surficial Quaternary sediments are shown in Figure 2-6. This first sub-aerial deposition is represented
by the thick fluvial sequences of the Apalos Formation which caps most of the Pliocene topographic highs.
In the topographic lows fluvial deposits of Pleistocene and Holocene age fill the valleys. These consist of
river alluvium, fluvial terraces, flood deposits and alluvial fans of the Pediaios, Jinnar and Almyros rivers and
consist of gravels, sands, silts and muds derived from the erosion of these three watersheds and
representing the episodic uplift history of the Troodos Ophiolite complex coupled with the episodic
Pleistocene climatic changes.
Structurally, the study area is distinctly derived in 2 areas. The northern area in the Kythrea Flysch with
intense folding and faulting and the southern part south of the Ovgos Fault Zone, with distinct NE-SW
compression (expressed with strike-slip faults) active until the end of the Pliocene.

Figure 2-6: Surficial geological map of the Lefkosia area (DeCoster et. al., 2004).


Figure 2-7: (continued)
Figure 2-7: Legend for the surficial geological map (DeCoster et. al., 2004).

The geomorphology of the area is represented by four different types of landforms and stratigraphic
assemblages. These include: (1) the extensive thick alluvial fill of the Pediaios river valley and its tributaries,
(2) areas of bold relief developed on the calcarenite facies of the Athalassa Member, (3) gentle to steep
slopes and high hills underlain by the alluvial fan deposits of the Apalos Formation and the Kefales
Member, and (4) the rapidly eroding hill slopes underlain by the flysch of the Kythrea Group in the northern
(De Coster et. al., 2004).
Figure 2-8: PSI data in the Lefkosia study area.
Sixteen multi- or single-part geohazard polygons have been identified in the greater Lefkosia area, seven of
which correspond to areas observed in PSI data and nine to geohazards observed geology field campaigns.
All polygons are attributed using hazard categories and classifications compliant with the Pangeo Project

specifications. In the interpretation of each geohazard polygon, a measure of the confidence is reported by
using a scale of low, medium and high confidence for polygons that have been mapped depending on the
number of PSI datasets used in the interpretation, or external confidence for polygons which have been
mapped from an external source.
All the areas have been visited in the field, investigated in detail and some of them have been compared to
existing data and relevant information. Tectonic movements, ground dissolution, shrink-swell soils, land
and quarry fills and landslides are the main geohazards that have been found in the Lefkosia area.
Work in the Lefkosia area is facilitated by extensive vector data, both administrative and geological. Most
of the data are derived from both digitized and recent archived maps and reports of the Cyprus Geological
Survey. Table 2 gives a brief description of all used during the interpretation of the Lefkosia PSI data.All
polygons are indicated in the table below:

Table 1: A Summary of observed geohazard polygons in the Lefkosia area
Polygon Area
Location Type of Motion Hazard Category Hazard Type
ID (SqKm)
001
Lakatamia/Tseri Land subsidence 1_Deep seated motions 1.2_Tectonic movements 42,7042
Strovolos/Engomi/
002 Uplift 1_Deep seated motions 1.2_Tectonic movements 46,1037
Gerolakkos
2_Natural ground
003 Lakatamia Land subsidence 2.1_Landslide 0,0004
instability
2_Natural ground 2.3_Ground Dissolution
004 Mia Milia Land subsidence 4,8667
instability (gypsum)
Geri/Latsia/
Land subsidence 3_Natural ground 3.2_Shrink-swell
005 Dali/Potamia/ 69,6718
and uplift movement Clays (Nicosia marl)
Aglangia
4_Man Made
Occurs across study 4.6_Made ground
006 Land subsidence (Anthropogenic) Ground 0,2845
area (Land fill)
Instability
4_Man Made
Aglangia/Strovolos/Mia 4.6_Made ground
Milia (quarry fill)
Instability
4_Man Made
4.6_Made ground
008 Aglangia Land subsidence (Anthropogenic) Ground 0,1934
(river fill)
Instability
4_Man Made
4.6_Made ground
009 Lefkosia Land subsidence (Anthropogenic) Ground 1,8175
(modern city)
Instability
4_Man Made
4.6_Made ground
(river fill/old Pediaios)
Instability
4_Man Made
4.6_Made ground
(city within the walls)
Instability
4_Man Made
4.6_Made ground
(moat)
Instability
4_Man Made 4.5_Underground
013 Acropoli/Strovolos Land subsidence (Anthropogenic) Ground Construction 0,6604
Instability (quarries/tombs)
4_Man Made
Aglangia/Acropoli/ 4.4_Mining (underground
Kanli quarries)
Instability
5.Abandoned failing
015 Aglangia Land subsidence 5_Other 0,022
building
Land subsidence
016 Lefkosia 6_Unknown 6_Unknown 0,4859
and uplift

Figure 2-9: Extent of the area with ground stability polygons labelled with their ID number.

Table 2: Data used during the interpretation
dataset availability
Aerial photography Analog stereo prints of aerial photographs dating to 1963, scale
1:8.000, available from Lands and Surveys Department
Topographical data Digital elevation data from recent digital photogrammetry, available
from Lands and Surveys Department
bedrock geology polygons, Available from the Cyprus Geological Survey in the form of a
scale 1:25.000 published map (€20 + VAT, includes booklet) or in pdf format on a
freely available CD
Geotechnical map of Available from the Cyprus Geological Survey in the form of a
Nicosia, Cratchley et al., published map (€15 + VAT)
1982, scale 1:25.000
surficial geology polygons, Available from the Cyprus Geological Survey in pdf version on a freely
scale 1:25.000 available CD
fault lines, scale 1:25.000 Available from the Cyprus Geological Survey in the form of a
published map (€20 + VAT, includes booklet) or in pdf format on a
freely available CD
Folds, scale 1:25.000 Available from the Cyprus Geological Survey in the form of a
published map (€20 + VAT, includes booklet) or in pdf format on a
freely available CD
Chain of wells, scale Available from the cadastre maps and digitised from the Geotechnical
1:45.000 map of Nicosia (€15 + VAT)
Geotechnical draft maps, Draft geological maps with numerous geotechnical data accumulated
1:5.000 in the last 30 years in the Engineering section of the Cyprus
Geological Survey
Geotechnical reports Reports on various geotechnical matters for government buildings,
problematic ground, etc, available from the Cyprus Geological Survey
Library in Lefkosia, library search tool available online,
http://www.moa.gov.cy/gsd
Borehole data Borehole data of about 1800 boreholes with geological /geotechnical
data, stored in Cyprus Geological Survey archives, available upon
request
Archaeological data, Maps of archaeological excavations and findings, available from the
1:5.000 Report of the Department of Antiquities, 2002
Meteorological data Average monthly rainfall data from 2002-2006, available from Cyprus
Meteorological Service, http://www.moa.gov.cy/ms

PSI data used in the interpretation is summarised in the following 4 tables.
Table 3: Processing data
Process Date 07th July 2007

Software used GAMMA IPTA
Version V1.2 June 2007
Analysis type H-1
Number of scenes used 20
Date range of analysis 16th November 2002 – 30th December 2006
Satellite data used Envisat
th
Master Scene Date 14 May 2005
Georeference (X,Y) accuracy 15 m
Reference data used for georeference Quickbird (0.6m spatial resolution)
Projection system used UTM Zone 36, WGS84
Reference point location 531122.706 E , 3887625.785 N
2
Area of results Total ~489 km
Table 4: Interferograms used for analysis. The scene in BOLD is the master reference scene.
Temporal
Number of separation
Master Date Slave Date Bperp (m)
scenes (days)
1 20050514 20021116 253.8828 -910

2 20050514 20030927 -705.023 -595
3 20050514 20031206 -729.462 -525
4 20050514 20040529 12.3725 -350
5 20050514 20040703 -1038.95 -315
6 20050514 20040807 -507.004 -280
7 20050514 20040911 290.7173 -245
8 20050514 20041016 100.2115 -210
9 20050514 20041225 -469.766 -140
10 20050514 20050129 -503.047 -105
11 20050514 20050409 -522.133 -35
12 20050514 20050514 0 0
13 20050514 20050723 100.5969 70
14 20050514 20050827 106.5261 105
15 20050514 20051105 176.0639 175
16 20050514 20060218 -694.437 280
17 20050514 20060325 -234.957 315
18 20050514 20060603 -1172.88 385
19 20050514 20060708 428.7025 420
20 20050514 20061230 -102.028 595

Table 5: Data describing results
Number of PS identified 23818 points

PS density (PS/km2) ~49 PS points / km2
Point motion statistics (mm/year classes) Points in each mm/year class
Count %
-9.8 to –3.5 836 3.51
-3.5 to –1.5 2662 11.18
-1.5 to 1.5 18148 76.19
1.5 to 3.5 2008 8.43
3.5 to 10.5 164 0.69
Average annual motion rate of the entire
-0.173 mm / year
processed area
Standard deviation of average annual
1.523
motion rate
All 20 scenes were used in the processing.
There is an apparent region of subsidence in the
Observations
southwest of the AOI and an area of slight uplift just
to the north of this.
Uncompensated atmospherics -
Visible tilt or phase trends in motion map -
Are there any regions not covered by Areas of low / no coherence e.g. water and rural
InSAR results? If so, where and why? areas.
Table 6: Ground motion statistics from ENVISAT PSI data for all the geohazard polygons.
ENVISAT data in 16th November 2002 – 30th December 2006

Inspire ID No PS motion velocity (VEL) in mm/year
Count Avg_Velocity Min_Velocity Max_Velocity SD_Velocity
PGGH_LEFKOSIA_001 1029 -3.6618 -9.768 2.182 0.923
PGGH_LEFKOSIA_002 5301 0.8642 -6.18 10.546 0.5935
PGGH_LEFKOSIA_003 none none none none none
PGGH_LEFKOSIA_004 45 -8.9398 -6.222 4.14 0.879578
PGGH_LEFKOSIA_005 1619 -0.28465 -7.828 6.81 1.7835
PGGH_LEFKOSIA_006 48 -0.38779 -5.004 4.163 0.57454
PGGH_LEFKOSIA_007 257 -0.399 -5.445 2.722 0.54456
PGGH_LEFKOSIA_008 42 -1.114 -4.08 4.517 0.56
PGGH_LEFKOSIA_009 551 -0.425 -4.594 6.076 0.571
PGGH_LEFKOSIA_010 206 -0.5665 -4.571 3.135 0.6425
PGGH_LEFKOSIA_011 322 -0.714 -6.562 2.599 0.685
PGGH_LEFKOSIA_012 25 -0.2556 -1.733 1.656 0.679
PGGH_LEFKOSIA_013 249 -1.059 -6.466 2.161 0.528
PGGH_LEFKOSIA_014 35 -0.5014 -2.156 0.652 0.762
PGGH_LEFKOSIA_015 9 -0.283 -4.436 1.95 0.793
PGGH_LEFKOSIA_016 176 -0.63658 -4.806 3.583 0.58

3 PGGH_LEFKOSIA_001
3.1 TYPE OF MOTION
Subsidence
3.2 GENERAL PROPERTIES OF THE MOTION AREA
Polygon “PGGH_Lefkosia_001” covers a large area of 42,7042km2 in the south-western part of the study
area and represents deep ground motion caused by tectonic movement. Lakatamia, Tseri and Deftera
towns are developed in this polygon but most of the area is sparsely populated.
Figure 3-1: Geological map in the vicinity of the polygon, refer to Figure 2-5 for geological legend.
The eastern part of the polygon has relatively low relief and smooth topography with the Pediaios river
tracing the Pediaios and Archangelos faults. The western part of the area is characterized by anomalous
surface drainage patterns and topography denoting a probably active tectonic environment. As shown in

the Figure 3-1, bedrock geology consists of Pliocene sediments and more specifically the Marl Member;
Kefales Member and Lithic Sand Member of Nicosia Formation.
3.3 SPECIFIC GEOHAZARD TYPE
Deep ground motion / Tectonic movement
3.4 THE DETERMINATION METHOD
This polygon has been observed in the PSI data but determined with the help of recent geological mapping
of bedrock geology. There is potential motion. A total of 1029 ENVISAT PS velocity points within the
polygon area, the average velocity of PS data is -3.66mm/year ± 0.9mm/year during 2002-2006 denoting
subsidence. The minimum velocity (subsidence) for this polygon is -9.768mm/year and the maximum
(uplift) is 2.182mm/year.
Figure 3-2: PSI data for the PGGH_Lefkosia_001 polygon. The red dots show subsidence and the blue ones show uplift.
3.5 CONFIDENCE IN THE INTERPRETATION

High confidence
3.6 GEOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION OF THE MOTION
Movement in this polygon is attributed to tectonic controls across the Lakatamia Fault. This thrust fault
dips to the north with the northern block moving upwards and the southern block moving downwards
(Harrison et al, 2008). Three deep boreholes the Tseri, Lakatamia and Lefkonoiko boreholes, together with
deep seismic-reflection data by Forest Oil in the 60’s available in the Cyprus Geological Survey archives help
trace this important active fault.

Figure 3-3: Cross section across the study area showing (adapted from Harrison et. al., 2008)

3.7 EVIDENCE FOR THE INSTABILITY
There is no mappable or visible evidence for this instability, it is interpreted from deep borehole data and
surface exposures, verified by the INSar data which provide evidence for steady micromovement over time.
4 PGGH_LEFKOSIA_002
4.1 TYPE OF MOTION
Uplift
This polygon covers large area of the up thrown block north of 46.1037 Km2 and represents the up thrown
block, north of the Lakatamia thrust fault in contrast to PGGH_Lefkosia_001 which represents the
downthrown block on the south side of the fault. This polygon being closer to the Lefkosia city centre is
densely populated in its eastern part and very sparsely populated in its western part, which includes the
Lefkosia airport (this part falls in the occupied or buffer zone area).

Deep ground motion / Tectonic movement
This polygon has been observed in the PSI data but determined with the help of recent geological mapping
of bedrock geology. There is potential motion. The average LOS velocity of 5301 ENVISAT PS data within
this polygon is 0.86mm/year ± 0.59mm/year during 2002-2006 which denotes uplift movement. The
minimum LOS velocity (subsidence) for this polygon is -6.18mm/year and the maximum (uplift) is
10.55mm/year.
Figure 4-2: PSI data for PGGH_Lefkosia_002 polygon.
High confidence

This polygon represents the up-thrusted block north of Lakatamia thrust fault and represents uplift in
contrast to the subsidence in polygon PGGH_Lefkosia_001.
There is no mappable or visible evidence for this instability; it is interpreted from deep borehole data and
surface exposures, verified by the INSar data which provide evidence for steady micromovement over time.
5 PGGH_LEFKOSIA_003
5.1 TYPE OF MOTION
Horizontal, down slope
Polygon “PGGH_Lefkosia_003” represents a small (0.0004Km2) landslide in a sparsely populated area east
of the town of Lakatamia. It is located on Nicosia Formation marls topped with some gravels. The broader
area is used for housing and cereal cultivation. The area is low-lying with typically gentle relief.
Natural ground instability / Landslide, Down slope movement

The landslide was observed in the field and recorded on a geotechnical map (Cratchley et al., 1982).
However, it has been visited but no evidence has been found due to recent earth works that have occurred
in the area.

This polygon has been identified with the help of an external dataset. The landslide has been detected in
previous field work by a project undertaken in cooperation with engineering geology unit of the Institute of
Geological Sciences of the U.K. (Cratchley et al., 1982). Even if this polygon is almost insignificant in size, it
is considered important to report because it falls in a quickly developing residential area.
The landslide occurred in loose and thin alluvial fans topping the Nicosia Formation Marl Member. It
probably occurred from man disturbance - excavations.
No evidence, area is not built, further motion is potential.
6 PGGH_LEFKOSIA_004
6.1 TYPE OF MOTION
Subsidence

This large polygon (4.8667 Km2) is located in the north-eastern part of the study area, just NE of the village
of Mia Milia. It is located in Miocene gypsum deposits and almost entirely utilized for cereal cultivation and
gypsum quarrying. The area is characterized by relatively gentle slopes covered by loose colluvial sediments
and gypsiric soils.

Natural ground instability

Ground dissolution
No field observation was possible because of the continued military occupation of the northern part of the
study area by Turkey since 1974. The polygon is believed to encircle an area with potential motion due to
its geological characteristics. According to Persistent Scatter Interferometry data analysis for a period of
2002-2006 the 45 ENVISAT PS velocity points showed an average velocity of -8.94mm/year ± 0.88mm/year
which denotes an overall subsidence. The minimum velocity is -6.22mm/year and the maximum is
4.14mm/year.


Medium
The bedrock geology consists of Messinian gypsum deposits of the Kalavasos Formation (Harrison et al.,
2008). Outcrops of these lithologies usually show evidence of dissolution on the surface but also
underground. Underground cavities are common in these lithologies and can develop into sinkholes when
their roofs collapse. In the area NE of Mia Milia, this gypsum deposit is deposited in fault controlled
Messinian basins, common for the whole extension of the Ovgos Fault Zone. Depending on quality and
sedimentary fabric this gypsum deposits have traditionally been used since antiquity as building material
like floor tiles and gypsum plaster.
No evidence available, cannot be visited by the Cyprus Geological Survey due to the occupation.

7 PGGH_LEFKOSIA_005
7.1 TYPE OF MOTION
Uplift/subsidence
“PGGH_Lefkosia_005” polygon is a multipart polygon consisting of two polygons denoting swelling-

shrinkage movement. They cover total area of 69,6718Km2 in part of Aglangia and the broader area of
Latsia and Geri and are located on the Marl Member of the Lefkosia Formation. The Latsia polygon
represents quickly expanding urban centre with large industrial centres in its periphery. The Aglangia
polygon is a predominantly urban centre with well-known geotechnical problems attributed to shrink-swell
clays.
Natural ground movement / Shrink-swell clays

Swelling is one of the most important geotechnical problems with clay-rich deposits. This phenomenon
refers to volume changes – swelling and shrinkage – in clay-rich deposits when moisture content changes.
These volumetric fluctuations can cause subsidence (compression), uplift (expansion) or shear deformation
and post consolidation settlement.
A total of 1619 ENVISAT PS velocity points have been found within the polygons areas for the period of
2002-2006, were the average velocity of PS data is -0.28mm/year ± 1.8mm/year during 2002-2006 denoting
a small overall subsidence. The minimum velocity (subsidence) for this polygon is -7.83mm/year and the
maximum (uplift) is 6.81mm/year.
Figure 7-2: PSI data for PGGH_Lefkosia_005 polygon
According to the PSInsar data, the polygons have high standard deviations depicting seasonal changes in
motion. Plotting of standard deviation (shown below in Figure 7-3) helps delineate the Latsia area as
polygon PGGH_Lefkosia_005.

Figure 7-3: The distribution of standard deviation of velocity in the study area.
Further investigation into the displacements in this area leads to the conclusion that even if average annual
displacements show an unusual scatter in this polygon, seasonal changes in displacement point to the
explanation of shrink-swell clays. Correlation between displacement and rainfall for one such point from
September 2002 until November 2006, is shown in Figure 7-4.

Dis
pla
ce
me
nt
(m
m/
yea
r)
Figure 7-4: Displacement (left axis) and rainfall (right axis) time series for a characteristic point in Latsia polygon, in Lefkosia
Formation Marls.
Unfortunately, a lot of important site measurements are missing in some scenes, but still it is obvious that
there is strong correlation between rainfall and displacement in marls. High rainfall levels cause swelling
and dry periods cause shrinkage.
High confidence

Lefkosia (Nicosia) marls consist of many clay minerals belonging mainly to the montmorillonite group. This
high clay content is responsible for the expansive properties of these Pliocene marly lithologies. In many
occasions, the argillaceous minerals are not uniformly distributed in the lithofacies; therefore, differential
swelling and shrinkage occurs. This phenomenon can cause differential settlements in buildings, frequently
resulting in wall cracks. In the following table the laboratory results of some typical marl samples are
shown, Atterberg Limits; montmorillonite content and CaCO3 consistence. Typical marl presents high
plasticity and high montmorillonite content.
Table 7: Laboratory results in Nicosia marl (DeCoster M., et al., 2004).

Figure 7-5 Two – storey building in Latsia with evidence of damage.
8 PGGH_LEFKOSIA_006
8.1 TYPE OF MOTION
Subsidence

These 14 small polygons (making up a total of 0.2845Km2) are scattered across the study area and
represent small landfills of household and industrial refuse. They are usually located in small ravines and
their bedrock geology varies. These landfill sites were used before legislation restricted this practice. Their
establishment and use was never official. They usually occurred on the outskirts of large urban centres
which later, as they expanded, met the landfill sites making their reclamation necessary.

Figure 8-1: Geological map in the broader area of the polygons which are shown in red outline, refer to Figure 2-7 for geological
legend.
Man-made Anthropogenic ground instability, Made ground, landfills.
Most of these data are derived from geotechnical maps drafted in the 80’s when the broader urban area of
Lefkosia was much smaller and these landfill sites more easily visible on the landscape. According to PSInsar
analysis, and a total of 48 ENVISAT PS velocity points within the polygon area, the average velocity of PS
data is -0.39mm/year ± 0.57mm/year during 2002-2006 denoting a small subsidence. The minimum
velocity (subsidence) for this polygon is -5.004mm/year and the maximum (uplift) is 4.163mm/year.

Figure 8-2: PSI data for PGGH_Lefkosia_006 polygon in the northeast.
Figure 8-3: PSI data for PGGH_Lefkosia_006 polygon on the southwest.


The source is external. These sites are mapped on old topographical maps (Geotechnical Draft Maps
1:5000) available in the archives of the Cyprus Geological Survey.

The geohazard inherited for each landslide depends on the landfill material. Organic refuse, like household
and garden garbage can decompose and with the combination of other poorly sorted transferred artificial
materials become compressible, something characteristic of manmade ground. An additional hazard is the
possible emission of methane gas.
No evidence, motion is potential.
9 PGGH_LEFKOSIA_007
9.1 TYPE OF MOTION
The “PGGH_Lefkosia_007” polygon is a 16-part polygon which represents land subsidence hazard due to
compaction of surface quarry fill.
The areas under consideration fall in residential areas of Aglangia; Strovolos and Lefkosia. They cover an
area of 1.3195Km2. The bedrock geology of these sites is the calcarenite lithofacies of the Athalassa
Member of the Nicosia Formation which is good quality local rock for the building industry. This calcarenite
makes up the backbone of Lefkosia architecture since antiquity. Calcarenite was used by the Franks to build
the castle and the city walls and later on by the Venetians who rebuilt the walls in their present form.
Calcarenite sources are located close to the city, therefore, a lot of underground and surface quarries were
operated at various times for this reason. This polygon refers to the open excavations and not the
underground ones. In the last 30 years, Lefkosia has developed quickly and lots of houses and high
buildings were spread around the city center. Old quarries had been filled by unconsolidated soils of
variables quality (debris, sandy, silty, clayey soils) and since there was a need for land to build on, these
sites unfortunately were used for that reason. Due to the unconsolidated fill material, any construction that
was built on these materials, usually experienced consolidation settlement during the first years reflected
on walls and columns. Later on, when the fill reached its full consolidation, movement ceased, but still the
hazard remains for future development. After demolitions of such old buildings new ones have to be built
quickly in order to avoid any swelling of the soils.

Figure 9-1: Geological map in the vicinity of the polygons, refer to Figure 2-7 for geological legend.
According to the Pangeo Geohazard classification, “PGGH_Lefkosia_007” polygon is classified as 4_Man-

made (Anthropogenic) ground instability category; 4.6_Made ground; Quarry fill.
These sites were well known through older field campaigns, archived as geotechnical draft maps that can
be found in the Engineering Geology Section of the Cyprus Geological Survey. Also, some of the sites can be
observed on aerial photographs dating to 1963 which are available from the Lands and Surveys
Department. For a total of 257 ENVISAT PS velocity points within the polygon area for the period of 2002-
2006, the average velocity of PS data is -0.4mm/year ± 0.55mm/year denoting slight subsidence. The
minimum velocity (subsidence) for this polygon is -5.5mm/year and the maximum (uplift) is 2.7mm/year.


The source is external. These sites are mapped on old topographical maps (Geotechnical Draft Maps
1:5000). PSI data didn’t show much subsidence since the satellite measurements occurred from 2003. It is
believed that the biggest settlement of the buildings had occurred 20 years ago.
All sites have been visited and the damages of the buildings are not much visible. However, lots of buildings
in the area have been reconstructed or maintained. According to old field campaigns along with data from
the archives of the GSD, the geological interpretation of this motion is been explained and due to known
subsurface conditions the subsidence geohazard remains.

Figure 9-3 Aerial photograph of 1963 showing extensive surface excavation of the calcarenites facies of the Athalassa Member of
the Nicosia Formation for the purposes of extraction of building block materials.
Figure 9-4 Buildings in Acropolis with considerable damage.

Figure 9-5 Building in Agia Paraskevi quarries (close to the Kennedy avenue) with considerable damage (photo from Geological
Survey archives).
10 PGGH_LEFKOSIA_008
10.1 TYPE OF MOTION
subsidence

This 2 part polygon lies in the eastern most part of the urban fabric of Lefkosia, in the municipality of
Aglangia and has a total area of 0.1934 Km2. These 2 small polygons are located in Nicosia marl in dry river
beds in 2 areas bordering the United Nations buffer Zone. These locations are housing public schools and a
light industry quarter, both constructed on river fill materials.



Man-made Anthropogenic ground instability, Made ground.
This polygon has been observed in PSI data and also in field campaigns and reflects potential motion. PSI
data showed motion extremes and clusters in these 2 areas. These data where correlated with mapped
artificial fill polygons. A lot of confidence was given to the knowledge about local geological and land use
conditions. A total of 42 ENVISAT PS velocity points within the polygon area, the average velocity of PS data
is -1.114mm/year ± 0.56mm/year during 2002-2006, denoting overall subsidence. The minimum velocity
(subsidence) for this polygon is -4.08mm/year and the maximum (uplift) is 4.52mm/year.

There is a high confidence in this interpretation due to the combined inputs from PSI and geological data.
The artificial fill in these 2 polygons reaches a thickness of 2-3m. It is anticipated that it consists of various
types of materials of various sizes excavated from the surrounding areas.

Figure 10-4 Cracks in older buildings in this 2-part polygon.
11 GGH_LEFKOSIA_009
11.1 TYPE OF MOTION
Subsidence

This 2 part polygon of a total of 1.8175 Km2 is directly adjacent and on the periphery of the city walls. These
areas have been populated since the beginning of the 20th century. Some parts have been excavated and
show occupation in antiquity. These 2 polygons are very densely populated with many 8 floor buildings and
form the modern city down-town commercial center. This polygon along with GGH_LEFKOSIA_010 and 011
are the most densely populated areas of the city with the most high-rise buildings, including many
government offices.


Man-made anthropogenic ground instability, made ground.
This polygon has been observed in Geology field campaigns and showed a potential for subsidence motion.
According to the data from a total of 551 velocity points within the polygon area, the average velocity is -
0.425mm/year ± 0.57mm/year during 2002-2006 denoting a small subsidence. The minimum velocity

Figure 11-2: PSI data PGGH_Lefkosia_009.
Medium

This motion is attributed to the combination of artificial fill subsidence and the fact that many modern high
rise buildings are fabricated with deep foundations that are constructed in the underlying Marl Member of
the Nicosia Formation. This thick artificial fill that has accumulated in the polygon during the last 4,500
years that the city has been inhabited is the main geohazard – related geological feature in this polygon.

Figure 11-3 Sketch of Lefkosia showing Frankish city walls (also referred to as the Lusignan period, between 1191-1489 AD) in
relation to the Pediaios river and the still standing Venetian walls (Venetian period is between 1489-1571 AD) of the city for
reference (Maratheftis, 1977).
This polygon is the fastest developing and changing area in the core urban fabric of Lefkosia. Older
buildings are demolished and new high-rise building constructed. These high – rise building are almost
always seated in the Marl Member of the Lefkosia Formation which id found under the artificial fill and
excavated lands in the periphery of the Venetian city walls.
Figure 11-4 Old and new buildings immediately adjacent to the city walls. The natural level of the ground is about the level of the
present excavation in the moat, evident in the foreground. The foundation level of the buildings and the road in the background
hint to the thick artificial fill that has accumulated in the polygon during the last 3-4,000 years that the city has been inhabited.

12.1 TYPE OF MOTION
Subsidence
This polygon (with an area of 0.6569 Km2) transects the city within the walls and runs from west to east
across the Venetian town. As recorded in Venetian maps (Figure 12-1), the Pediaios river used to enter the
city from the west around Pafos Gate or Roca Bastion (the city has 3 gates and 11 bastions), run along what
was later the in-filled wide channel and flood plain and later Ermou str, presently the United Nations Buffer
zone. Topographically, the polygon delineates the lowest elevation in the town centre, what used to be the
river channel. After the river was diverted flash floods still used to be a hazard for the inhabitants with
many recorded floods like the big flood of 1330 AD (Voustronios, 1566, Macheras, 1932). Voustronios
(1566) in his Chronicle of the island of Cyprus published later by R. M. De Mas Latrie, in Paris in 1886 as
“Chronique de l’ille de Chypre”, mentions the big flood of November of 1330 reaching a height of about 10
feet in downtown Lefkosia with deaths totalling 3000. Hill (1952) mentions another destructive flood in the
winter of 1859, during the Ottoman Empire (1571-1878). This event flooded the city inside the walls up to 3
m high. River flood waters entered the city again in 1865 and even more recently in 1919 (Maratheftis,
1977). Apparently, the flood entered the city at the location of the bridge by the old Nicosia Hospital just
west of Pafos gate and followed its original course, this fact being evidence that although the river bed was
filled in, the topography still allows the flow of water into the city. This water would rush through the gate
at Pafos Gate when it was left open (Maratheftis, 1977).
Figure 12-1 Map of Lefkosia depicted in Navari, 2003 showing the original course of the Pediaios river but most significantly that
the river was diverted some time after the construction of the Venetian walls.
As a result, with the establishment of the first municipal authorities in 1882, the city decides to subsidize
locals to infill the semi-dry channel and swampy flood plain and create new usable land, mostly for
industrial and business use. A unique place of interest lies in the heart of the city where excavations for the

construction of a new Municipal Hall led to the discovery of an ancient site located on the abandoned,
presently dry Pediaios flood plain.
Made ground
The polygon was initially identified from field observation and recorded in the Geotechnical Map of Nicosia
(Cratchley, et al., 1982) and the Surficial Geologic Map of the Broader Nicosia area (DeCoster et al., 2004).
According to a total of 206 ENVISAT PS velocity points within the polygon area, the average velocity is -
0.567mm/year ± 0.64mm/year during 2002-2006 denoting small subsidence. The minimum velocity

Figure 12-3: PSI data for PGGH_Lefkosia_010 polygon which delineates the original flood plain of the Pediaios river.

High
The Ovgos fault zone is the wide tectonic zone that separates the Keryneia Terrane from the Troodos
Terrane. It faults and folds the Miocene and Pliocene sediments of the Circum – Troodos sedimentary
succession and the Miocene Kythrea and Lapatza Formations of the Keryneia Terrane with multiple high
angle north dipping thrust faults. The bedrock geology map (Harrison et. al., 2008) delineates the Ovgos
fault running along the abandoned river course of Pediaios. This fault zone, enters the broader Lefkosia
area from the west along the Ovgos and Serrachis rivers and extends beneath the city walls and to the east
where it is concealed beneath the fluvial sediments of the Pediaios river in the eastern Mesaoria basin.

Figure 12-4 Bedrock geological map of the central within the city walls area, refer to Figure 2-5 for geological legend.
Figure 12-5 The vertical beds of the Pliocene Nicosia Formation in the old urban center of Agios Dometios in an exploratory trench
dug for the investigation and delineation of the Ovgos fault. Horizontal beds of gravel and artificial fill cover the fault zone in this
area.
The Pedieos river, its course controlled by this tectonic setting is now abandoned and filled with flood
sediments and artificial fill. Used as a dump for many years and referred to many times as Koprias

(Maratheftis, 1977), the geohazard involved in this polygon is a combination of tectonics, and compressible
materials made worse with the addition of artificial fill, this later aspect being considered the biggest
hazard.
Figure 12-6 Deep excavation for the construction of the Supreme Court in the flood deposits of the Pedieos river. Geologists Wayne
Newell is pointing to pottery pieces, evidence for the Late Holocene age of the deposit. Measured section of photo: Pedieos River
flood sequences (1, 2, and 3) above the caliche shown on photograph included random artifacts from Greco-Roman and Venetian
periods of occupation. Land snails collected with Greco-Roman pottery fragments about 2m below the surface were dated by 14C
at 4665+/-35 years before present, a date that may be as much as 3000 years too old as a result of snail consumption of old organic
matter (DeCoster, 2004).
Most of the evidence lies in the PSI data but can be seen in the walls of the older buildings.

Figure 12-7 Failing old building.
13.1 TYPE OF MOTION
Subsidence
This is a 2 part polygon of a total of 1.2279 Km2 in the Lefkosia within the walls. Building categories include
adobe, rock and brick, and more modern concrete buildings. The majority of these buildings date back to
the last 150 years with little modern construction. The difference between this polygon and polygon 9 and
10 is that intense occupation and land use here dates to the Lusignan Period as opposed to polygon 9
which, being outside the city walls, was occupied intensely during the latest part of the 19th century and
polygon 10, delineating the Pedieos river, was filled and occupied in the 20th century.
Man-made Anthropogenic ground instability, Made ground

The polygon was initially identified from field observations and recorded in the Geotechnical Map of
Nicosia (Cratchley, et al., 1982) and the Surficial Geologic Map of the Broader Nicosia area (DeCoster et al.,
2004). According to PSInsar analysis a total of 322 ENVISAT PS velocity points within the polygon area, the
average LOS velocity of PS data is -0.714mm/year ± 0.69mm/year during 2002-2006 denoting small
subsidence. The minimum LOS velocity (subsidence) for this polygon is -6.56mm/year and the maximum
Figure 13-2: PSI data for PGGH_Lefkosia_011
High
The bedrock in this polygon consists of the Marl Member of the Nicosia Formation and the surficial deposits
are mainly artificial fill in many cases meaning archaeological or historic relics over which new consecutive
buildings were constructed. Renovated buildings are very common in this polygon in an attempt of the
state to support and co-finance these renovations. For this reason it is very common to be able to find and
be able to visit old building which have a lot of evidence of differential settlement.

Evidence of damage is very common and can be found in many construction sites where such buildings are
renovated.
Figure 13-3 Renovated buildings are very common in this polygon in an attempt of the state to support and co-finance these
renovations.
14.1 TYPE OF MOTION
Subsidence

This 4 multipart polygon has total area 0.2462 Km2 which surrounds the Lefkosia city Venetian walls.
Bedrock geology consists of Nicosia Marl of the Nicosia formation (Harrison et.al., 2008). Surficial
sediments here (DeCoster et al., 2004) are listed as moat deposits and have been used since Venetian times
as recreational areas such as tennis courts, children’s playgrounds, concert and fair locations but also as
large parking lots for down town visitors. More recently one of the most central town locations in the moat
will be used for a large overpass structure that will create a large square (plaza) and will be founded in this
polygon. In a similar fashion much older bridges offer entrance to the city inside the walls at 9 other
locations. These locations are between the bastions and are constructed on raised ground, overlying the
most deposits.

Figure 14-1 Extensive areas in the moat are now used as recreational areas like parks and playgrounds.
Figure 14-2 General picture of the walls constructed during the Venetian Period with calcarenite from nearby quarries in the
Athalassa Member of the Nicosia Formation.
Figure 14-3 Extensive areas in the moat are used for the construction of a modern bridge that will replace an older brigde-overpass
which connects the old city in the walls with the urban center around the walls. This photo is from the Agalma tou Solomou central
bus station square looking east into the construction site.

Figure 14-4 will be used for a large overpass structure that will create a large square (plaza). This photo is from Eleftheria square
looking west into the Agalma tou Solomou central bus station. The ongoing construction site in the moat is evident in this picture.
Figure 14-5. Geological map in the vicinity of the polygons, refer to Figure 2-7 for geological legend.


Man-made Anthropogenic ground instability
The polygon was initially identified from field observation and recorded in the Geotechnical Map of Nicosia
(Cratchley et al., 1982) and the Surficial Geologic Map of the Broader Nicosia area (DeCoster et al., 2004).
According to PSInsar analysis for a total of 25 ENVISAT PS velocity points within the polygon area, the
average LOS velocity of PS data is -0.256mm/year ± 0.68mm/year during 2002-2006 denoting small
subsidence. The minimum LOS velocity (subsidence) for this polygon is -1.733mm/year and the maximum
Figure 14-6. PSI data for PGGH_Lefkosia_012 polygon.
High

The moat was constructed to surround the stone walls during the Venetian period of 1489-1571 AD. The
moat was allowed to fill with water from the Pediaios River which was at the time diverted from its natural
course into the city and into the moat and then out and away from the city. The moat would flood, made
evident from water stain sediments of fine sandy gravels and mud encountered from 5-7m depth in a
recent borehole (DeCoster et al., 2004).
Figure 14-7 Map by Steffano Lusignano (1573) in Chorograffia which depicts the artificial diversion of the waters of the Pediaios
river into the moat which surrounds until today the city walls (today the moat is dry).
These moat sediments have over time been covered by younger artificial fill mostly due to land use change.
It is not certain when the moat area stopped being used as a moat and became drained. The 5m artificial fill
encountered in a recent borehole is just an indication of the materials that make up this large polygon.
Figure 14-8 A stone ditch in the moat polygon still serves as drainage diverting rain water away from the walls and the moat.

There are no buildings in the moat and evidence for the instability is not provided from the Insar data.
Nevertheless interpretation confidence is high due to the detailed geological mapping and borehole
information in the area.
15.1 TYPE OF MOTION
Subsidence
This is a 2-part polygon denoting underground quarrying but mostly underground ancient built tombs. It
covers a total area of 0.6604 Km2 in Agioi Omologites and occurs almost entirely in Plio-Pleistocene
calcarenites of the Athalassa Member of the Nicosia Formation. These ancient cemeteries and quarries
exist close to natural slopes of the Athalassa Member calcarenite which served as easy locations for the
construction of burial tombs in antiquity. Four ancient cemetery clusters have been identified by various
authors and revisited recently by Georgiou (2002), one cemetery around the Hilton Hotel – Agia Paraskevi
area, the area north of Kennedy avenue around Esperidon str, the old PASYDI area and a large area
extending from the Agioi Omologites church to Akropolis. Some of these sites show occupation between
2500-2350BC, later between 6th century BC up to the 4th century AD and again since the Venetian Period to
the present. Presently, they are all in densely populated suburbs of the Lefkosia Municipality, very few of
them excavated and preserved as outdoor archaeological monuments. One interesting aspect of this
polygon is the fact that it provides the evidence for the first occupation in the Lefkosia area.

Man-made Anthropogenic ground instability, Underground construction
This polygon has been observed in PSI data / Observed and also in Geology field campaigns/ potential
motion. A total of 249 ENVISAT PS velocity points within the polygon area, the average LOS velocity of PS
data is -1.059mm/year ± 0.53mm/year during 2002-2006 denoting an overall subsidence. The minimum
LOS velocity (subsidence) for this polygon is -6.466mm/year and the maximum (uplift) is 2.161mm/year.

High confidence

These tombs built in calcarenites and usually under petrocalcic caps of these Plio-Pleistocene marine
terraces are not more than 1-2m wide and 1-2m high. Their small openings usually at the top lead to the
underground tombs and ancient burials. Many of them excavated by the Department of Antiquities and
many more are looted illegally. These tombs are usually in-filled and covered by sediments and artificial fill
making their detection hard. They are usually encountered during large excavations for buildings and
special attention needs to be paid for the stability of these buildings (usually high-rise considering the
locations and town zoning of this polygon).

Various cracks and differential settlement in pavements and concrete fences are evident in this 2-part
polygon.

Figure 15-3 Severe cracks (top right) and differential settlement (left and bottom right) on the walls Energy Service building of the
Ministry of Commerce.
16.1 TYPE OF MOTION
Subsidence or downslope movement

The “PGGH_Lefkosia_014” polygon is an 8-part polygon denoting quarrying activity. They cover an area of
0.4006Km2 in Aglangia; Acropolis area; Kennedy avenue; north east and southeast of Lefkosia with a small
area of surface and underground gypsum quarries in Kanli village. The bedrock geology of these sites is
Athalassa Member calcarenite and bioclastic calcarenite which usually exist on natural slopes/hills and
gypsum of Lapatza Formation. After the end of the quarrying activity, the quarries have never been
remediated and there is always the danger of rock falls. A bigger hazard exists in Aglangia; Acropoli and
Kennedy area because of the residential development. Many of these quarries are now being used as public
cultural centers like the Acropolis park and the Skali park.

Figure 16-1: Geological map in the vicinity of the northermost polygon in Kanli, refer to Figure 2-5 for geological legend.
Figure 16-2: Geological map in the vicinity of the polygon in the southeast part of town, refer to Figure 2-5 for geological legend.

According to the Pangeo Geohazard classification, this polygon belongs to category number 4_Man-made
(Anthropogenic) Ground instability; 4.4_Mining.
These underground quarries within the area of this polygon have been mapped in previews geological
campaigns which are available in Cyprus Geological Survey archives. It is well known that calcarenite and
gypsum was quarried in antiquity. Presently, calcarenite blocks are used to build walls and gypsum for
flooring in traditional buildings and especially their renovation. There is a total of 35 ENVISAT PS velocity
points within the polygon area, the average LOS velocity of PS data is -0.5mm/year ± 0.76mm/year during
2002-2006 denoting subsidence. The minimum LOS velocity (subsidence) for this polygon is -2.156mm/year
and the maximum (uplift) is 0.652mm/year.
External source

The geological hazard in this multipart polygon is attributed to the potential collapse of quarry roofs and
rockfalls around the quarry openings. These large artificial cavities were usually encountered during
excavations for the construction of foundations and were mostly filled with crushed materials or concrete.
A lot of these cavities were known to locals, mostly because their entrances were preserved, sometimes
gated, and used as shelter, chapels, or even storage places by the army. Presently all these underground
quarries are mapped and either reclaimed or converted to recreation or exhibition areas.
Evidence has been collected over the years in many reports by the Engineering Section of the Cyprus
Geological Survey and kept in archives. Generally speaking, not many buildings are found in these polygons.
Figure 16-4 Entrance to the underground quarries of the Aglantzia, around the Skali area (photos by M. Efthymiou from Geological
Survey archives).

Figure 16-5 Other geohazards associated with the abandoned quarries are the rockfalls from the hanging roofs (top photo) and the
artificial fill used to reclaim the land (bottom photo).
17.1 TYPE OF MOTION
Subsidence
“PGGH_Lefkosia_0015” it’s a polygon which denotes an abandoned failing building and overlaps an area of
0.022 Km2 of “PGGH_Lefkosia_005” polygon. The reason why it falls into the same geohazard (swelling-
shrinkage movement) is because they have the same geology background. The polygon consists of
abandoned public buildings that are declared dangerous and are fenced for this reason.

The polygon is inferred from PSI-observations by Pangeo Envisat (2002-2006) interpretation. A total of 9
ENVISAT PS velocity points within the polygon area, the average LOS velocity of PS data is -0.283mm/year ±
0.79mm/year denoting small subsidence. The minimum LOS velocity (subsidence) for this polygon is -
4.436mm/year and the maximum (uplift) is 1.95mm/year. Two points that have been measured for one
building had an average LOS velocity of -2.572mm/year for the same period of time.
High
All buildings that exist within this polygon are abandoned. The area consists of traditional buildings of
exceptional architecture that are constructed on shrinking – swelling clays. The buildings that are public
and were part of the Pedagogical Academy, later becoming the University main campus, were occupied
until the 80’s and then declared dangerous but never demolished.


The buildings in this polygon have failing roofs and many of the measurements are taken from roof tiles
that are supported by unstable and failing wooden beams.
Figure 17-3 Failing building in polygon 15

Figure 17-4 Failing building in polygon 15
18.1 TYPE OF MOTION
Varies between subsidence to uplift

“PGGH_Lefkosia_016” polygon has an area of 0.4859 Km2 and covers Digeni Akrita Avenue in central east
Lefkosia.


Unknown
This polygon has been observed in PSI data / potential motion. A total of 176 ENVISAT PS velocity points
within the polygon area, the average LOS velocity of PS data is -0.637mm/year ± 0.58mm/year during 2002-
2006 denoting subsidence. The minimum LOS velocity (subsidence) for this polygon is -4.806mm/year and
the maximum (uplift) is 3.583mm/year.
Medium

There is no possible interpretation for this polygon.

19 PANGEO GEOHAZARD GLOSSARY
Hazard
Something with the potential to cause harm.
Natural Hazard
A natural hazard is a natural process or phenomenon that may cause loss of life, injury or other impacts,
property damage, lost livelihoods and services, social and economic disruption, or environmental damage.
(Council of the European Union – Commission Staff Working Paper – Risk Assessment and Mapping Guidelines
for Disaster Management).
Geohazard (Geological hazard)

A geological process with the potential to cause harm.
Risk
The likelihood that the harm from a particular hazard will be realised.
Types of Geohazard
1. Deep Ground Motions
Ground motion can occur at different scales and depths. This section contains the geohazards that are
caused by processes in the deep subsurface.
1.1. Earthquake (seismic hazard)
Earthquakes are the observable effects of vibrations (known as seismic waves) within the Earth’s crust
arising from relatively rapid stress release, typically along a fault zone.
Damage to buildings and other infrastructure can be caused as the ground shakes during the passage of
seismic waves. Other effects include liquefaction of water-saturated soft ground, potentially leading to a
loss in ground strength and the extrusion of water-saturated sediments as ‘mud volcanoes’ and the like.
Ground shaking can also trigger secondary events such as landslides and tsunami. Secondary effects such as
these should be mapped into the other relevant PanGeo geohazard classes. Some earthquakes are
associated with significant permanent vertical or lateral ground movement. Changes to drainage systems
can cause flooding. There is potential for injury and loss of life during earthquakes.
Seismic hazard can be assessed by reference to the size and frequency of recorded earthquakes, although
individual earthquakes are essentially unpredictable. Individual events occur on time-scales of seconds or
minutes. Modern infrastructure should be designed to withstand probable local seismic events.
1.2. Tectonic Movements

Tectonic movements are large scale processes that affect the earth’s crust. These processes can lead to
areas of the crust rising or falling. Importantly it is the neotectonic movements that are still active and may
therefore produce a ground motion that can be measured by PSI. Neotectonic movements are typically due

to the stresses introduced through movements of the earth’s plates. These types of motion are likely to be
on a broad scale and so it may not be possible to measure them using the SAR scene relative
measurements of PSI.
1.3. Salt Tectonics

Localised motions can be associated with the movement of evaporate deposits, these are termed salt
tectonics and can produce both uplift and subsidence depending on the exact mechanisms at play.
1.4. Volcanic Inflation/Deflation

Volcanic activity can lead to the creation of lava flows, ash flows, debris and ash falls, and debris flows of
various kinds. It might be accompanied by release of poisonous or suffocating gases, in some instances with
explosive violence, or by significant seismic activity or ground movement. Secondary effects can include
landslide and flooding. For PanGeo we are interested in hazards associated with ground instability. Ground
instability associated with volcanoes tends to relate to inflation and deflation of the ground surface as
magma volumes change. Secondary effects such as landslides should be mapped into the other relevant
PanGeo geohazard classes.
2. Natural Ground Instability
The propensity for upward, lateral or downward movement of the ground can be caused by a number of
natural geological processes. Some movements associated with particular hazards may be gradual or occur
suddenly and also may vary from millimetre to metre or tens of metres scale. Note that anthropogenic deposits
can be affected by natural ground instability.
Significant natural ground instability has the potential to cause damage to buildings and structures, and weaker
structures are most likely to be affected. It should be noted, however, that many buildings, particularly more
modern ones, are built to such a standard that they can remain unaffected in areas of even significant ground
movement. The susceptibility of built structures to damage from geohazards might also depend on local factors
such as the type of nearby vegetation, or the nature of the landforms in the area.
The effects of natural ground instability often occur over a local area as opposed to the effects of natural
ground movements which occur over larger areas.
2.1. Land Slide

A landslide is a relatively rapid outward and downward movement of a mass of rock or soil on a slope, due
to the force of gravity. The stability of a slope can be reduced by removing ground at the base of the slope,
increasing the water content of the materials forming the slope or by placing material on the slope,
especially at the top. Property damage by landslide can occur through the removal of supporting ground
from under the property or by the movement of material onto the property. Large landslides in coastal
areas can cause tsunami.
The assessment of landslide hazard refers to the stability of the present land surface, including existing
anthropogenically-modified slopes as expressed in local topographic maps or digital terrain models. It does
not encompass a consideration of the stability of new excavations.

Land prone to landslide will normally remain stable unless the topography is altered by erosion or
excavation, the land is loaded or pore water pressure increases. Landslide might also be initiated by seismic
shock, frost action, or change in atmospheric pressure.
This hazard is significant in surface deposits but may extend to more than 10 m depth. The common
consequences are damage to properties, including transportation routes and other kinds of infrastructure,
and underground services. Some landslides can be stabilised by engineering.
2.2. Soil Creep

Soil creep is a very slow movement of soil and rock particles down slope and is a result of expansion and
contraction of the soil through cycles of freezing and thawing or wetting and drying.
2.3. Ground Dissolution
Some rocks and minerals are soluble in water and can be progressively removed by the flow of water
through the ground. This process tends to create cavities, potentially leading to the collapse of overlying
materials and possibly subsidence at the surface.
The common types of soluble rocks and minerals are limestones, gypsum and halite.
Cavities can become unstable following flooding, including flooding caused by broken service pipes.
Changes in the nature of surface runoff, excavating or loading the ground, groundwater abstraction, and
inappropriate installation of soakaways can also trigger subsidence in otherwise stable areas.
2.4. Collapsible Ground
Collapsible ground comprises materials with large spaces between solid particles. They can collapse when
they become saturated by water and a building (or other structure) places too great a load on it. If the
material below a building collapses it may cause the building to sink. If the collapsible ground is variable in
thickness or distribution, different parts of the building may sink by different amounts, possibly causing
tilting, cracking or distortion. Collapse will occur only following saturation by water and/or loading beyond
criticality. This hazard can be significant in surface deposits and possibly also in buried superficial deposits.
2.5. Running Sand/ Liquefaction
Running sand occurs when loosely-packed sand, saturated with water, flows into an excavation, borehole
or other type of void. The pressure of the water filling the spaces between the sand grains reduces the
contact between the grains and they are carried along by the flow. This can lead to subsidence of the
surrounding ground.
If sand below a building runs it may remove support and the building may sink. Different parts of the
building may sink by different amounts, possibly causing tilting, cracking or distortion. The common
consequences are damage to properties or underground services. This hazard tends to be self-limited by
decrease in head of water.
Liquefaction of water-saturated soft ground often results as an effect of earthquake activity but can also be
triggered by manmade vibrations due to construction works. It can potentially lead to a loss in ground

strength and the extrusion of water-saturated sediments as ‘mud volcanoes’ and the like. Soils vulnerable
to liquefaction represent areas of potential ground instability.
3. Natural Ground Movement
The effects of natural ground movement often occur over a larger area as opposed to the effects of natural
ground instability, which occur over local areas.
3.1. Shrink-Swell Clays
A shrinking and swelling clay changes volume significantly according to how much water it contains. All clay
deposits change volume as their water content varies, typically swelling in winter and shrinking in summer,
but some do so to a greater extent than others. Most foundations are designed and built to withstand
seasonal changes. However, in some circumstances, buildings constructed on clay that is particularly prone
to swelling and shrinking behaviour may experience problems. Contributory circumstances could include
drought, leaking service pipes, tree roots drying-out of the ground, or changes to local drainage such as the
creation of soakaways. Shrinkage may remove support from the foundations of a building, whereas clay
expansion may lead to uplift (heave) or lateral stress on part or all of a structure; any such movements may
cause cracking and distortion.
The existence of this hazard depends on a change in soil moisture and on differential ground movement.
Uniform ground movement may not of itself present a hazard. This hazard is generally significant only in
the top five metres of ground.
3.2. Compressible Ground

Many ground materials contain water-filled pores (the spaces between solid particles). Ground is
compressible if a load can cause the water in the pore space to be squeezed out, causing the ground to
decrease in thickness. If ground is extremely compressible the building may sink. If the ground is not
uniformly compressible, different parts of the building may sink by different amounts, possibly causing
tilting, cracking or distortion.
This hazard commonly depends on differential compaction, as uniform compaction may not of itself
present a hazard. Differential compaction requires that some structure that might be susceptible to
subsidence damage has been built on non-uniform ground. The common consequences are damage to
existing properties that were not built to a sufficient standard, and possible damage to underground
services.
4. Man Made (Anthropogenic) Ground Instability
Anthropogenic instability covers a local area which has been brought about by the activity of man.
Subsidence (downward movement) of the ground can result from a number of different types of
anthropogenic activity, namely mining (for a variety of commodities), or tunnelling (for transport,
underground service conduits, or underground living or storage space).

Subsidence over a regional area can result from fluid extraction (for water, brine, or hydrocarbons). Uplift
or heave of the ground can occur when fluid is allowed to move back into an area from where it was
previously extracted and groundwater recharge occurs. This fluid recovery may include injection of water
or gas.
4.1. Ground Water Management - Shallow Compaction

19.1.1.1 Ground water management may be applied for example to ensure the exploitability of
existing agricultural land in lowland coastal areas. Groundwater management can lead to higher or lower
water levels of phreatic groundwater and of deeper aquifers in the shallow subsurface. Groundwater
occupies pore and interstitial spaces and fractures within sediments and rocks and therefore exerts a
pressure. When the water is drained the pore pressure or effective stress is reduced. This leads to
consolidation of especially soft sediments, such as clay and peat. This change in the sediment volume leads
to subsidence. Similarly when groundwater levels are allowed to recover, uplift may be a result of
increasing pore pressure.
4.2. Ground Water Management - Peat Oxidation

19.1.1.2 Ground water management may be applied for example to ensure the exploitability of
existing agricultural land in lowland coastal areas. Groundwater management can lead to higher or lower
water levels of phreatic groundwater and of deeper aquifers in the shallow subsurface. Peat oxidation is
the chemical reaction where peat starts decomposing and will waste away with time. This loss of soil
volume leads to subsidence. It occurs when layers of peat in the subsurface are exposed to oxygen. As long
as peat is located in saturated ground layers this process does not take place. However peat oxidation does
occur in unsaturated soils, for instance in areas where ground water management lowers ground water
levels.
4.3. Groundwater Abstraction

Groundwater also occupies pore and interstitial spaces and fractures within sediments and rocks in the
deeper subsurface. When this water is removed, for instance through pumping for drinking water or
lowering of water levels in mines, the pore pressure or effective stress is reduced and consolidation of the
sediments and rocks causes a change in the sediment and rock volume. This leads to subsidence. Similarly
when aquifer levels are allowed to recover, uplift may be a result of increasing pore pressure. Deep
geothermal energy systems should not lead to ground movement. They involve closed systems where
water, which was extracted from a deep aquifer, will be pumped back into that same aquifer. However,
geothermal heat pumps are used at shallower depths. Although these are also closed systems, ground
movement might occur temporarily (e.g. seasonally) or even permanently.
4.4. Mining
Mining is the removal of material from the ground, in the context of PanGeo we consider mining to relate
to the removal of solid minerals. The ground surface may experience motion due to readjustments in the
overburden if underground mine workings fail.
4.5. Underground Construction

In PanGeo we are interested in underground construction that might bring about ground instability. An
example of this would be underground tunnelling; the removal of subsurface material can alter the support
for the overlying material therefore leading to ground motions.
4.6. Made Ground

Made ground comprises of anthropogenic deposits of all kinds such as land reclamation, site and pad
preparation by sand infill, road and rail embankments, levees and landfills for waste disposal. Examples of
land reclamation are artificial islands, beach restoration and artificial harbours. Reclaimed land as well as
embankments and levees are generally made up of sand, which is not prone to compaction as are clay and
peat. However, two ground instability processes will occur: consolidation of this artificial ground and
compaction of the ground below due to the load of the artificial ground and the structure it supports, e.g. a
building. Depending on its composition and mode of deposition, landfill can also be a compressible deposit.
4.7. Oil and Gas Production

Similar to abstraction of groundwater the production of oil and gas decreases the pore pressure of the
reservoir rocks and therefore can cause consolidation and subsidence of the surface. Storage of material in
the depleted reservoir (such as natural gas or CO2) can lead to surface uplift.
5. Other
These are areas of instability for which the geological explanation does not fit into any of the categories
above.
6. Unknown
These are areas of identified motion for which a geological interpretation cannot be found.

Geohazard Groupings to be used in PanGeo
1. Deep Seated Motions

a. Earthquake (seismic hazard)
b. Tectonic Movements
c. Salt Tectonics
d. Volcanic Inflation/Deflation
2. Natural Ground Instability

a. Land Slide
b. Soil Creep
c. Ground Dissolution
d. Collapsible Ground
e. Running Sand/Liquefaction
3. Natural Ground Movement

a. Shrink-Swell Clays
b. Compressible Ground
4. Man Made (Anthropogenic) Ground Instability

a. Ground Water Management - Shallow Compaction
b. Ground Water Management - Peat Oxidation
c. Groundwater Abstraction
d. Mining
e. Underground Construction
f. Made Ground
g. Oil and Gas Production
5. Other
6. Unknown

20 REFERENCES:
Cratchley, C.R., Hobbs, P., Petrides, G. and Loucaides, G., 1982, Geotechnical Map of Nicosia, Scale
1:25.000, Geological Survey Department of Cyprus (G.S.D) & Institute of Geological Sciences of U.K
(I.G.S), Cyprus.
DeCoster M., Zomeni Z., Panayides I., Petrides G., Berksoy O., 2004, editors of Seismic Hazard and Risk
Assessment of the Greater Nicosia Area, United Nations Office for Project Services, Lefkosia, Cyprus,
330 p.
Georgiou, G., 2002, The Necropolis of Agia Paraskevi revisited, Reports of Department of Antiquities, 2002,
pp. 49-65.
Harrison, R., Newell, W., Panayides, I., Stone, B., Tsiolakis, E., Necdet, M., Batihanli, H., Ozhur, A., Lord, A.,
Berksoy, O., Zomeni, Z., Schindler, S., 2008, Bedrock Geologic map of the Greater Lefkosia Area,
Cyprus, US Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Map 3046, 1 map, scale 1:25,000, 36-page text.
Hill, G., 1952, A history of Cyprus, Volume IV The Ottoman Province, The British Colony 1571-1978,
Cambridge University Press, 640p.
Lusignano, S., 1573, Chorograffia, et breve historia universal Dell’Isola de Cipro principiando al tempo do
Noe per in sino al 1572, per il R.P. Lettore Fr. Steffano Lusignano do Cipro dell’ Ordine de Predicatori,
Bologna, Published by Alessandro Benaccio
Macheras, L., 1932, Recital Concerning the sweet land of Cyprus, edited by R.M. Dawkins, entitled Kronaka,
2 volumes, Oxford
Maratheftis, F.S., 1977, Location and development of the town of Leucosia (Nicosia) Cyprus, Thesis
submitted to the University of Bristol, published by the Municipality of Nicosia, 159 pp.
Navari, L., 2003, editor of Maps of Cyprus from the collections of the Bank of Cyprus Cultural Foundation,
published by Bank of Cyprus Cultural Foundation, 379p.
Voustronios, F., 1566, Chronicle of the island of Cyprus

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EUROPEAN COMMISSION

Research Executive Agency

Seventh Framework Programme

Grant Agreement: 262371

Enabling Access to Geological Information in

D7.1. 17 Geohazard Description for Lefkosia

Dissemination Level: Public

Version X.X of [Date] to Version X.X of [Date]

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1 Authorship and contact details ..................................................................................................... 5

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1 AUTHORSHIP AND CONTACT DETAILS

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532000 533000 534000

532000 533000 534000

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Figure 2-4: Bedrock geological map of Lefkosia (Harrison et al., 2008).

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Figure 2-5: (continued)

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Figure 2-7: (continued)

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Figure 2-8: PSI data in the Lefkosia study area.

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Table 1: A Summary of observed geohazard polygons in the Lefkosia area

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Table 2: Data used during the interpretation

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PSI data used in the interpretation is summarised in the following 4 tables.

Table 3: Processing data

Process Date 07th July 2007

1 20050514 20021116 253.8828 -910

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Table 5: Data describing results

Number of PS identified 23818 points

ENVISAT data in 16th November 2002 – 30th December 2006

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3.2 GENERAL PROPERTIES OF THE MOTION AREA

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3.3 SPECIFIC GEOHAZARD TYPE

Deep ground motion / Tectonic movement

3.4 THE DETERMINATION METHOD

3.5 CONFIDENCE IN THE INTERPRETATION

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3.6 GEOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION OF THE MOTION

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3.7 EVIDENCE FOR THE INSTABILITY

4.2 GENERAL PROPERTIES OF THE MOTION AREA