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Cswip 3.4u PDF
Cswip 3.4u PDF
Cswip 3.4u PDF
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TWI TUITION NOTES FOR 3.4U COURSE (DIS 4) ................................................1
TABLE OF CONTENTS................................................................................................2
PREFACE ......................................................................................................................16
1. THE CERTIFICATION SCHEME FOR WELDMENT INSPECTION PERSONNEL (CSWIP) .16
1.1. TWI ...................................................................................................................16
1.1.1. Company Profile .......................................................................................16
1.1.2. Single Source of Expertise ........................................................................16
1.1.3. Non-profit Company .................................................................................16
1.1.4. Global Benefits..........................................................................................17
1.1.5. Confidential Consultancy..........................................................................17
1.1.6. TWI Certification Ltd................................................................................17
1.1.7. Certification Management Board ..............................................................17
1.1.8. The Management Committees: .................................................................18
2. CSWIP CERTIFICATION FOR UNDERWATER INSPECTORS.........................................20
2.1. Inspector Categories ........................................................................................20
2.2. The CSWIP 3.4U Examination.........................................................................20
2.2.1. The Theory Examination...........................................................................20
2.2.1.1. The Question Papers: .........................................................................20
2.2.1.2. Practical Examination ........................................................................21
2.2.2. Concrete Examination ...............................................................................21
2.3. The CSWIP 3.3U Examination.........................................................................21
2.3.1. The Theory Examination...........................................................................21
2.3.1.1. The Question Papers: .........................................................................21
2.3.1.2. Practical Examination ........................................................................22
2.3.2. Concrete Examination ...............................................................................22
2.4. The CSWIP 3.2U Examination.........................................................................22
2.4.1. The Theory Examination...........................................................................22
2.4.1.1. The Question Papers: .........................................................................22
2.4.1.2. Practical Examination ........................................................................22
2.4.2. Concrete Examination ...............................................................................23
2.5. The CSWIP 3.1U Examination.........................................................................23
2.5.1. The Theory Examination...........................................................................23
2.5.1.1. The Question Papers: .........................................................................23
2.5.1.2. Practical Examination ........................................................................23
2.5.2. Concrete Examination ...............................................................................23
CHAPTER 1 ..................................................................................................................25
1. GENERAL BACKGROUND ..........................................................................................25
1.1. Safe To Operate................................................................................................25
1.2. Government Legislation ...................................................................................25
2. DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS ..........................................................................................25
2.1. Materials ..........................................................................................................25
2.2. Working Life.....................................................................................................25
2.3. Loading.............................................................................................................26
2.4. Environment .....................................................................................................26
2.5. Maintenance .....................................................................................................26
Issue 1.0 Rev 0
Issue date: 1 April 2006
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Tuition Notes for 3.4U Course
Table of Contents
2.6. Weight...............................................................................................................26
2.7. Dimensions .......................................................................................................26
3. CONSTRUCTION ACTIVITY MONITORING SYSTEM ....................................................26
4. GUIDANCE ON DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION ...........................................................26
4.1. United Kingdom ...............................................................................................27
4.2. Guidance from the UK Regulations .................................................................27
4.2.1. Specific Guidance .....................................................................................28
4.2.2. Environment ..............................................................................................28
4.2.3. Steel And Concrete....................................................................................28
4.2.3.1. Steel....................................................................................................28
4.2.3.2. Concrete Structures ............................................................................30
4.2.3.3. Loads ..................................................................................................30
4.3. United States of America..................................................................................30
4.3.1. Guidance From The US Regulations ........................................................31
4.3.1.1. Planning..............................................................................................31
4.3.1.2. Structural Steel ...................................................................................32
5. CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................32
6. PIPELINES .................................................................................................................32
6.1. Pipeline Laying ................................................................................................33
7. OFFSHORE OIL TERMINALS ......................................................................................34
8. FUTURE TRENDS ......................................................................................................34
8.1. Drilling .............................................................................................................34
8.2. Design Practices ..............................................................................................42
CHAPTER 2 ..................................................................................................................45
1. INTRODUCTION .........................................................................................................45
1.1. Terminology .....................................................................................................45
1.1.1. Basic Components Of Steel Platforms ......................................................47
1.1.2. Basic Components Of A Concrete Gravity Structure ...............................53
1.1.2.1. Common Concrete Components ........................................................53
1.2. A Semi-submersible Rig ...................................................................................58
1.3. Drill ship ..........................................................................................................60
1.4. Steel Production Platforms ..............................................................................60
1.4.1. Brent A Statistics.......................................................................................61
1.5. Concrete And Steel Gravity Platforms .............................................................63
1.5.1. Cormorant A Statistics ..............................................................................64
1.5.2. Disadvantages of Concrete Structures.......................................................65
1.6. Compliant Towers ............................................................................................66
1.7. Tension Leg Floating Platforms.......................................................................69
1.8. Floating Production Systems ...........................................................................71
1.9. Seabed Facilities ..............................................................................................72
1.10. Pipelines .........................................................................................................85
CHAPTER 3 ..................................................................................................................92
1. GENERAL INTRODUCTION.........................................................................................92
1.1. Stress ................................................................................................................92
1.2. Types Of Stress .................................................................................................93
2. PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS .....................................................................................96
2.1. Yield Stress .......................................................................................................96
1. INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................452
2. RADIOGRAPHY .......................................................................................................452
3. PRODUCTION OF RADIATION ..................................................................................453
3.1. X-ray Production............................................................................................453
3.2. Production of γ Rays ......................................................................................453
4. SAFETY ..................................................................................................................456
5. HOW THE METHOD WORKS ....................................................................................456
5.1. Radiograph Quality........................................................................................458
6. ELECTRO MAGNETIC DETECTION TECHNIQUES (EMD OR EMT)...........................458
6.1. How the Method Works ..................................................................................459
7. ALTERNATING CURRENT POTENTIAL DROP (ACPD) .............................................462
7.1. How the Method Works ..................................................................................462
8. ALTERNATING CURRENT FIELD MEASUREMENT (ACFM) .....................................463
8.1. How the Method Works ..................................................................................464
8.2. Application of the Technique..........................................................................464
9. FLOODED MEMBER DETECTION (FMD) .................................................................465
9.1. γ Radiographic FMD.....................................................................................465
9.2. Ultrasonic FMD .............................................................................................467
10. GENERAL POINT FOR ALL FMD READINGS ..........................................................467
CHAPTER 20 ..............................................................................................................470
1. GENERAL COMMENTS ............................................................................................470
2. HP WATER JETS .....................................................................................................470
2.1. Diving Medical Advisory Committee (DMAC) Advice ..................................471
2.2. Management of any Injury .............................................................................472
3. STANDARD OF SURFACE FINISH .............................................................................472
4. AREA TO BE CLEANED ...........................................................................................473
5. GENERAL APPLICATIONS OF PROFILE GRINDING....................................................473
6. SPECIFIC APPLICATION OF PROFILE GRINDING .......................................................474
APPENDIX 1 ...............................................................................................................477
1. TYPES OF DRAWING ...............................................................................................477
2. ENGINEERING DRAWING ........................................................................................478
2.1. Multiple views and projections ......................................................................478
2.2. Showing dimensions .......................................................................................479
3. FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION .....................................................................................479
4. THIRD ANGLE PROJECTION ....................................................................................480
5. ADDITIONAL INFORMATION INCLUDED ON DRAWINGS ..........................................480
6. SIZE OF ENGINEERING DRAWINGS ..........................................................................480
7. HOW DRAWINGS ARE USED IN OFFSHORE INSPECTION..........................................481
8. ISOMETRIC DRAWING .............................................................................................481
9. EXERCISE IN PRODUCING AN ISOMETRIC DRAWING FROM A THIRD ANGLE
PROJECTION ...............................................................................................................481
APPENDIX 2 ...............................................................................................................492
1. WHAT IS REQUIRED ...............................................................................................492
2. POINTS TO NOTE ....................................................................................................492
APPENDIX 3 ...............................................................................................................497
PREFACE
The Certification Scheme For Weldment
Inspection Personnel – Organisation and
Examination
1. The Certification Scheme for Weldment Inspection Personnel (CSWIP)
CSWIP is an accreditation body approved by the UK Government’s Board of
Trade and Industry. CSWIP is a subsidiary of TWI Certification, which is
incorporated into The Welding Institute (TWI).
1.1. TWI
Is a world centre for materials joining technology and is the parent
organisation for TWI Certification.
1.1.1. Company Profile
TWI Ltd, the operating arm of The Welding Institute, is one of the world's
foremost independent research and technology organisations. Based at
Great Abington near Cambridge since 1946, TWI provides industry with
engineering solutions in structures incorporating welding and associated
technologies (surfacing, coating, cutting, etc.) through -
Information
Advice and technology transfer
Consultancy and project support
Contract R&D
Training and qualification
Personal membership
1.1.2. Single Source of Expertise
TWI Ltd is the only single source of expertise in every aspect of joining
technology for engineering materials - metals, plastics, ceramics and
composites.
1.1.3. Non-profit Company
TWI is a non-profit distributing company, limited by guarantee and owned
by its Members; it is therefore able to offer independent advice. It is
internationally renowned for bringing together multidisciplinary teams to
implement established or advanced joining technology or to solve
problems arising at any stage - from initial design, materials selection,
production and quality assurance, through to service performance and
repair.
CSWIP Welding
Specialists & Practitioners
Management Committee
Welding Fabricator
Certification Management Committee
CHAPTER 1
Engineering Offshore Structures
1. General Background
Historically it is true to say that in the initial stages of development of offshore oil
platforms the designs evolved from land-based structures and were constructed
on site. The engineering design knowledge was either borrowed or extrapolated
from traditional fields of civil engineering and naval architecture. During the
1950s, however, new technology began to be developed for this type of
structure. Since then many advances have been made particularly in the field of
materials. Governments’ legislation in the various host countries with offshore
oil has also played a role in shaping the design of production platforms and the
various other structures seen offshore. Economics are very important and play
a leading role in platform design. For example it is only possible to justify the
expenditure for a massive eight-legged steel of a huge concrete gravity platform
when the hydrocarbon reserves in a particular field are large enough to not only
warrant the initial capital cost but will also guarantee a good income for a long
period of time. There is also a growing concern for the environment and this
consideration influences certain aspects of structural design. Another factor of
prime importance is safety of personnel. There are two facets to this:
1.1. Safe To Operate
The first facet is the usual concern of engineers to design a structure which
is elegant if possible, conservative in it’s use of materials, fit for the design
purpose, able to operate for the prescribed length of time, safe to operate
and within the allowed budget.
1.2. Government Legislation
The other facet is government legislation. This is put in place to ensure that
structures are fit in all aspects, including safety, for the purpose they are
designed to fulfil.
2. Design Specifications
The requirements for an offshore platform will necessitate the consideration of a
number of factors and involve drawing up DESIGN SPECIFICATION. The full
design specification will contain many different factors, but by way of illustration
the following list should serve to indicate some factors affecting load bearing
and cost.
2.1. Materials
These should be readily available from suppliers in the required form and
should meet the requirements of the design specification.
2.2. Working Life
This may typically be 25 years
2.3. Loading
The platform should provide a safe working environment for the purpose of
recovering hydrocarbon reserves. It must be capable of withstanding the
loads imposed on it by the drilling and other works performed in and on the
work areas and it must withstand the forces imposed by wind and wave
action.
2.4. Environment
The open sea, which will impose very harsh conditions indeed on the entire
structure but especially the jacket. Due consideration must be made to the
effects of corrosion because of this environment.
2.5. Maintenance
This should be kept to the barest minimum. Cue consideration must be
given to the underwater maintenance being especially singled out wit a view
to not only minimising bit but also to use the most cost effective means of
achieving any necessary works.
2.6. Weight
The weight of the deck modules must be considered so that the jacket can
be designed to support this weight. The all-up weight will have ramifications
on the cost and on the seabed design of the foundations.
2.7. Dimensions
The size of the structure will be dictated by the work functions required to be
carried out and will be strongly affected by the requirements to keep the
topside weight to the minimum.
3. Construction Activity Monitoring System
At the same time as the Design Specification is drafted it is possible for the
QUALITY ASSURANCE (QA) function to be implemented. This can take the
form of an Activity Monitoring System that would compile: -
Full certification for the location of all components, normally by way of
“as built” drawings
o This would normally include any concessions, repairs and the
actual location of J tube and temporary access holes
Full material certification
Non-destructive Testing (NDT) and inspection certification, which would
include personnel qualifications
4. Guidance On Design And Construction
With these engineering requirements in mind as the basic starting point design
and structural engineers will be able to obtain guidance as to what minimum
standards are acceptable to the appropriate authority or government body
whatever country they are operating in. As an example of these types of
guidance two different sets of national regulations will be illustrated.
Fatigue Life
Throughout its service life a structure is exposed to environmental
loading. This causes cyclic stress variations in its structural members.
Of these forces wave loading is the main source of potential fatigue
cracking, for example, supposing a 20-year service life, wave action
will result in approximately 108 cycles of stress variations. Any other
source of cyclic loading could also contribute to fatigue damage and
should therefore be considered as well. Unless otherwise agreed with
the Certifying Authority the calculated fatigue life derived by the
methods indicated in the “Guidance Notes” should be not less than 20
years, or the required service life if this is greater. The procedure for
the fatigue analysis is based on the assumption that for welded
structures it is only necessary to consider ranges of cyclic stress in
determining the endurance (i.e. mean stresses are neglected).
In most situations the potential fatigue crack is located in parent
material (e.g. at a weld toe) and the relevant cyclic stress is accepted
as the range of maximum principal stress at the potential crack
location. (Note: In estimating the maximum principal stress, shear and
torsional effects may be neglected where they are small).
For nodal joints the stress range to be used in the fatigue analysis is
the hot spot stress range at the weld toe.
Figure 1.1 refers.
Buckling
This is another prime possibility for component failure and must
therefore warrant special attention.
The Requirement for Destructive Testing
This is considered in order to minimise potential failures and as part
of the overall QA.
4.2.3.2. Concrete Structures
As with steel failure in service could occur due to a number of factors
some specific to concrete.
Limit State Design
Limit States
Shear
Fatigue
Deflection
Cracking
Cover Over Reinforcement
Reinforcement Detailing
4.2.3.3. Loads
The prime categories of load considered are: -
Dead Loads
Imposed (Operational) Loads
Hydrostatic Loads
Environmental Loads
Deformation Loads
Accidental Loads
The 1974 Guidance indicated the required minimum considerations
for designers to take account of, along with the then current best
advise on how best to determine these loads.
4.3. United States of America
As an historical contrast to this legislation another example of this type of
guidance, from the United States of America, which is aimed at American
waters is, “API Recommended Practice for PLANNING, DESIGNING, and
CONSTRUCTING FIXED OFFSHORE PLATFORMS”, which was published
by the American Petroleum Institute (API) in 1984. These regulations lay
down in broad terms the minimum standards for the design and construction
of offshore structures in offshore environments as indicated below. The
major difference between the US and the UK regulations at that time was
the fact that the US offered advise and cited “recommended practice” but did
not authorise certification authorities. Nor does it now.
4.3.1. Guidance From The US Regulations
US regulations are intended for use in the American offshore
environment, but, because they are based on good engineering practice,
in common with the old UK regulations, the guidance follows much the
same ground. This is not surprising, as the structures will have to
withstand very similar forces and loadings.
4.3.1.1. Planning
The US Guidance, which was given for this aspect of the design
function considers such items as: -
Function
The function for which the structure is intended such as drilling,
producing, storage, accommodation, or a combination of these.
The Location
Orientation
Water Depth
All of these factors being considered with a view o giving guidance
as to what parameters should be applied.
The environmental conditions are considered and designers are
specifically advised to make best use of all available statistical and
mathematical modelling data to”…develop the description of
operating and extreme environmental conditions.”
Operating Environmental Conditions
(Those conditions which are expected to occur frequently during
the life of the structure) are important both during the construction
and the life of a platform.
Extreme Conditions
(Those conditions which recur quite rarely during the life of the
structure) are important in formulating platform design loadings…”
“The Recommended Practice” also indicated minimum
requirements for considering the effects of: -
Wind
Waves
Tides
Currents
Ice
Earthquakes
Sea-floor Instability
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Tuition Notes for 3.4U Course
Engineering Offshore Structures
Scour
Marine Fouling
Site investigations with a view as to the impact on the structure’s
foundations are also considered.
As with the UK guidance loads are given full consideration and are
defined as: -
Dead Loads
Live Loads
Environmental Loads
Construction Loads
Dynamic Loads
(If a comparison of this list is made with paragraph 4.2.3.3 it appears
that the UK old regulation considered this subject more fully. This is
not the case because the US regulation considered some types of
loads together. For example hydrostatic loads, which are considered
separately in the UK, are associated with dead loads in the US).
4.3.1.2. Structural Steel
The behaviour of steel under stress is considered.
Bending
Buckling
Were both given due consideration.
Fatigue
This is dealt with in the same manner as for the UK along with
similar design advice.
Joint Design
This was also covered in a similar way.
Concrete structures are not considered in this particular publication.
5. Conclusion
It is obvious from the comparisons made here and from common engineering
experience that the engineering requirements for offshore structures anywhere
in the world will be similar. The only marked changes will be due to local
conditions either imposing greater loadings on the structure or perhaps the local
environment being more aggressive. The basic engineering will not change but
some components may have to be more massive or higher-grade materials may
be required to meet these local requirements.
6. Pipelines
Offshore pipelines are used to transport oil or gas from platform to loading
towers or to shore. They are fabricated from high-grade steel pipe (e.g.API-5LX)
which is bitumen wrapped for corrosion prevention and coated with a layer of
Issue 1.0 Rev 0
Issue date: 1 April 2006
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Tuition Notes for 3.4U Course
Chapter 1
Figure 1.2
MSV Norlift, Laying the 10in pipeline between
the Neptune and Mercury fields
7. Offshore Oil Terminals
Large oil tankers are cheaper to run than small tankers. This philosophy of
building large tankers was reinforced in the 1950s when the Suez crisis forced
tankers from the Gulf to detour around the South of Africa in order to reach
Europe. As tanker sizes increased the number of ports that could handle
tankers decreased and public opinion was against allowing such tankers too
close to inhabited areas. Many solution were proposed to solve this problem of
shrinking docking facilities which included artificial harbours, artificial offshore
islands, multiple buoy mooring systems, tower mooring systems and Single
Point Mooring systems (SPMs).
The SPM is the most widely used because of its relatively low operational cost,
reliability and flexibility. This configuration is illustrated in a later Chapter.
8. Future Trends
The future is likely to see continued development of current trends and
techniques in all areas of offshore engineering, with the probability of new
techniques being evolved to enable the exploitation of reserves which are
currently marginal or beyond the range of present day techniques.
8.1. Drilling
This is a branch of engineering, which has seen numerous developments
the results of which have made recovery of reserves more efficient and more
effective. Cost reduction and further development of marginal reserves will,
no doubt, cause a continuation of developments of the present techniques
and trends. There will surely be, for instance, increased use of: -
Horizontal Drilling
This enables more formation to be exposed to production and reduces
reservoir problems such as associated gas and water production. It is useful
for thin and tight, low permeability reservoirs. Fewer wells are needed to
achieve optimum reservoir production than with conventional drilling. Figure
1.3 refers.
Figure 1.3
Diagram Of Bottomhole Assemblies
These Bottomhole Assemblies Are Designed For
Drilling A Straight Hole (Left) And A Directional Hole (Right)
Extended Reach Drilling
This can reduce the number of platforms required to develop a field as a
greater reservoir area can be drained from one central platform. Horizontal
distances up to 7000 m have been achieved.
Figure 1.4
The Drill Floor Showing
The Drill String Being Broken Out
Figure 1.5
The Derrick.
The Pyramidal Derrick Supports
The Crown Blocks And The Drillstring
Photo courtesy of Mark S. Ramsey
Figure 1.6
Photograph Of Crown Block
The Pulleys That Make Up The Crown Block
Allow The Cable To Hoist Heavy Loads.
Photo courtesy of Mark S. Ramsey
Figure 1.7
Drawworks
The Drawworks Reels The Drilling Line In Or Out Over The Crown Blocks To
Raise Or Lower The Travelling Block (Shows The Spool-Like Drawworks
Without The Drilling Line
Photo courtesy of Mark S. Ramsey
Figure 1.8
Travelling Block
The Yellow Travelling Block Moves Up And Down In The Derrick,
Suspended By The Black Wire Rope, To Lift Or Lower The Drillstring Or
Casing
Photo courtesy of the Petroleum Extension Service The University of Texas at Austin
Figure 1.9
Breakout Cathead. The Breakout Cathead Allows The Driller To Make A
Connection Using The Power Of The Motor
Photo courtesy of the Petroleum Extension Service, The University of Texas at Austin
Figure 1.10
Spinning chain
The Spinning Chain (Centre Photograph) Turns Pipe Rapidly, But Is A
Dangerous Way To Screw Pipe Together Because Of Potential For Catching
And Damaging Clothing And Fingers. Mechanical Spinning Devices Are
Figure 1.11
Slips
The Rig Crew Sets Wedge-Like Pipe Slips (Near The Bottom Of This
Photograph) In The Rotary Table To Hold The Pipe While Another
Component Is Added To The Drillstring
Photo courtesy of the Petroleum Extension Service, The University of Texas at Austin.
Figure 1.12
Gannet Platform North Sea
Central Sector
Tender Assisted Operations
These operations also help to minimise the weight of the production platform
by providing most drilling support equipment on a floating anchored, ship-
shaped tender in calm waters or an anchored semi- submersible unit for
deeper or harsher environments.
Mobile Drilling Units
These are jack-up or semi-submersible rigs, depending on water and they
can be used to drill production wells (with well completion on the seabed and
production pipelines led to a nearby facility) where size and economics of
the reservoir do not justify the installation of a platform.
Bibliography
Engineering Aspects of North Sea Operations. The Shell Approach
PP Tapper
The Gatwick Press
The Offshore Challenge
Shell Briefing Service
A Handbook for Underwater Inspectors
L K Porter
HMSO
The Offshore Installations (Construction and Survey) Regulations 1974
(SI 289)
BSI
Offshore Installations Guidance on Design and Construction
HMSO
API Recommended Practice for Planning, Designing and Constructing Fixed
Offshore Platforms
American Petroleum Institute
Underwater Inspection
M Bayliss, D Short, M Bax
E & F N Spon
CHAPTER 2
Offshore Structures and Installations
1. Introduction
Offshore hydrocarbon deposits may be gas or oil or a mixture of the two. They
are found at different depths in the seabed, they are of different sizes and the
recovery of the reserves can be easy or difficult depending on the actual
geology of the particular well. These factors influence the design of offshore
structures and combine to be one of the basic reasons for there being different
types of offshore installations. Some of the biggest installations are in the North
Sea and consist of concrete “gravity” structures. Then there are the more
common steel platforms, which can be of the eight-legged type or may be of a
lightweight four-legged variety. There are also jack-up rigs, which are mobile,
and tension leg platforms (TLP), which float. Apart from these production
facilities there are also, seabed wells, manifold centres and thousands of
kilometres of pipelines. Another common structure seen worldwide is the single
point mooring (SPM) which come in a variety of designs, some of which
incorporate storage facilities.
1.1. Terminology
The production platforms are the most massive installations and they may
be of steel or concrete construction, steel being the most prevalent. Both
types have standard components and a through working knowledge of this
terminology is necessary to be able to communicate with other engineers.
Much of this terminology also applies to the other types of structures and
therefore a review of this topic for platforms forms the basis for a
comprehensive working technical vocabulary.
See Figures 2.1, 2.2 and 2.3
Figure 2.1
Steel Platform
Modern Jackets
Figure 2.2
The Jade Jacket
Kvaerner Manufactured The Jade Jacket At Methil
Figure 2.3
A Four Legged Jacket
Built For The Compression Platform
Installed As Part Of CMS 2
Can
One of the sections making up a leg
Conductor Guide Frame
Horizontal sections of framework, which restrain and guide the
conductors
Leg
The main vertical component, constructed from a number of sections
welded together, supporting the rest of the structure
Member
One of the horizontal, vertical or diagonal components of the jacket
Node
A point on the welded steel structure where two or more members meet
and are joined. Figure 2.4 refers.
Figure 2.4
Typical Node
Pile Guides
Steel cylinder in which the pile is supported while it is driven into the
seabed. Pile guides are mounted in clusters around each leg at various
levels. They are often removed on completion of piling operations
Pile Sleeves
These are long steel cylinders, grouped around the base of the legs into
which the piles are located before being driven into the seabed. The tops
of the piles should be level with the tops of the sleeves on completion of
piling. See Figure 2.5.
Figure 2.5
Pile Sleeves
Additional to these components are a number of appurtenances
(attachments). The more important of these are: -
Caissons
Open bottomed tubular components terminating at various depths for the
purpose of the intake or discharge of water or waste
Conductors
Tubes for drilling purposes connecting seabed wells to the topside.
Figure 2.6 refers.
Figure 2.6
Conductors
Flowline Riser Bundles
Pipe work-bringing oil or gas from satellite wellheads into the platform
Oil And Gas Risers
Vertical pipeline extending the full height of the jacket and used for
transporting oil or gas. Production risers carry oil or gas up from the
seabed wellheads. Export risers take the processed hydrocarbons down
to pipelines. Refer to Figures 2.7 and 2.8
Conductor
Sea level
Export or Import
Vertical
Riser
Diagonal brace
Horizontal brace
Riser clamp Node
Pile
Pile
Flow-line
Seabed
Figure 2.7
Steel Structure Terminology
Batter
Sea level
Horizontal brace
Riser clamp
Node
Pile
Pile sleeve
Flowline
Seabed
Figure 2.8
Steel Structure Terminology
Figure 2.9
Processing Takes Place on Statoil’s Gullfaks A Platform
North Sea
1.1.2. Basic Components Of A Concrete Gravity Structure
Gravity structures may be made of steel or a mixture of steel and
concrete but the most usual material is concrete itself. They are
anchored to the seabed by their own mass hence the term gravity.
Common features of this type of design are the large diameter columns
supporting the deck module and numerous ballast/storage tanks making
up the base. See Figure 2.9 and 2.12
1.1.2.1. Common Concrete Components
Some components are common to all concrete structures. The
following list defines a number of these.
Anchorage Point
This is an essential part of the tensioning components in pre-stressed
concrete structures. The anchorage point is cast into the concrete at
Figure 2.10
Cross-sectional Drawing Of A Cachetage Point
Jarlan Holes
A term used to describe the cast in holes in the Breakwater Walls.
See Figure 2.11
Figure 2.11
Close-up Photograph Of A Jarlan Hole
Support Columns
These are the concrete, or steel, columns supporting the deck
module. See Figure 2.12.
Figure 2.12
Support Columns and Support Domes
On A Condeep Design Concrete Platform
Support Domes
These are the tops of the tanks at the base of the structure, which
may store oil, water or drilling mud. See also Figure 12.12
Terminology With Different Offshore Structures
Having introduced the terminology associated with production
platforms the discussion should be extended to other types of
offshore structures and vessels. There are a number of different
configurations for structures that are designed to fulfil different
functions.
Jack-up Rigs
These rigs are used for wildcat drilling, production drilling and
workovers. See Figure 2.13.
Figure 2.13
A Three-legged Jack-up Drilling Platform
With Tow Still Attached Starting To Jack-up
Figure 2.14
The Åsgard B Semi-Submersible Production Platform Is Linked To
The Semi-submersible Accommodation Flotel Safe Britannia
In deeper water the legs of a jack-up platform would be so long as to give
concern about the stability of the legs unless they were much larger in
section. Therefore this type of rig is not used in water deeper than about 60
m. At greater water depths the semi-submersible platform is employed. The
rig has large hollow legs and pontoons, which can be flooded or pumped dry
at, will thus ballasting the platform. When moving from site to site the rig is
ballasted up to reduce water drag during transit and, when drilling, the rig is
ballasted down to improve stability. It does float at all times and therefore
when drilling it is kept in place usually by anchors but it may keep position by
dynamic positioning (DP). That is the main engines run all the time and
computers especially programmed for the task with current data on weather,
tide, sea state and various navigation inputs control the thrust to the various
thrusters (propellers) to keep the vessel stationary in the sea directly over
one point on the seabed.
Figure 2.15
Delivery of the Åsgard Hull by the Mighty Servant 3
Figure 2.16
The Turret of the Åsgard A Floating Production Vessel
Merges with the Internal Pipe Work
Figure 2.17
Drillship Discovery 1
Either DP or anchors normally keep drillships on station dependent on the
water depth, site and project parameters. See Figure 2.17
1.4. Steel Production Platforms
With steel fixed platforms the jacket supports the substructure, which
contains all the necessary facilities. The jacket is built in a fabrication yard
and if it is a large six or eight-legged jacket designed to support full
production facilities it may well have modified legs designed as floats, or
additional ballast tanks may be installed so that it can be floated out to the
site. Smaller steel structures, which have been designed, and built as a
result of advances made in materials, better understanding of the forces
imposed on offshore structures and different design concepts are loaded
onto a barge which carries them out. Both these types of platform are
sometimes referred to as steel piled structures because the jacket is piled
into the seabed once it is in the upright position with piles either driven
through the legs or positioned around the main legs and driven through pile
sleeves, so-called skirt piles. One example of the large fixed production
platform is the Brent A, which is installed in ShellExpro’s Brent Field in the
North Sea.
Figure 2.18
ShellExpro’s Brent A Production Platform
North Sea
An example of a lightweight platform servicing seabed wellheads and
facilities is the Gannet A platform in ShellExpro’s Gannet Field in the
central North Sea. The structure itself is of the same basic design, but is
much less massive than the production platform. Figure 2.19 refers
Figure 2.19
ShellExpro’s Gannet Platform
1.5. Concrete And Steel Gravity Platforms
The first gravity structure was installed in the North Sea in the mid-1970s
while the first steel gravity platform was installed offshore in the Congo in the
late-1970’s.
The concept of a concrete structure came about because of some of the
problems associated with steel structures, namely the necessity for a large
number of heavy and large piles and the corrosion problem with steel in a
hostile environment. Concrete gravity structures required no piles and were
immune to corrosion.
Initially there were perceived additional advantages of storage space within
the base cells and potentially huge deck space which could be fitted out in
calm sheltered water which in turn would minimise on-site commissioning
thus reducing expensive offshore construction manpower.
Figure 2.20
ShellExpro’s Brent D Platform
North Sea
Apart from Brent D illustrated in Figure 2.20 there are numerous examples
of this type of structure constructed to different designs, such as Condeep,
CG Doris and McAlpine Seatank. To give some idea of the scale of this type
of platform the main statistics for Cormorant, A which is a four-legged
design, installed in the Cormorant Field in the North Sea are detailed here.
1.5.1. Cormorant A Statistics
Water Depth 150 m
Substructure
Storage Capacity 1,000,000 bbls
Caisson shape Square
Caisson height 57 m
Number of legs 4
H2S. This problem necessitates the creation of safety zones and special
procedures to avoid risk to personnel.
1.6. Compliant Towers
This design is a tall, slim steel structure that is designed to sway slightly, that
is complies with the effects of the wave action. The design is conceived as a
“half-way house” between fixed and floating structures. It is possible to use
the design in water depths up to some 1000 m in moderate environments.
The Baldpate GB 260 Platform is located in 1,650ft of water, in Garden
Banks (GB) block 260, 120 miles off the Louisiana coast. This is the first
freestanding offshore compliant tower ever, as well as one of the tallest
freestanding structures in the world. The tip of the flare boom extends
1,902ft above the seafloor. Figures 2.21 to 2.25 refer.
Figure 2.21
GB 260 Compliant Tower
Gulf Of Mexico
Figure 2.22
Artist Impression Of
GB 260 Compliant Tower
Figure 2.23
GB 260 Base On Tow Barge
During Tow Out To Site
Figure 2.24
GB 260 Jacket
Before Float Out
Figure 2.25
GB 260 Base Launch
1.7. Tension Leg Floating Platforms
Tension Leg Platforms (TLP) consist of a hull anchored to the seabed with
vertical tendons. Vertical movement is constrained by the tendons thus
allowing production wells to be located on deck. An example of this type of
structure is Conoco’s TLP in the Hutton Field in the North Sea which was
installed in 1984. This design is suitable for deep-water production and
some engineers believe the technology could be extended to water depths
of 3000 m. See Figures 2.26 to 2.28
Figure 2.26
Statoil’s Snorre B TLP
North Sea
Figure 2.27
Diagrammatic Layout Of
A Typical TLP
Figure 2.28
Snorre B Anchor Points Under Tow
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Figure 2.29
The Åsgard A FPSO Measures 278m in Length
and has a Displacement of 184,300t
Figure 2.30
Terra Nova FPSO
Figure 2.31
Terra Nova FPSO Schematic
1.9. Seabed Facilities
The first sub-sea production Christmas tree was installed by Shell offshore
California in 1961. Since then there has been a steady increase in these
facilities with the early wellheads being installed and serviced by divers.
Developments now allow these tasks to be completed remotely thus,
importantly extending the depth range for installation and maintenance.
Apart from seabed wellheads there are also manifold centres such as the
Underwater Manifold Centre (UMC) in Shell’s Cormorant Field, Linear Block
Manifolds (LBM) as installed in Shell’s Osprey Field and Sub-sea Isolation
Valves (SSIV) as installed throughout the North Sea. Currently there are
more than 650 sub-sea wells worldwide of which approximately one third are
installed on the UK continental shelf. These structures can offer advantages
over platforms.
To reach remote pats of the field inaccessible to the existing platform
To develop a field too small to warrant the cost of a fixed platform where
process facilities can be provided as required by a floating facility
To develop a wide spread field using dedicated FPS and linking the wells
with pipelines
To develop a number of smaller fields all in the same district again using
FPS
Some of these facilities are illustrated below. See Figures 2.32 to 2.49
Figure 2.32
Artist Impression
Alvheim Field Schematic
Figure 2.33
Anasuria FPSO
Figure 2.34
Balder Field FPU
Figure 2.35
Artist Impression
Balder Field Schematic
Figure 2.36
Balder FPU Turret
Being Installed
Figure 2.37
Machar Field Seabed Manifolds
Figure 2.38
Dunbar Sub-sea Choke Manifold
Figure 2.39
Schematic Seabed Four Well Layout
Figure 2.40
Gannet Sub-sea Isolation Valve (SSIV)
Assembly Installation
Figure 2.41
Artist Impression Gullfaks Field Schematic Layout
Figure 2.42
Gullfaks Hinge-over Sub-sea Template (HOST)
Figure 2.43
Artist Impression Leadon Field Infrastructure
Figure 2.44
Renee Field Manifold
And Wellheads
Figure 2.45
Snohvit Seabed Wellheads
And Protection Frame
Figure 2.46
Renee Field Schematic Layout
Figure 2.47
Turret Details On Norne FPSO
Figure 2.48
Vixen Sub-sea Tree
Figure 2.49
Vixen Wellhead Structure
1.10. Pipelines
Pipelines are used extensively for the transport of crude oil and gas and
there are many hundreds of kilometres of sub-sea pipelines throughout the
world. Figures 2.50 to 2.59 indicate some of these facilities and how they are
laid.
These structures may appear to be simple on an initial cursory inspection
but they are carefully designed and a good deal of specialised design effort
goes into their construction. Traditional pipelines are constructed of steel am
may be made up of nominal 40 foot (12.1 m) lengths of pipe sections up to 3
feet (0.9 m) in diameter which are welded together. Figure 2.50 shows a lay
barge in operation.
Alternatively smaller diameter steel pipe up to 2 foot (0.6 m) diameter can be
laid up onto special reels and then laid in long lengths off the back of
specially designed reel-laying vessels. Modern developments in materials
have led to the widespread use of composite pipes made up of a variety of
polymers. One such pipe is known as “Coflexip”. This type of pipe is
commonly laid from specially designed reels off the back of suitable vessels.
Figures 12.49 to 12.53 give an indication of reel laying operations.
A typical field joint in a pipeline is illustrated in Figure 12.54 that indicates
some of the complexities of the design and fabrication of this joint.
Figure 2.50
Lay barge LB 200 Operating In
Dunbar Field
Figure 2.51
Dunbar Field Double Wall Interpipe
Figure 2.52
Gullfaks Flowline Bundle
Figure 2.53
Beach Launched Pipeline Bundle Showing PLEM About To
Enter The Water
Figure 2.54
A General View of CSO Apache Reel Laying Vessel
Figure 2.55
Onshore Facilities and Jetty for Fabrication, Preparation
And Loading Pipelines Onto Reel Laying Vessels
Figure 2.56
Pipe Sections Stockpiled Ready for Fabrication
Figure 2.57
Pipeline Fabrication in the Sheds at the Pipe Yard
Figure 2.58
Stern View of the CSO Apache Reel Laying On the Cook Project
Figure 2.59
Diagram of a Standard Pipe Length Field Joint
CHAPTER 3
Loading On Offshore Structures Engineering
Concepts
1. General Introduction
When any structure is being designed the engineers will, as a matter of course,
consider the forces exerted by wind, water, weight of equipment and working
loads. The material that the structure is built from supports these forces. The
forces set up stresses within the material.
Stress is a convenient way of defining the load a material is required to
withstand in such a way that comparisons with the loading on other structures of
different sizes and shapes can be made. It also allows comparison with the
mechanical properties; for example, how near the working stress of any
member is to the yield stress or ultimate tensile stress of the material and
comparisons of stresses in different parts of the structure identify those
members that are carrying the heaviest loads.
1.1. Stress
Stress is defined as the Force (or load) divided by the cross-sectional area
carrying that load. Stress is denoted by the Greek letter σ (sigma) and is
defined mathematically
Figure 3.1
Connecting Rod
Solution
Section P From the diagram the force acting on the section P is 700N
outward from the surface. The cross-section area is:
A = πr2 =19.6 x 10-6 m2
Then using F = σA
= 99.0 MN m-2
1.2. Types Of Stress
When a material is required to support of transmit a load, it does so by
creating a force between the atoms of the material by moving them from
their equilibrium position. This can occur in a number of ways.
Tensile stress
This is created in the material when the atoms are pulled apart. See Figure
3.2
Figure 3.2
Tensile Loading On A Solid
Compressive stress
This is the exact opposite of tensile stress. The atoms are pressed together
as illustrated in Figure 3.3. Usually tensile stresses are thought of as positive
(+) stresses and compressive stresses as negative (-) stresses.
Figure 3.3
Compressive Loading of a Solid
Bending stress
Structures are sometimes loaded in such a way that there is a mixture of
tensile and compressive stresses in it. A simple beam supported at the ends
and loaded in the middle is a good example as illustrated in Figure 3.4
Figure 3.4
A Simple Beam with a Point Load
The top surface is observed to get shorter as it experiences compressive
stresses, and the bottom surface gets longer as it experiences tensile
stresses. This type of loading gives a stress distribution that varies from
maximum compressive stress on one side, to zero at an unstressed layer
called the neutral axis, to maximum tensile stress at the other side. In this
type of structure, there are both tensile and compressive stresses. Most
braces in platform structures experience this mixture of stresses.
Shear Stress
Another way in which the atoms can be moved to create a force is when
layers of atoms are pushed past each other. This is called shear.
Shear stress (τ) is defined mathematically thus
The symbol generally used for shear stress is the Greek letter τ tau. Shear
stress is illustrated in Figure 3.5.
As a note of interest, in general, fluids and gasses at rest, cannot produce
shear resistance when stationary, and so are subjected to pressure only,
which acts at right angles to any surface.
Also as well as the shearing action shown in Figure 3.5 most rotating motion
is transmitted by shear; for example, the drive shaft of a car or the force to
tighten a valve. This is often referred to as Torsion.
Figure 3.5
Shear Loading of a Solid
Every material will have a characteristic way of reacting to stress. The
particular reaction for a given material will be determined by the material
properties.
2. Properties Of Materials
Materials are identified by their characteristic qualities such as; hardness,
rigidity, conductivity, magnetic or not and so on. In order that engineers can
compare one material with another it is necessary to quantify these material
properties. Among those properties commonly considered when selecting a
material for a particular application are: -
Stress
Strain
Young’s Modulus
Toughness
Electrical Conductivity
Thermal Conductivity
Density
Hardness (wear resistance)
There are others but these will serve to illustrate the principle. It is not
necessary here to consider all these properties but some comments on those
affecting load bearing should be of some benefit.
2.1. Yield Stress
When a component is loaded, the material initially behaves elastically. This
means that when the load is removed, the component returns to its original
size and shape. This will continue while the component is in use, unless the
yield load is exceeded.
Yield Stress is therefore the stress at which the material will no longer
behave wholly elastically.
If the loading is continued beyond the yield point, the material will deform
and some of that deformation will be permanent. Therefore, if a structure or
part of it is dented or bent, this indicates that it has been loaded above the
yield stress.
2.2. Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS)
If loading is continued well into the yield region, it reaches a maximum value
known as the Ultimate Tensile Strength (σUTS).
Ductile Fracture
Attempts to load beyond this value will result in the material failing by ductile
fracture. Ductile fracture can be identified by a large amount of local
deformation in the region of the fracture.
Loading a material beyond its UTS can occur within the material at
microscopic sites such that there is no noticeable deformation. This
type of failure can be caused by:
Brittle Fracture
This occurs due to the metal becoming harder locally than the surrounding
matrix. This local hardening may be as a result of:
Differences In The Material Microstructure
This can occur during either the smelting process or during the
welding process. In either case the root cause is incorrect
management of the cooling process leading to local quenching. This
leaves some of the grain structure in a brittle state.
Hydrogen Embrittlement
On an offshore structure hydrogen embrittlement may be caused
because of overprotection from an impressed current cathodic
protection system. Hydrogen embrittlement may also be caused due
to incorrect welding techniques.
In either case the fracture surfaces do not display any deformation.
Fatigue Fracture
Cyclic loading causes this. In a corrosive environment such as seawater a
structure will have a design finite fatigue life. The vibrations caused by wave
and wind actions as well as drilling operations on platforms apply the cyclic
loads. Local components may fail prematurely, however due to macroscopic
variations. The mechanism for failure is the cyclic loadings cause metal to
become harder locally than the surrounding metal (a form of work-
hardening). This local brittleness prevents the metal from flexing normally
and can lead to failure. The signs of fatigue failure are the same as brittle
fracture in that there is no local deformation.
This lack of noticeable local deformation has been one of the driving forces
behind the development of the science of non-destructive testing which is
considered in depth in later chapters. See Figure 3.6
Figure 3.6
Typical Tensile Test Characteristics For
Ductile And Brittle Failure
2.3. Stress Concentration
Stress concentration is caused within a material because geometric
irregularities magnify applied stresses locally. These irregularities can be large
or small including; holes, notches, sharp corners, inclusions and cracks. What is
vitally important about a stress concentration is its shape not its size. Professor
Inglis first developed the theory of stress concentration at the beginning of the
20th century when studying the cause of the formation of cracks from the
corners of hatch covers in the decks of merchant ships.
The effects of stress concentration can be illustrated by considering an elliptical
hole in a large flat plate made of an elastic material such as mild steel as shown
in Figure 3.7
Figure 3.7
Stress Concentration
The applied stress is enhanced locally by a factor of:
Where 2l is the length of the major axis of the hole and r is the radius at the
sharper end, the minor axis.
This factor is called the stress concentration factor Kt. For a circular hole
l = r and the stress concentration factor becomes 3.
As r gets smaller compared to l the elliptical hole becomes crack-like and the
stress concentration factor increases. Figure 3.8 refers.
Figure 3.8
Stress Concentration With Hole Shape
2.3.1. Stress Intensity Factor
Currently the science of fracture mechanics has evolved to the extent
where predictions on component failure can be made dependant upon
the shape of the crack and the stress intensity factor Ki and it can be
shown by theoretical analysis that:
Ki = σ √ πa
Further analysis proves that: -
Ki = Y σ √ πa
Ki = Stress intensity factor
Y = Factor based on the shape of the structure
σ = Nominal stress
α = Crack Length
The Factor Y is dimensionless and depends only on the shape of the
structure.
There are several handbooks available to the engineer and particular
values of Y may be found by consulting them. To illustrate this point the
value of Y for a semi-elliptical flaw is shown in Figure 3.9.
Figure 3.9
Y For A Semi-elliptical Surface Flaw
This theory can be developed further to show that failure will occur when
the stress intensity factor (Ki) reaches a critical value, the plane strain
fracture toughness (Kic). When conditions are such that the material does
fail it is possible to write: -
Ki = Y σ √ πa = Kic
Kic is a material property, which is constant for a given material, and its
value can often be found by reference to appropriate handbooks.
Example
The strength of plain carbon steel is 460 MN m-2 assume this is
controlled by surface cracks and estimate their depth.
A typical value for Kic for plain carbon steel is 170 MNm-3/2 and Y for
an edge crack in an infinite plate is 1.12.
Hence Y σ √ πa = Kic
Then √ πa = Kic/Yσ
Thus √ πa = 170/1.12 x 460
And a = 0.0347 m = 34.7 mm – which is crack depth
This is obviously an extreme example and it is used merely to illustrate
the method and to underline the fact that plane carbon steel is a very
tough material.
Figure 3.10
Force On A Cylinder In A Steady Flow
The size of this drag force depends on several factors that are related by a
simple formula: -
Drag Force (Fd) = ½ Cd ρ AV2
Where V is the velocity of the fluid flow
(Note that the force on the cylinder in the flow varies with the square of the velocity. For
example, double the flow speed and the drag force is increased four times, treble the
flow speed and the drag force is increased by nine times)
A is the projected area at right angles to the direction of the fluid flow
(Which for a cylinder of diameter D immersed to a depth h is given by
A = Dh)
Figure 3.11
Change Of Drag Coefficient With Shape
5.2. Vibrational Forces On A Structure In A Fluid Flow
Consider the example of a cylinder in a fluid flow as outlined in paragraph
5.1 but this time look at the flow pattern behind the cylinder. Figure 3.12
illustrates this. Notice that the flow behind the cylinder is not symmetrical but
that vortices are shed alternatively form each side.
Figure 3.12
Von Karmen Vortices Shed From A
Cylinder In A Fluid Flow
The effect of this is to place on the cylinder an alternating force at right
angles to the fluid flow and drag force direction. Figure 3.13 refers.
Figure 3.13
Variations In Side Forces On A
Cylinder In A Fluid Flow
These cyclic forces generated by the wind and water flowing past the
structure causes the vibrations that are so important when considering the
fatigue life of a structure.
5.3. Wave Loadings
Waves provide an oscillatory motion to the structure, producing forces that
act in addition to the forces produced by tidal currents.
These forces deform of try to overturn the structure
The waves have a predominant direction for their maximum effect,
but can come from any direction, since they are wind generated
Waves produced in a storm are generally short and very confused
o However, when produced by winds blowing over a long
distance, or fetch, the waves tend to moderate into long, high
swell waves with a long period
A period of 14 seconds produces a wavelength of about 300 m
The height of the waves is independent of the period, but depends
upon the stability of the waves and the energy content
For the purposes of classification by the Duty Holder and for insurance,
there are standards for any design; these are based on statistical data. As
much information as possible is collected over as long a period as possible
on: -
Wave heights
Wave directions
Wave periods
The analysis of these data produces two main results: -
(Cm) but this will depend upon the roughness of the surface
and the period and height of the wave.
The wave force then is equal to:
(½ Cd ρ D V2 + Cm ρ πD2/4 a) L
Where a is the acceleration of the water
Note the importance of the diameter D in these expressions, and
hence the necessity of keeping the thickness of marine growth
to a minimum
The above expression applies only to members that have a small
diameter relative to the wavelength, but this does encompass most
steel structures
The forces on large concrete gravity structures are found by
considering the pressure variations around them
5.3.1.2. Dynamic Loading
The dynamic response of a structure can be demonstrated easily by
swinging a weight on the end of a string, as a pendulum.
If the movement of the hand holding the string varies in
frequency so will the deflection of the weight at the other end
of the string
If the amplitude of the hand movement is fixed and the swing
or displacement of the weight is noted, it will be observed that
as the frequency of oscillation of the hand increases, so the
amplitude of the swinging weight will change
o First, the amplitude will increase up to a maximum
value; the frequency of the hand movement at this
condition will be the natural frequency of the system
o Thereafter the amplitude will decrease
Another observation is that as the weight displacement
increases, the direction of the swing well be the same as that
of the hand movement. The motion of the hand and the weight
are in phase
Once the maximum amplitude of the weight has been
exceeded, it will be noticed that the weight is moving in the
opposite direction to the hand movement and the motion is
then said to be out of phase
o As the frequency of the hand motion is further
increased, the amplitude of the weight reduces to
almost nothing
The peak displacement of the weight occurs at a point called
the natural frequency
Bibliography
Underwater Inspection
Mel Bayliss
David Short
Mary Bax
Failure of Stressed Materials
The Open University
CHAPTER 4
Deterioration Of Offshore Steel Structures
1. General Comments
As soon as any piece of engineering equipment, such as an engine, pipeline,
bridge or offshore structure is brought into service it starts to wear out because
of use and if it is not maintained it will eventually cease to operate satisfactorily,
either by no longer carrying out the function for which it was designed or by
failing in a catastrophic manner. The possible causes of deterioration of an
offshore structure including accidental damage, corrosion, fatigue, wear and
embrittlement are discussed in this chapter.
2. Categories of Deterioration and Damage
Broadly speaking the modes of deterioration may be classified into 6 groups: -
Gross structural damage
Corrosion and erosion
Fouling defects
Coating defects
Scour
Metal and weld defects
Specific types of deterioration and damage within these groups may be
categorised as: -
Deformation of the structure caused by impact
Loss of concrete matrix through impact or internal flaws
Missing bolts
Coating damage through abrasion or impact or deterioration
Damaged cables or ducts caused by impact or deterioration
Unstable foundations through poor geology
Missing members caused by accidental damage or failure
Debris, which may cause impact damage or create fouling or overload
the CP system
3. Accidental Damage
Engineers will try to anticipate all the different modes of failure when they first
design a structure but deterioration due to accidental damage is difficult to
design against (this does not prevent the guidance notes for offshore structural
design from recommending that engineers in fact do just that). In the United
Kingdom safety cases have to be submitted to the HSE for evaluation and
assessment in an attempt to prevent accidental damage from being a threat to
safety. Because of the difficulties associated with preventative design one of the
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Deterioration of Offshore Steel Structures
prime methods for dealing with accidental damage is the implementation and
effective execution of reporting procedures for informing the appropriate
responsible persons as soon as any accidental damage is caused.
This type of damage is also likely to occur on any structure because of the
reliance placed on being serviced by boats and helicopters. This presents a real
possibility for damage caused by accidents such as collisions and the dragging
of either anchors or trawls across seabed installations. Ideally, as indicated
above should this type of accident happen it should be reported and surveyed
as soon as it happens, but in the past, at least, such accidental damage was
mainly discovered during routine inspections, the event not having been
reported.
There have been numerous examples of this type of damage and just by way of
illustration the Northwest Hutton suffered an accident during installation that
resulted in a main leg suffering loss of member straightness. An accident
involving a stand-by vessel and Brae Bravo resulted in a horizontal member just
above the splash zone suffering a similar fate.
4. Corrosion
Because steel is placed in a hostile environment, namely salt water, one of the
ever-present deterioration mechanisms on the structure will be corrosion
Corrosion takes place in two different ways
First of all, uniform corrosion is the process whereby metal is removed
uniformly from all over the surface, so that progressive thinning of the
member or pipe wall goes on until the thickness is reduced so as to
necessitate the renewal of the component
Secondly, pitting corrosion is a very localised corrosion, which takes
place in an otherwise corrosion free material, creating a pit in the surface
of that material
o These pits deepen with time and if another failure mechanism
does not take over, the pit will penetrate the full thickness of the
material, causing leakage in the case of a pipeline or service duct,
and so necessitate local repair
Corrosion attacks of both kinds are accelerated by erosion, increase in
temperature, increase in oxygen content, added chemical attack from biological
sources and loading on the member from either external loading or residual
stresses caused in manufacture. This last is known as stress corrosion. As this
is such an important deterioration mechanism in the offshore environment
corrosion is more fully explained in Chapter 7.
5. Fatigue
Fatigue is the local failure of the material by crack growth caused by cyclic
loading. The cracks can grow from flaws in the material, such as a welding
defect or notches caused by accidental damage. Alternatively, they can initiate
in regions of highly stressed material, which are brought about by residual
stresses or stress concentration. Fatigue cracks can also start from pits created
Adhesive
When two surfaces rub together it causes friction and to explain this it is
postulated that some welding of the two contact surfaces occurs within the
contact area
The mechanism of adhesive wear follows directly from this. When the two
surfaces slide over each other material breaks away and does so at the
weakest sections. This is found to be the “hills” which make contact as indicated
in the sketch in Figure 4.1
Figure 4.1
Adhesive Wear
The junction at which the surfaces are in contact have been strengthened by
work hardening and therefore the fractures take place within the materials, at
some distance away from the interfaces between the points of contact. Each
surface tears out some material from the other and both surfaces become
roughened as they gouge and score one another. Wear is rapid and for this
reason, sliding combinations of similar metals are usually avoided in good
engineering practise.
Abrasive Wear
In the mechanism for abrasive wear a hard particle in one surface indents,
groves and then cuts material from the other surface. In service, the main cause
of abrasion between sliding metals is the presence on one of the two surfaces
of particles of hard materials, such as carbide in steels, work hardened wear
fragments or hard oxide films. The particles may also be airborne “dirt” such as
grit
Wear Caused By Fatigue
When there is relative motion between two surfaces in contact the state of
stress at any given point on or near the surfaces varies with time and this may
cause fatigue – the slow growth of cracks. The development of such cracks may
eventually detach pieces of material from the surfaces, thereby constituting
wear
Figure 4.2
Fishtails
Inclusions
These will always be present in commercial steels. They are there
because of the way iron ore is found and steel is made. The basic
ingredient, iron, which usually contains entrapped non-metallic inclusions
and typically something over 4 wt% carbon, 1 wt% of both manganese
and silicon and there are smaller amounts of both sulphur and
phosphorus both of which are highly undesirable. Figure 4.3 refers
Because this is the case, in any standard specification the chemical
analysis of any “unalloyed” carbon steel will always involve the
determination to the “big five”, carbon, silicon, manganese, sulphur and
phosphorus, though none of them are likely to be present in any amount
exceeding 1.5 wt%. The inclusions present in the steel will become
aligned as the steel is subsequently worked and therefore give rise to a
so-called fibre structure.
Figure 4.3
Inclusions
In fact silicon and manganese are beneficial as deoxidizers and as solid-
solution strengtheners. However, sulphur and phosphorus have an
embrittling effect and are usually kept below 0.05 wt% unless deliberately
increased to impart specific properties such as machinability
Banding And Segregation
Steel as it cools from the molten state forms solid grains that will have
different chemical compositions and orientations within the forming solid
material. This is caused by the way the cooling occurs and in individual
grains it gives rise to coring where different sections of dissimilar
chemical compositions can be viewed through a microscope within each
discrete grain. This effect will also manifest itself within the entire
solidifying mass where it can be viewed as bands, which give, rise to its
name of banding the results of which are macro-segregation within the
material caused by the chemical in-homogeneity.
Banding can become troublesome in alloyed steels where there is more
solute to become segregated and where any alloying elements are
required to cause a specific response to heat-treatment. Even in
unalloyed carbon steels macro-structural segregation of phosphorus,
silicon, manganese and carbon may give rise to directional properties.
See Figure 4.4
Figure 4.4
Left Micrograph Shows Banding
And Right Shows Segregation
Laminations
Occasionally the structural effects of segregation can become
pronounced to the point that the material behaves as if it were made up
of different layers. This is referred to as lamination and, particularly in
thick sections of approximately 40 mm or greater, can cause serious
problems in welded structures where the laminations provide paths of
easy crack propagation. This possibility of laminated steels developing
internal ruptures is of serious concern to any structural engineer
8.2. Stage Two - Fabrication
While the structure is being built there are a multitude of problems
associated with all the aspects of fabrication. Ensuring that the correct
materials are being used, verifying the correct fit-up and tolerances are
applied and many other specific construction details are important daily
tasks for all construction staff throughout the fabrication period of any
structure.
8.2.1. Steel Structures Fabrication Defects
With steel structures the major fabrication processes involve welding and
therefore some of the problems associated with this process will be
outlined.
There are numerous variables associate with welding and each of these
can be subjected to either human or system errors some of which are
listed herewith.
o Incorrect machining of the angle of bevel
o Improper pre-heat treatment
o Poor fit-up
o Using improper weld consumables
o Incorrect storage of weld consumables
o Incorrect post-heat treatment
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Chapter 4
Figure 4.5
Stress Concentration Areas
As illustrated in Figure 4.5 the stress concentration may be lowered by
profiling the weld cap to make the geometry more contoured and less
angular.
By alterations to the design concept the stress concentration areas may be
removed from the nodal areas by utilising cast joints thus removing the
welding to less highly stressed regions. Figure 4.6 refers.
Figure 4.6
Cast Node
8.4. Stage Three Installation
Steel structures are commonly constructed on their side and then floated
into position where they are rotated to the upright position by flooding ballast
compartments in the jacket legs. This rotation imposes a bending moment
on the structure that may impose stresses on the structure that are
transiently greater than the working stresses the structure will subsequently
withstand. Of course the flooding operation is conducted as carefully as
possible and some modern steel structures have been positioned with the
ballast tanks pre-flooded to minimise the stresses involved. The method is
illustrated in Figure 4.7, which shows the sequence of events with a “self-
floating structure.
Figure 4.7
Self-floating Structure
8.5. Possible Damage Caused During Installation
At any time during the launch and installation stages of the structure
damage may be caused through, accidents, piling operations, grouting
defects, stress induced failure, seabed anomalies. There is always a
possibility of the structure being out of its final position or being out of final
orientation.
8.6. Stage Four In-Service
This is the stage in the life of a structure where underwater inspection first
becomes pre-eminent. The major categories of defects that cause concern
are outlined below.
8.6.1. Steel In-Service Defect Categories
Fouling
This term covers both marine growth building up on the structure and
debris collecting on and around it. Fouling may cause structural damage,
galvanic corrosion, see Chapter 8, overloading of the CP system and
may cause safety hazards to divers and ROVs.
Coating Damage
All types of coatings, paint, bituminous, epoxy, metallic may suffer from
defects caused either when they were applied or subsequently because
of deterioration or accidental damage. See Chapter 10
Cracks
These may be caused by latent flaws initiated during any of the earlier
stages in the life of the platform. They are certainly associated with
welded joints especially on nodal areas and cracking may be the end
result of a defect initiated at the fabrication stage. As stated earlier in this
chapter, fatigue is the major cause of component failure in-service.
An example of this type of damage is conductor guides that failed due to
fatigue cracking on one North Sea structure. The failure is illustrated in
Figure 4.8
Figure 4.8
Failure Of A Conductor Guide
This type of failure may be avoided if the crack is identified at an early
stage, before it propagates. It can be considered to be a “notch” at this
stage and profile grinding will remove this effect. This will reduce the
weld throat thickness and the wall thickness, however provided this is
kept within design parameters and a smooth profile is achieved the
possibility of failure is more remote. Profile grinding is more fully
discussed in Chapter 20.
Corrosion
This is a most important form of structural deterioration and it is
examined in detail in Chapter 5. A great deal of underwater inspection
effort goes into monitoring corrosion
Physical Damage
This form of deterioration is generally caused by either collision or impact
damage caused by components being dropped. As mentioned earlier all
accidental damage, indeed any incident, should be reported immediately
so that it can be assessed. Figure 4.9 illustrates damage caused to a
horizontal diagonal member by a 24 m length of caisson pipe that had
fallen off from three levels above and pierced through the member. No
one was aware that anything had happened.
Figure 4.9
Sketch Indicating Damage Caused
By A Caisson Section That Failed In Service
Scour
The foundations of a structure are an obvious area susceptible to
movements of material on the seabed. Any movement is likely to weaken
the foundations which, of course, jeopardises the whole structure
8.7. In-Service Defect Categories That Affect Both Steel And Concrete
The in service defects enumerated for steel can also affect concrete.
Concrete structures may suffer from cracks, the reinforcement may corrode,
physical damage is certainly possible and scour is also quite possible.
Cracks in the concrete surface are less serious than cracks in steel
because, as indicated in the concrete section, offshore structures fall into the
prestressed category and are therefore kept in compression.
There are other considerations that do affect both steel and concrete
structures and that may cause defects in service such as detailed following.
8.7.1. Inter-tidal And Splash Zones
The inter-tidal and splash zones on any structure are regions of particular
susceptibility to deterioration.
Corrosion is more aggressive in this area and must be more carefully
monitored
Marine Growth build-up is greater in the top 30 m of the sea and is
particularly dense in the inter-tidal region. This increases mass and drag
in a part of the structure, which can be more vulnerable to these effects.
Marine growth may also affect corrosion rates
The risk of physical damage is greater in this region due to the risk from
floating objects and, in those parts of the world that are susceptible,
icebergs may collide with the structures. Certainly this is possible
offshore Canada for example
8.7.2. Risers
These components are common to both types of structures, although on
concrete platforms they may be installed inside the shaft it is not
uncommon to have them mounted externally as well. These items are
considered as part of the associated pipeline and therefore are inspected
annually because they can suffer the same deterioration as the pipelines.
The clamps, guides and flanges are subjected to the same regime.
8.7.3. Conductors And Conductor Guide Frames
As with risers these components are common to all platforms and they
are exposed to the same risk of failure as risers, perhaps more so as
there are greater vibrations possible with these components than the rest
of the platform. Furthermore conductors are normally kept in place by
guides rather than clamps which allows relative movement between the
conductor and its guides, hence wear must be monitored and is a real
possibility for fatigue cracking to occur.
8.7.4. Caissons
Caissons are another group of components that are carefully monitored
on an annual basis. There is a common problem with this component
when it is used as a pump caisson. The pump is commonly suspended
from the surface inside the caisson. It is common for the pump to be at
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Deterioration of Offshore Steel Structures
Bibliography
A Handbook for Underwater Inspectors
L K Porter
HMSO
Underwater Inspection
M Bayliss, D Short, M Bax
E & F N Spon
CHAPTER 5
Deterioration Of Offshore Concrete Structures
1. General Comments
This chapter looks at concrete as a building material suitable for offshore
structures. Following the format of Chapter 4 the various modes of deterioration
will be considered. Effects such as accidental damage, and fabrication defects
may occur with concrete in similar fashion to steel and generally the comments
made in Chapter 4 regarding these items apply. Otherwise this chapter will
concentrate on aspects of deterioration specific to concrete
2. Structural Deterioration
The format of illustrating types of failures by dividing the life of a structure into
four stages laid out in Chapter 4 will be continued in this chapter.
2.1. Stage One – Production Of The Raw Materials
The fabrication of concrete structures has the potential for producing several
defects included into what will become the concrete matrix surrounding the
reinforcement. A selection of possible manufacturing defects are laid out
below by way of illustration
2.1.1. Concrete
This is a composite material consisting of cement, fine aggregates and
coarse aggregates. The cement is the binding agent and contains the
reactive agents; therefore this will be examined first.
2.1.1.1. Portland Cement
This is the most popular and therefore most important of the cement binders
and the comments made here will be confined to this material. This type of
cement is made up of a mixture of about 75% limestone (CaCO3) and 25% clay,
which is principally aluminosilicate; it does have a significant iron and alkali-
oxide content. These raw materials are ground together and fed through a kiln
where various chemical reactions occur. The resultant constituents are laid out
in table 5.1
Table 5.1
Constituents Of Portland Cement
2.1.1.2. Mixing
When water is added to the cement hydration begins and two things
happen; the mix is transformed into a paste and heat is evolved in an
exothermic reaction
2.1.1.2.1. Setting
This is the first stage in the process of forming concrete into a
structural building material once the water is added to form the
paste it is called setting. The setting period is the length of time
the mix remains workable
The setting period will last for a few hours during which time heat
is evolved at a very high rate, reaching a maximum of
approximately 200Wkg-1 at about 30 seconds, and then falling to a
low value. During this period the compressive strength is barely
measurable
The pH value of the mixture also rises very rapidly during the first
minute after water is added, starting at about 7 going up to a
maximum of about 12.9 after about 3 hours and then settling to a
constant 12.6
Its pH number specifies the acidity or alkalinity of any aqueous solution.
This is a measure of the concentration of hydrogen ions present in the
solution. This is commonly written in shorthand form by using square
brackets [H+]. The pH number is defined by: -
pH = log10 1/[H+]
or
pH = -log10 1/[H+]
In these solutions at 298K (0oC) there is a fixed relationship between
[H+] and [OH-] which is: -
[H+] x [OH-] = 10-14 (mol l-1)2
or
log10 [H+] + log10 [OH-] = -14
Therefore in terms of pH
[H+] = 10-pH mol l-1
and
[OH-] = 10-(14-pH) mol l-1
Hence pH 1 is extremely acidic and pH 14 is extremely alkaline. Pure
water, which is neutral, has a pH value of 7.
There is a fuller explanation of the pH system in Chapter 6
2.1.1.2.2. Hardening
The next stage is hardening which begins when setting ends.
In the hardening period heat is again evolved reaching a peak of
about 1% of the initial exothermic maximum after about 10 hours.
The compressive strength increases during this period, the
process continuing over a number of years until it reaches its
maximum of some 50 MN m-2 after about 27 years.
During the hardening process silicon ions form together to form
polymers. This reaction is exothermic which goes some way to
explaining the heat output during hardening.
The sequence of events during the hydration process is thought to
be: -
On adding water to the cement there is an initial period of
about one minute of very rapid hydration, with C3S and C3A
being the main reactants. This is accompanied by a high
rate of heat evolution, silicate polymerisation and a rapid
increase in [OH-] which causes a similar rise in the pH
number
The reaction rate then slows dramatically as the surface
cement grains become coated with silicate and aluminate
gels. Concurrently the gypsum dissolves so that [Ca2+] and
[SO24-] both increase rapidly to a peak after about 2
minutes
This peak and subsequent fall is due to the formation of
ettringite which is a fine, needle-like crystal phase
The cement paste cohesion during the setting period is due
to gel-to-gel contact between adjoining grains. This is
increasingly aided by the formation of ettringite crystals
Gypsum
Controls the hydration rate of the Aluminate and is a constituent of
ettringite which contributes to setting.
2.1.1.3. The Importance Of Water
Water is an important constituent of concrete firstly because of the
hydration process but also because it materially affects the final
strength of the concrete. Pores form in the interstices between fibres
and between fibres and crystals and these invariably contain water.
This gel water constitutes some 15% by weight of the hydrated
cement. Combined chemically with the hydrated compounds in the
cement is a further 25% by weight, which means that some 40% by
weight of water is required for complete hydration. The pores are
basically responsible for the tensile strength of concrete being only
about 10% of its compressive strength. Excessive amount of water in
the initial mix have other effects on the final material.
Both compressive strength and stiffness decrease with increasing
water-cement ratio
The stiffness increases with increasing hardening time
The stress-strain curves are non-linear. The Young’s Modulus has no
unique value, which is the same as with polymers. This means that
either a secant or a tangent modulus is used
3. Concrete
Concrete is made by adding cement to aggregates and mixing them together to
form a versatile building material.
Composite materials normally display material characteristics that are better
that the characteristics of the individual constituents. With concrete the
composite can be considered in two ways:
Either the aggregates toughen the cement paste by introducing
numerous weak interfaces into the material
Or the cement paste provides the means of binding together the
aggregates into a low cost useful material
The actuality lies between the two.
3.1. Aggregates
In a concrete mix the aggregate consists of a mixture of sand, with a mean
particle size of less than 2 mm, and crushed rock or gravel, with a mean
particle size greater than 2 mm. There must be sufficient cement paste to
bind these materials together and using graded aggregate that contains
particles of a range of sizes can in fact reduce this. The small particles fit
into the spaces between the large particles and the cement only has to flow
into any remaining spaces. In this case the usual ration of aggregate to
cement is about 5:1 and the typical proportion of sand to gravel is about 3:2.
The actual shape of the stones in the gravel affects the final mix. Stone
crushed from quarried stone will be angular and give a stronger but less
workable mix than stones from river gravel which are smooth and rounded
giving a more workable mix but with less strength.
3.1.1. Water Content
Water content is as important in the concrete mix as it is in cement
mixes. A mix containing 40% water by weight will be totally unworkable
but concrete with a high water: cement ratio will result in a lower strength
material than a similar mix made with a lower ratio water: cement. This is
because quite large pores can develop if compaction is inadequate. It
can be seen from this that the actual water content of any mix is very
important and must be high enough to allow the mix to be worked but at
the same time be low enough to allow the concrete to attain its full
strength.
One method of overcoming this problem is to use flow-enhancing
admixtures (plasticizers), which can keep the water: cement ration
low
4. Concrete As A Material
Concrete as a material can be compared to stone in that it can withstand
compressive loads very well indeed but it cannot withstand tensile loads. As a
building material then it is only safe to use it in situations where it is subjected to
compressive stresses only. Its big advantage over stone is that it can be cast on
site into almost any required shape.
5. Reinforced Concrete
In order to exploit concrete as a building material to its full potential steel
reinforcement bars, made from mild steel, which has been heavily cold-worked,
are combined with it. This reinforcement may be assembled into quite complex
shapes on site prior to the concrete being poured. Shuttering is then used to
retain the required shape while the concrete is setting. The complex
reinforcement is the result of having to resist stresses other than, for example,
the main tensile stresses due to bending. See Figure 5.2
Figure 5.2
Placement Of Reinforcement
To Counteract Crack Formation
5.1. Reinforcement Design Philosophy
A point to note in reinforced concrete structures is that if full advantage is to be
taken of the high strength of the steel reinforcement that surface of a beam, for
example, which is under tensile stress is allowed to crack. This allows the
steel to carry all the tensile forces. This also explains the placement of the
reinforcement in Figure 5.2, which is positioned close to the surface that is
under the tensile load.
This leads to one problem with reinforced concrete, which is that the concrete
on the tension side is cracked which means that it is doing no work and
therefore represents a weight penalty on the structure. Additionally vibrations
and environmental forces can cause the cracks to open and close repeatedly
which leads to gradual deterioration and crumbling of the concrete and may
expose the reinforcement to corrosion
6. Pre-stressing
A way to overcome the problem of cracking is to ensure the entire structure is
kept in compression. This is known as prestressing.
There are two techniques prestressing and post-stressing. In both cases high-
tensile steel wires with a tensile strength of 1500 to
1800 MN m2 are employed to apply compression.
The technique can be applied in a factory environment in the
manufacture of standard prestressed components that can be
transported to the site
Or the method can be applied on site. In this case the technique is
post-tensioning and the cables are laid through ducts deliberately
left empty for the purpose. The cable is then tensioned up and the
duct filled with grout under pressure. Figure 5.3 refers.
Figure 5.3
Diagram Of A Prestressed Beam
7. Production Problems
The forgoing will serve to introduce concrete as a material and a selection of
possible production problems will serve to illustrate what may go wrong at the
manufacturing stage.
Too much water in the mix can result in a loss of both compressive
strength and stiffness and by creating large pores within the matrix it may
promote in-service cracking
A reaction between the alkalis in the cement and susceptible, mainly
siliceous materials, in the aggregates is a possibility. This expansive
reaction is known as alkali/aggregate reaction (AAR). The process is
quite slow taking a number of years to develop. The symptoms in the
latter stages are cracking and spalling. This is not a problem on offshore
structures as the quality of manufacture was and is high. There have
been no reports of this defect on any offshore concrete structure to date
Exudation is a viscous, gel-like material, which can form a deposit on the
surface of the concrete. As this is associated as a symptom of AAR it is
unlikely to be seen on offshore structures as indicated above and the
Figure 5.4
Honeycombing
Efflorescence
This is the deposit of salts, usually white, coming out from the concrete
mass. It may indicate a reaction between the constituents of the cement and
the water used for mixing. Underwater these deposits may well be dissolved
Inadequate cover over reinforcement
The recommended minimum cover of concrete over reinforcement in very
severe conditions, such as surfaces exposed to seawater is
60 mm as stated in CP 110. If the cover is inadequate the reinforcement
may corrode which will be manifest by rust stains
9. Stage Three Installation
Concrete structures are commonly built from the base up using a continuous
slip forming technique in a dry dock. When the construction reaches a
predetermined level the dock is flooded and the structure then floats while work
continues. The structure is then towed to position already upright. It is then
ballasted down by controlled flooding of tanks built into the base. Stresses are
thus minimised and the main consideration with this type of structure is its
stability during the tow. This limits the towing speed and weather perimeters
that can be tolerated.
10. Stage Four In-Service
The major categories of defects that could cause concern in concrete structures
are outlined below.
10.1. In-Service Defect Categories That Affect Concrete Structures
Concrete can deteriorate because of either chemical or physical
deterioration. Because concrete is permeable to various ions it is susceptible
to chemical attack. Physical damage is possible externally and possibly
internally, should the reinforcement corrode, for example it would cause the
concrete surrounding it to crack.
10.1.1. Deterioration Caused By Chemical Attack
It is unlikely that any significant deterioration will occur in concrete of the
quality that is normally specified for offshore structures. Never the less,
deterioration may occur in concrete that has not been properly
compacted or because of environmental pollution.
10.1.1.1. Sulphate Attack
The Tricalcium aluminate, C3A, in the cement can react with
magnesium sulphate, which is present in concentrations of about
0.5% in seawater. The reaction is expansive which will lead to
cracking but the presence of chlorides inhibits the degree of
expansion. The net result is softening and disruption of the concrete
in the form of solution and crumbling.
Sulphate-resisting Portland cement (SRPC) is a form of Portland
cement low in C3A content and the use of this type will minimise the
risk of this problem occurring. This type of cement has a higher
content of Tetracalcium aluminoferrite, C4AF, than other Portland
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Figure 5.5
The Concentration Of Chloride Ions
In Concrete Plotted Against pH
10.1.1.3. Carbonation
Carbon dioxide is present in the air and can attack the concrete
directly. It has the effect of destroying the normal passivity of the
concrete coating over the reinforcement, thus leading to
reinforcement corrosion. The permeation is generally limited to a
penetration of approximately 50 mm, which will take many years to
accomplish. Figure 5.6 refers
Figure 5.6
Depth Of Carbonation Layer
Plotted Against Time
CP 110 recommends 60 mm cover over the reinforcement for
concrete exposed to very severe conditions. To illustrate the
likelihood of carbonation being a problem in the normal course of
events it is possible to apply:
x = √Dt
hence
t = x2/D
where t = time in years
x = depth of penetration
D = Diffusivity of CO2
-13 2 -1
(Taken as 1.4 x 10 m s )
thus (where x = 60 mm as being the recommended minimum cover)
t = (60 x 10-2)2/1.4 x 10-13 x 60 x 60 x 24 x 365 = 815 years
In the normal course of events than 815 years would elapse before
the steel starts to corrode because of carbonation! While this is not a
realistic situation, potentially any cracks could radically reduce this
time by providing a path for the carbonation, it gives an indication that
carbonation is normally a slow process.
It has been found, however that in cracks less than 0.3 mm wide
CaCo3 precipitates from the cement and acts as a seal. A further
point to note here is that offshore structures are of a prestressed
design and are therefore unlikely to crack.
Figure 5.7
Pourbaix Diagram For
Steel In Concrete
If the passivation is destroyed for any reason the reinforcement will
corrode. This is an expansive reaction, which leads to cracking and
then spalling of the concrete accompanied by rust staining. Once the
cracks are wider than 3 mm or spalling has occurred seawater will
come in contact with the steel and corrosion may proceed more
quickly.
The first signs of this type of corrosion are rust staining and cracking
following the line of the reinforcement.
It almost goes without saying that the inter-tidal zone is the area most
at risk due to the high oxygen concentration along with the possible
increase in chloride ion concentration.
By contrast the submerged part of the structure is less at risk mainly
because the oxygen content in seawater is low.
10.1.1.5. Corrosion Of Built-in Components
This form of deterioration is perhaps more likely than reinforcement
corrosion. There are a number of different types of steel components
cast into the structure such as riser clamp supports, steel skirts and
towing eyes. Should any of this steelwork be in contact with the
internal reinforcement the exposed steelwork acts as an active anode
and the reinforcement becomes the cathode, as shown in
Figure 5.8.
Figure 5.8
Corrosion Of Cast-in Items
10.1.1.6. Cracking
It is generally accepted that all concrete structures will contain cracks;
indeed this is a design philosophy in reinforced structures. As detailed
above these cracks can be caused by: -
Overloading
As in the case on the tensile face of a reinforced beam
Shrinkage
Figure 5.9
Medium and Wide Cracks
Figure 5.10
Wide Crack with Rust Staining
Pattern Cracking
A series of fine interlocking cracks over an area. Caused by either surface
shrinkage or expansion of the sub-surface matrix
There are a number of other common concrete defects that have not been
mentioned earlier but do have standard terms as listed below.
Spalling
This is the loss of material from the surface of the concrete. It is usually
conically shaped and is caused by either an impact or by pressure from within.
It may well be associated with reinforcement corrosion in which case it will
probably follow the line of the reinforcement and in this case it will not have the
typical conical shape, see Figure 5.11
Figure 5.11
Spalling
Delamination
This is the loss of a large sheet of surface material that exposes the coarse
aggregates. Caused by the build-up of internal pressure over a large area,
Figure 5.12
Figure 5.12
Delamination
Disintegration
This involves the general breakdown of the matrix with numerous small
fragments breaking away from the surface. This is a very serious problem
caused by internal chemical reactions, such as AAR that causes the concrete to
become soft. It is a most uncommon problem and there are no instances of it on
offshore structures to date
Scaling
A local or general flaking or peeling away of the surface layer, occasionally
there is some loss of aggregate particles. Weathering or chemical reactions
between the concrete and the environment may be the cause of this defect.
Even if scaling is present it will only become a problem if it becomes very
progressive provided there is adequate cover over the reinforcement in the first
case. As this defect is associated with poor quality control it should be unlikely
to be found on platforms
Pop out
This appears as small roughly 10 to 50 mm diameter, conically shaped
fragments breakaway from the surface. This defect is similar in appearance to
spalling but the fragments are smaller. The cause is internal pressure and may
be caused by excessive water in the mix. This defect is again unlikely given the
QC applied to offshore platforms see Figure 5.13
Figure 5.13
Pop out
Erosion
This is long-term deterioration caused by abrasive action. The abrasive particles
may be air or water-born and it may become evident on platforms in the inter-
tidal region later in the life of the structure. This is a long-term problem most
unlikely to cause any concern until several years have passed
Stains
The most serious stain on concrete surfaces is rust staining. This may be the
early sign of reinforcement corrosion and therefore all such stains must be
reported. It is possible that subsequent investigation and document checks will
show stains to be benign as there are a number of causes that are of no
structural significance
Reinforcement may have been included to withstand construction
stresses and subsequently is un-important
Mesh reinforcement that is not structurally significant could possibly
corrode and would then look cosmetically poor but once again be of no
real significance
In any case the rule is to report and allow the responsible engineers
make the judgement. See Figure 5.11.
In Artic waters freeze/thaw damage is quite possible. The repeated freezing and
thawing of moisture in the porous concrete surface in the splash zone causes
high stresses in these pores due to water expansion during freezing. This in
turn causes small fissures which then fill with water on the next annual cycle
and so on
Marine organisms that bore into the concrete have seriously attacked concrete
structures in tropical water. The organisms involved seem to have an affinity for
limestone and include:
Boring worms
Mussels and
Sponges
The boring sponge Cliona and the boring mussel Lithophaga are both known to
do considerable damage. The sponge confining its activities to the outer
surfaces and the mussel penetrates deeply into the interior where it fashions
ovoid cavities
Probably the most destructive mussel is the species Lithophaga
antillarum that can grow up to 10 cm in length and 2 cm in diameter. This
species is common in tropical waters world wide
There are several other marine organisms that also bore into concrete such as:
Gastrochaena which is a bi-valve mollusc
Upogebial which is a burrowing mud shrimp
There are also other creatures that make their homes in concrete.
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Tuition Notes for 3.4U Course
Deterioration of Offshore Concrete Structures
This problem has been known for a number of years in the Persian Gulf and the
current method of dealing with it is to fit a cladding to the concrete surface to try
to prevent access to the marine organisms in the first place thus preventing the
problem.
As a resume Table 5.14 is laid out to summarise the in-service types of defects
mentioned so far in this chapter.
Table 5.14
Possible In-service Defects in Concrete
12. Additional In-service Defects
The Offshore Technology Report OTH 84 206 was produced in 1984 as
currently remains the most comprehensive document for classification of
defects on offshore structures. Apart from the defects already mentioned there
are a number that are defined in this publication an extract of which, showing
Bibliography
A Handbook for Underwater Inspectors
L K Porter
HMSO
Underwater Inspection
M Bayliss, D Short, M Bax
E & F N Spon
Materials
The Open University
CHAPTER 6
Marine Growth
1. Introduction
Once any structure is placed into the sea marine growth will colonise it. This
build-up will have two effects:
First
The profile area of any component presented to the water flow will be
increased. This will increase the force on the structure overall.
Second
Marine growth will change the texture of the surface from a smooth, round steel
or painted surface, to a surface made much rougher by the presence of the
marine growth on it. This roughness will increase with time as the surface
becomes more irregular due to parts of the dead marine growth sloughing off.
The effect or this is to increase the drag coefficient. Both these effects increase
the force on the structure. Information on the types and amounts of marine
growth build-up is required to confirm or modify the design-predicted loads on
the structure. Figures 6.1 and 6.2 refer.
Figure 6.1
Flow conditions Around
A Cylinder
These two effects of marine growth will have a knock-on effect with the
structure that will manifest itself
By producing an increase in mass without any significant change in
stiffness. This causes a reduction in the structure’s natural frequency
By increasing the added mass of water and the drag forces on the
structure. Marine growth being most abundant at and just below the
water level coincides with the zone of maximum wave and water force.
So the forces on the structure are increased in the region of maximum
water force
By affecting the corrosion rate, either by accelerating or retarding it
By reducing the effective area of the service inlets and outlets, hence
reducing system efficiency
By obscuring the important features on the structure, such as diver
orientation marks, valve handles anodes and similar objects
By making inspection impossible before cleaning
These effects give marine growth such an importance that it is necessary to
examine the problem in a little more detail.
2. Types of Marine Growth
From the engineering standpoint there are two main categories of fouling; soft
and hard.
Those organisms that have a density approximately the same as
seawater cause soft fouling. They are important because of their bulk,
but are generally easy to remove
Organisms causing hard fouling are much denser and more firmly
attached to the structure and therefore are more difficult to remove
These organisms will colonise the structure at different rates and at different
depths dependant on the natural propensity of the particular species. Some
guidance is available to designers as indicated in Table 6.3. Using this and
other data designers can predict the most propitious time of the year to launch
and install a structure.
Hard Fouling
Mussels Jul – Oct 25 mm in1 yr 100 150 –200 mm 0 to –30 m But faster growth rates are
found on installations in
50 mm in 3 yr the North Sea
75 mm in 7 yr
Solitary May – Aug 30 mm (L) in 3 50 to 70 About 10 mm 0 to mud line Coverage is often 100%
tubeworms mths (tubeworms especially on new
lay flat on the structures 1 to 2 years
steel surface) after installation.
Tubeworms also remain
as a hard, background
layer when dead
Soft Fouling
Hydroids Apr – Oct 50 mm in 3 100 Summer 30 – 0 to mud line A permanent hydroid ‘turf’
mths 70 mm may cover an installation
and obscure the surface
Winter 20 – for many years
30 mm
Plumose Jun – Jul 50 mm in 1 yr 100 300 mm -30 to –120 m Usually settle 4 to 5 years
after installation and can
then cover surface very
rapidly. Live for up to 50
years
Soft coral Jan – Mar 50 mm in 1 yr 100 About -30 to –120 m Often found in association
200 mm with anemones
Seaweed Fouling
Kelp Feb – Apr 2 m in 3 yrs 60 to 80 Variable up to -3 to –15 m May be several years
6 m long before colonisation begins
but tenacious holdfast
when established. Present
on some installation in
Northern and Central
North Sea
Table 6.3
Typical Distribution Of Marine Growth
In The North Sea
(Extract from “Offshore Installations: Guidance on design,
construction and certification” Forth edition – 1990)
2.1. Soft Fouling
Organisms in this group include
Algae
This is often referred to as slime and is generally the first organism to inhabit
an offshore structure. As it is very light sensitive, it is seldom observed in
any quantity below 20 m (76 feet). This is a very large family of organisms
and even includes kelp, thus is goes from the very small to the very large.
Bacteria
This, like algae, will be amongst the first inhabitants of an offshore structure
and will be present in depths will in excess of 1000m (3333 feet)
Sponges
These are often found as a fouling species on offshore platforms and are
present at depths greater that 1000m (3333 feet)
Figure 6.4
Different Species Of Sponges
Sea Squirts
These are soft-bodied animals and sometimes grow in large colonies
Figure 6.5
Different Species Of Sea Squirts
Hydroids
These grow in colonies and from their appearance can be mistaken for
seaweed, but they are in fact animals related to sea anemone. The colonies
can produce dense coverage to depths of 1000m (3333 feet)
Figure 6.6
Close Up Photograph Of
A Hydroid
Figure 6.7
Different Species Of Hydroids
Seaweeds
There are many types of seaweed that attach themselves to underwater
structures, but of these, kelp produces the longest fronds, which in the North
Sea, grow up to 6m (20 feet) in length under favourable conditions
Figure 6.8
Green Seaweed (Left) Bladder Wrack (Ascophyllum) (Right)
Figure 6.9
Kelp
Holdfast (Centre)
Laminaria Digitalis (Left) Laminaria (Right)Bryozoa
This has a moss-like appearance, and is really an animal with tentacles
Figure 6.10
Different Species Of Bryozoa
Anemones
These are sometimes called anthozoans, which means ‘flowering animals’.
The cylindrical body is surmounted by a radical pattern of tentacles and
looks a bit like broccoli. It attaches itself to the structure by a basal disc, and
this attachment is so firm that attempts to remove it often result in tearing the
body of the anemone. The colours and shapes are extremely variable even
within the same species
Figure 6.11
Anemones
Dead Men’s Fingers (Alcyonium Digitalum)
Colonies have been observed on pier piles, rocks on the foreshore and
offshore structures. These colonies often grow to 150 mm (6 inches) in
length. When submerged, many small polyps arise from the finger-shaped,
fleshy main body, each polyp having eight feathery tentacles. It is white to
yellow or pink to orange in colour, but when out of the water it is flesh
coloured and the similarity to the human hand gives it its common name
Figure 6.12
Dead Men’s Fingers
Figure 6.13
Barnacles
Mussels
The main species is Mytilus edulis. The hard-shelled mollusc attaches itself to
the structure by byssal threads at the hinge of the shell. These thread
attachments are very strong and mussels generally form dense colonies. Main
colonisation is to depths of 20m (67 feet), but mussels are found to depths of
about 50m (164 feet)
Figure 6.14
Blue Mussels (Mytilus edulis)
Tubeworms
The full title for this species is calcareous serpulid tubeworm. This often forms
on flat surfaces. It is white in colour, very firmly attached to the surface of the
metal and difficult to remove. It also grows in colonies and these have been
known to fill a warm water outlet, arranging themselves parallel to the flow to
obtain maximum nutriments. Power cleaning is required to remove this growth,
so firmly is it attached. Although the main growth occurs to depths of 50m (164
feet), tubeworms are found to depths of 100m (328 feet)
Figure 6.15
Tubeworm
3. Factors Affecting The Rate Of Marine Growth
If no steps are taken to prevent growth, such as application of an anti-fouling
solution or paint, the formation of bacterial slime occurs in two to three weeks.
As indicated in Table 6.3 marine growth can mature very rapidly with barnacles
and soft fouling having been known to attach themselves and reach maturity on
three to six months. It generally takes two seasons for mussel colonies to
develop. Often on top of the dead earlier fouling. The type of organism, its
development and growth rate will depend on several factors, including the
following.
3.1. Depth
Figure 6. 4 gives a generally accepted diagrammatic representation of the
combined effects of weight and volume on the various types of marine
fouling in British waters. This should be read in conjunction with Table 6.3,
which contains information more specific to the design function. The diagram
shows clearly that the most weight is added in the vicinity of the surface
which is the region of highest water-induced loading The total column in the
diagram is not the sum of the others, but an estimate of a balanced colony.
Note that the long lengths of seaweed have not been included.
Increase in depth reduces light intensity, which therefore reduces the ability
of organisms such as algae to photosynthesise. Algae therefore gradually
disappear with depth and there is also a change in species to red algae at
the greater depths. Algae growth at depths below 30m (98 feet) has been
observed in the North Sea due mainly to the clarity of the water.
Figure 6.4
Diagrammatic representation Of The
Distribution Of Marine Growth With Depth
3.2. Temperature
In general, a rise in water temperature will increase the growth rate of a
colony. The growth rate approximately doubles with a 10o C rise in
temperature. There will of course be a limit and most organisms cease
growth at 30o – 35o C. As the temperature variation is greatest near the
surface, there is seasonal growth in the marine colonies near the surface,
and continuous, slower growth as the depth increases.
3.3. Water Current
The speed at which the water flows over the surface plays an important part
in the type of fouling colony that develops. There are two aspects to
consider, the first being that of the larvae attaching themselves to the
structure.
It is suggested that at speeds greater than 1 knot, many larvae are unable to
attach themselves. However, once attached, most fouling can withstand
water currents of more than 6 knots. At high water velocities, weakly
attached fouling is removed leaving only the firmly attached hard fouling.
Also, colonies growing on dead or dying fouling become loose and may be
sloughed off. The larvae can attach themselves to structures during slack
flow periods, on in localised spots of slower flow or dead water, such as
crevices and locations between hard fouling
The second aspect to consider is that in general, once the organism is
established, a strong current brings more food and growth is accelerated
3.4. Salinity
In nearly fresh water, fouling is usually confined to algae slime. As the
salinity increases, so the amount and type of fouling increases. First
hydroids and barnacles and finally mussels occur. The normal salinity of
seawater is about 3% - 3.5% and the size of mussels, for example,
increases five-fold from a salinity of 0.6% to 3.5%.
3.5. Food Supply
Growth of the fouling is obviously dependent on the quantity of nutriment
available. Growth rates seem to be faster in coastal waters then those a few
miles offshore where the water is deeper. Investigations suggest that the
slow currents that circulate around platforms become enriched with
nutriments from sewage and other waste that will increase the growth rate.
3.6. Cathodic Protection
There are two types of corrosion protection widely used on North Sea
structures (see Chapter 5) On those that use sacrificial anodes, the patterns
of marine growth on the structures themselves seem normal, but the anodes
generally remain clear of growth. The other system, which uses an
impressed current to cancel the corrosion-induced ionic currents between
the structure and the sea, suggests, on a limited amount of evidence, that
the marine growth rate is increased. Currently the mechanism that
encourages an increased growth rate in not understood, more data is
required before the observations of increased growth can be confirmed.
Bibliography
Underwater Inspection
Mel Bayliss
David Short
Mary Bax
E & F N Spon
ISBN 0-419-13540-5
A Handbook For Underwater Inspectors
L K Porter
HMSO
OTI 88 539
Structural Materials
The Open University
Butterworth’s
ISBN 0408 04658 9
CHAPTER 7
Corrosion
1. Energy Considerations In Corrosion
With time most materials react with their environment to change their structure.
The reaction in metals is called corrosion, in polymers (plastics) degradation
and in concrete weathering.
Corrosion in metals is defined as the chemical or electrochemical reaction
between a metal and its environment, which leads to one of three
consequences:
The removal of the metal
The formation of an oxide
The formation of another chemical compound
This change in the metal will be expected if the thermodynamics (energy state)
of the system is considered.
The FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS states:
Energy can neither be created nor destroyed
As a direct consequence of this Law when spontaneous changes occur they
must follow a rule, which is:
Whenever a spontaneous change occurs it must release free energy from the
system to the surrounding at constant temperature and pressure
Which is a way of stating the SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS. When
corrosion occurs naturally it releases free energy, as it is a spontaneous
process.
Take the case of a metal such as iron or aluminium as an example; both are
fund in nature as ores which, when analysed, are found to be a chemical
compound including oxygen and carbon amongst other elements. This
necessitates the extraction of the metal itself from the other elements before it
can be used in fabrication. The process whereby the metal is extracted requires
either the smelting of the ore or an electrolysis process. The final metal
produced is therefore at a higher energy level than the ore from which it was
extracted i.e. energy is added to the system.
One of the fundamental laws of equilibrium is that all systems try to reduce their
energy level to a minimum. This is why water runs downhill thus reducing its
potential energy level as it flows. In similar fashion metals tend to reduce their
energy and therefore the rule imposed by the second Law. Thus free energy is
released.
There are numerous forms of energy but the energy causing corrosion is
chemical energy that is utilised to form lower energy chemical compounds, like
the metal oxide, which resemble the original ore. Because steel (iron alloys of
Figure 7.1
Changes In Energy Levels Of
A Typical Metal Extracted From Ore
2. The Corrosion Process
Knowing there is a driving force for the process it is necessary to consider the
mechanism by which corrosion can take place.
Firstly a reminder of the basic structure of the atom will assist in the
understanding to the topic. In its simplest form an atom is a positive nucleus
surrounded by negatively charged electrons. Figure 7.2 shows a simplified
diagram of the structure of an atom that is adequate for the purposes of this
discussion.
Figure 7.2
Simple Structure Of An Atom
The overall charge on the atom is zero and an atom is so composed that the
negative charge of the electrons is equal to the positive charge of the nucleus.
However, electrons can be added to or taken from the group that surrounds
each atom. When this happens, the overall charge on the atom is no longer
zero. This condition of the atom is called ‘ionic’.
Thus if the atom loses an electron it becomes a positive ion, which
means that the atom now has a positive charge. This may be referred to
as a cation.
If the atom gains an electron it becomes a negative ion and now has a
negative charge. This may be referred to as an anion.
The first step in the corrosion process is that metal atoms change their state
from being metallic (that is no charge on the atom) to being ionic (that is having
a charge on the atom) by losing at least one electron from the outer shell.
The process of corrosion then goes on at the atomic level, each atom losing
one or more (usually no more than 3) electrons to become an ion.
2.1. The Anodic Reaction
The reaction in which the metal is changed from its metallic state into its
ionic state is known as an anodic reaction that is part of an overall reaction
involving the metal and other species present in the environment. This
process is also called oxidation. The overall reaction may be summarised by
a chemical equation thus:
M Mz+ + ze-
Z may be 1, 2 or 3. Higher values are possible but rare. Reaction such as
those indicated by this equation that produce electrons are known as
oxidation Figure 7.3 illustrates this anodic reaction diagrammatically.
Figure 7.3
Anodic Reaction
The site at which it takes place is the anode, which is positive using
conventional notation. The anodic reaction for iron releases two electrons.
This is shown diagrammatically in Figure 7.4, which represents a free rusting
iron surface immersed in seawater.
Figure 7.4
Anodic Sites On Surface Of
Iron Exposed To Seawater
This is one part of the reaction in electrochemical corrosion that takes place
in the presence of an electrolyte that is often water or a water-based solution
of ionic compounds such as acids, bases or salts. The metal ion passes into
solution and the electron passes through the metal that is not actually being
corroded, that is, an electric current flows as indicated in Figure 7.4
2.2. The Cathodic Reaction
These ‘free’ electrons formed in the anode reaction must be ‘used up’ if the
reaction is to proceed. This part of the reaction in the electrochemical
corrosion process therefore takes place at the site where the free electrons
are neutralised and is known as the cathodic reaction. Alternatively reactions
such as this that consume electrons are also known as reduction reactions.
A part reaction is illustrated in Figure 7.5
Figure 7.5
Cathodic Reaction
Typically a complete reaction is for the free electrons to be taken up by
positive ions and atoms of oxygen in the electrolyte. This gives the oxygen a
negative charge. Oxygen, however, readily accepts the free electrons
because for its electron stability it needs eight electrons in its outer valence
shell yet occurs naturally with only 6. Figure 6.6 refers.
Figure 7.6
Cathode Reaction
Free electrons move through the metal cathode to its surface where
negative ions form and subsequently emit free electrons into the electrolyte
where they combine with elements creating different compounds. The site of
this reaction is known as the cathode, which conventionally is negative.
The actual reduction reaction at the cathode will vary according to the
composition of the electrolyte. Some common frequent recurring reactions in
metallic corrosion are:
Hydrogen evolution 2H+ + 2e H2
+
Oxygen reduction (acid solutions) O2 + 4H + 4e 2H2O
Oxygen reduction (neutral or basic
solutions) O2 + 2H2O + 4e 4OH-
Metal ion reduction M3+ + e M2+
Hydrogen evolution is a common reaction when the electrolyte is acidic
while oxygen reduction is very common since any aqueous solution in
contact with air is capable of producing this reaction. It is, of course, the
reaction encountered in seawater. Metal ion reduction is less common and is
normally found in chemical process streams. The common denominator with
all these reactions is that they consume electrons and this is the most
important point to note.
2.3. Seawater Corrosion
These partial reactions are included here because they can be used to
interpret virtually all corrosion problems. For example, consider iron in
seawater; corrosion occurs.
The anodic reaction is: Fe Fe2+ + 2e
The seawater contains dissolved oxygen and therefore: -
The cathodic reaction is: O2 + 2H2O + 4e 4OH-
The effective overall reaction can be found by adding these two equations
thus:
2Fe + 2H2O + O2 2Fe2+ + 4OH- 2Fe(OH) 2
This is ferrous hydroxide precipitate from solution. This compound is
unstable in oxygenated solutions and it oxidises to ferric salt:
2Fe(OH) 2 + H2O + ½ O2 2Fe(OH) 3
This final product is the familiar rust.
2.4. Electrochemical Aspects Of Corrosion
A fundamental definition for corrosion is:
CORROSION IS THE DEGRADATION OF A METAL BY AN
ELECTROCHEMICAL REACTION WITH ITS ENVIRONMENT
For corrosion to take place four criterions must apply:
There must be an anode. This normally corrodes by loss of electrons
Figure 7.7
Corrosion Circuit
As this is an electrochemical reaction and the chemistry has been touched
on already a few basic electrical definitions will round off this section.
3. Electrical Theory
Electricity is the passage of electrons between two defined points. This normally
occurs through a metal wire connecting the two points and is called a current.
Electricity can also pass through suitable aqueous solutions, but the electrical
charge is then carried by ions.
The amount of charge carried by an electron is known and when a given
electron flow is passed at a constant rate it is measured in amperes and is
given the symbol I.
In the MKS system one ampere is defined as that constant current which, if
maintained in each of two infinitely long straight parallel wires of negligible
cross-section placed 1 m apart, in a vacuum, will produce between the wires a
force of 2 x 10-7 Newtons per m length
The driving force causing this current to flow is the potential difference between
two points and is measured in volts, which has the symbol V.
Figure 7.8
Conventional and Electron Flow
Bibliography
A Handbook for Underwater Inspectors
L K Porter
HMSO
Underwater Inspection
M Bayliss, D Short, M Bax
E & F N Spon
Corrosion For Students Of Science And Engineering
K R Trethewey & J Chamberlain
Longman Scientific & Technical
CHAPTER 8
Types of Corrosion
1. Corrosion Cells
Corrosion cells, using the corrosion process outlined in Chapter 7, can be set
up by many different means, but they all operate because there is some
dissimilarity between the anode and the cathode, such as:
Dissimilar metals
Dissimilar phases in the grains of the metal
Dissimilar energy levels between the grain and the grain boundary of
the metal
Dissimilar ion concentrations
Dissimilar oxygen concentrations
1.1. Dissimilar Metal Corrosion Cell
It is found that when dissimilar metals are placed in the same fluid
(electrolyte) a potential difference (voltage) exists between them.
This can be demonstrated easily by placing two rods of different metals in
water and connecting a voltmeter between them. The voltmeter measures a
voltage and a current flows from the anode to the cathode via the outside
connection.
The cell acts as a very basic, low powered battery and in battery terms the
anode is the negative and the cathode the positive. Electrons flow from the
negative terminal to the positive terminal in the external circuit. Figure 7.7
refers.
It is possible to determine which of the two metals will be the cathode and
which the anode by reference to an Electrochemical Force Series.
1.1.1. The Electrochemical Force Series
Under standard conditions, where the electrolyte is dilute sulphuric acid
at a temperature of 25oC, the potential of various metals is measured
and given in a table known as the Electrochemical Force Series, or
Electromotive Series, (see Table 7.9). From the table, it will be seen that
any metal will be anodic to any metal higher in the table and cathodic to
any metal lower in the series. It must be remembered, however, that the
table only applies under the standard conditions stated.
Table 7.9
Electrochemical Force Series
Similar tables are produced for metals under actual conditions and these
are called Galvanic Series. Table 7.10 give the series for seawater. The
same rule applies to the Galvanic Series as for the foregoing table, i.e.
metals found higher in the series are cathodic to any metal below them.
For example, zinc is lower in the series than mild steel; therefore, if zinc
Issue 1.0 Rev 0
Issue date: 1 April 2006
Page 181 of 532
Tuition Notes for 3.4U Course
Types of Corrosion
Nickel (Passive)
Silicon Bronze
Copper
Red Brass
Aluminium Bronze
Admiralty Brass
Yellow Brass
Nickel (Active)
Manganese Bronze
Tin
Lead
Cast Iron
Wrought Iron
Mild Steel
Aluminium 24S-T
Aluminium 17S-T
Aluminium A17S-T
Cadmium
Alcad
Aluminium 52S-T
Aluminium 52Sh
Galvanised Iron
Zinc
Magnesium Alloys
Magnesium
Table 7.11
Galvanic Series In Seawater
Figure 7.12
Crevice Corrosion
3. Pitting
Pitting is localised corrosion that selectively attacks areas of a metal surface.
The point of initiation may be:
A compositional heterogeneity such as an inclusion or segregate of
precipitate
A surface scratch or any similar blemish in an otherwise perfect film
Or it may be an emerging dislocation or a slip step caused by applied or
residual tensile stresses.
All metals have crystal lattice structures but these are never defect free. All
metals contain imperfections in their lattice structures, and these are known as
defects, these may occur in a number of ways:
Vacancies This is where there is an atom missing from the lattice site
Substitutional Defects This is where a foreign atom occupies a lattice site
that would have been occupied by a host atom
Interstitial Defects This is where an atom occupies a site that is not a normal
lattice site and it is squeezed in between atoms of the host lattice. The
interstitial atom may be either a host atom or a foreign atom. Figure 7.13 refers
Figure 7.13
Point Defects In A
Crystal Lattice
These point defects are very significant in the theory of alloying where they
cause a significant improvement in mechanical properties of metals. They also
play a role in some corrosion mechanisms, notably hydrogen embrittlement,
selective attack, oxidation and hot corrosion, that all rely on the diffusion of
species through the metal lattice
Another type of defect occurs within the grain structure when planes of atoms
are not perfectly fitted into the lattice. These are known as line defects. An
example of this type of defect is the dislocation and two specific examples of
this type of dislocation are:
Edge Dislocations
This is where an “unfinished” plane of atoms is present between two other
planes. Figure 7.14a refers
Screw Dislocations
This is where a plane is skewed to give it a different alignment to its immediate
neighbour. Figure 7.14b refers
Figure 7.14
Edge Dislocation (b) Screw Dislocation
Corrosion pits once formed propagate in the same way as crevice corrosion; it
is the initiation phase that is different. In the case of corrosion pits the initiation
is dependant on metallurgical factors alone.
Now consider the case of a water drop laying on the surface of a sheet of clean
mild steel
The corrosion process initiates uniformly on the surface of the steel under the
water. This consumes oxygen by the normal cathode reaction in what is a
neutral solution at this stage
This causes an oxygen gradient to form within the water drop. It is obvious that
the wetted area around the water/air interface has more oxygen diffusion from
the air that the centre of the drop
This concentration gradient anodically polarises the central region, which
dissolves
The hydroxyl ions generated in the centre of the drop at the cathode diffuse
inwards and react with iron ions diffusing outwards, causing the deposition of
insoluble corrosion product around the depression, or pit
This further retards the diffusion of oxygen, accelerates the anodic process in
the centre of the drop and causes the reaction to be autocatalytic. Figure 7.15
refers
Figure 7.15
The Mechanism Of Pitting Because Of
Differential-aeration Beneath A Water Drop
As the process continues the corrosion products accumulate over the pit and its
immediate surroundings, forming a scab or tubercle and isolating the
environment within the pit from the bulk electrolyte. It is thought that the
autocatalytic process is assisted by an increased concentration of chloride ions
within the pit. This type of corrosion would be possible in the splash zone of a
structure if it were not protected with a coating such as paint
One of the most damaging environments for producing pitting and crevice
corrosion in one of high chloride ion content. The resistance of alloys to these
forms of corrosion in seawater has been ranked and is laid out in Table 7.16
Table 7.16
The Relative Crevice Corrosion Resistance
Of Metals And Alloys In Quiet Seawater
It can be seen from Table 7.16 that mild steel has moderate resistance to
crevice corrosion. However, some caution should be exercised when referring
to this table, as there is a good deal of conflicting evidence about material
susceptibility.
4. Inter-granular Corrosion
Intergranular corrosion occurs between the grain boundaries because of
precipitates in these regions. This is primarily because grain boundaries are the
preferred sites for the precipitation and segregation processes which occur in
many alloys. These intrusions are of two types:
Figure 7.17
Corrosion In Two Phase Metal
In the Galvanic Series the α phase is below the β phase and will therefore
corrode
Figure 7.18
Grain Boundary Corrosion
Weld decay or preferential corrosion is an example of this type of decay. In this
case the boundary is the fusion boundary that forms along the toe of the weld
and is a region of higher energy. This region becomes the anode and corrosion
sets in, often giving quite significant visual indications of its presence. Figure
7.19 refers
Figure 7.19
Weld Decay Or Preferential Corrosion
INTERGRANULAR CORROSION
Corrosion dominated (solution Carbon steels in NO-3 solutions Intergranular fracture
requirements highly specific) along pre-existing paths
BRITTLE FRACTURE
Table 7.20
The Stress Corrosion Spectrum
(After Parkins)
For this cracking to occur there must be tensile stress, which may be applied
directly during the working life of the structure, or it may be present as a
consequence of the installation or fabrication process
In general alloys are more susceptible than pure metals although copper is one
known exception
A particular metal may crack in the presence of a relatively few chemical
species that may be present in small concentrations
In the absence of stress the alloy is usually inert to the same environment that
would otherwise cause cracking
Even with particularly ductile materials stress corrosion cracks have the
appearance of a brittle fracture
It is usually possible to determine a threshold stress below which stress
corrosion cracking does not occur.
7. Fretting Corrosion
Fretting describes corrosion occurring at contact areas between materials under
load subjected to vibration and slip. In appearance it shows pits and groves in
the metal surrounded by corrosion products.
It has been observed in a number of different components in machinery and in
bolted parts. In essence this is a form of erosion corrosion that occurs in the
atmosphere rather than under aqueous conditions.
Fretting corrosion is very detrimental due to the destruction of metallic
components and the production of oxide debris. This leads to loss of tolerance
and may result in fatigue fracture due to the excessive strain caused by the
extra movement and the pits acting as stress raisers. A classic case on land of
fretting occurs at bolted tie plates on railroad tracks.
The basic requirements for the occurrence of fretting corrosion are: -
The interface must be under load
Vibration or repeated relative motion between the interface must be sufficient to
produce slip or deformation on the surfaces
The load and relative motion of the interface must be sufficient to produce slip
or deformation on the surfaces
The relative motion need only be as little as 10-10 m but it must be cyclic in
nature and does not occur between surfaces in continuous motion. There are
two theories proposed for fretting corrosion; wear-oxidation and oxidation-wear
both of which are shown schematically in Figures 7.21 and 7.22
Figure 7.21
Schematic Illustration Of The
Wear-oxidation Theory Of
Fretting Corrosion
The wear-oxidation mechanism is based on the concept that cold welding or
fusion occurs at the interface between metal surfaces under pressure and,
during the subsequent relative motion, these contact points are ruptured and
fragments of metal are removed.
These fragments, because of their small diameter and the heat due to friction
are immediately oxidized. This process is repeated resulting in the loss of metal
and accumulation of oxide residue.
Figure 7.22
Schematic Illustration Of The
Oxidation-wear Theory Of
Fretting Corrosion
The oxidation-wear concept is based on the hypothesis that most metal
surfaces are protected from atmospheric oxidation by a thin, adherent oxide
layer.
When metals are placed in contact under load and subjected to repeated
relative motion, the oxide layer is ruptured at high points and results in oxide
debris. It is assumed that the exposed metal re-oxidizes and the process is
repeated.
Fretting corrosion could occur in the metal adjacent to clamps and collars of
risers, conductors and caissons if there is the slightest movement underneath
them. See Figure 7.23.
Figure 7.23
Possible Fretting Corrosion
Between Riser And Riser Clamp
8. Erosion Corrosion
This is a self-explanatory name for a form of corrosion that results from a metal
being attacked because of the relative motion between an electrolyte and a
metal surface. Examples of this type of corrosion are attributable to mechanical
effects, such as, wear, abrasion and scouring.
Soft metals such as, copper, brass, pure aluminium and lead are particularly
vulnerable.
Two main forms of erosion corrosion are:
Corrosion associated with laminar flow
Damage caused by impingement in turbulent conditions
A laminar flow will cause several effects:
The ionic distribution in the double layer is carried away by the flow and
equilibrium cannot be established which leads to an increased rate of
dissolution
Where the increased flow replenishes aggressive ions such as chloride
and sulphide this has a detrimental effect and corrosion rates increase
If the flow contains any solid particles protective layers may be scoured
away causing excessive corrosion
Figure 7.24
Effects Of Flow In Pipes
9. Corrosion Fatigue
There are many similarities between corrosion fatigue and stress corrosion
cracking but the most significant difference is that corrosion fatigue is extremely
non-specific.
As detailed in Chapter 4 fatigue affects all metals causing failure at stress levels
well below the UTS.
In aqueous environments it is frequently found that a metal’s fatigue resistance
is reduced, or even that it no longer has a fatigue limit.
Summarising the stages in the development of a fatigue crack as discussed in
Chapter 4 yields: -
Firstly the formation of slip bands
Next the nucleation of an embryo crack in the order of 10 µm long
Then the extension of this crack along favourable paths
Finally macroscopic, 0.1 to 1 mm, crack propagation in a direction at
right angles to the maximum principal stress that leads to failure
Corrosion fatigue can occur in any of the three corrosion states indicated by the
Pourbaix diagram as shown in Figure 7.2, it can also occur at stress levels
much lower than those for stress corrosion cracking (SCC). It is also true that
while SCC growth rates are independent of the stress intensity factor during
much of the crack growth, fatigue crack growth is always affected by it. Figure
7.25 illustrates this point.
Figure 7.25
General Characteristics Of Corrosion Fatigue Curves
There is some evidence that offshore structures behave in the way indicated by
the stress corrosion fatigue graph indicated in Figure 7.25, although the actual
effect may well be attributable to hydrogen embrittlement.
It is thought that the use of cathodic protection systems that place the metal in
the immune state and over time cause calcareous deposits to form that tend to
inhibit crack growth ensure that the structures are resistant to corrosion fatigue.
10. Biological Corrosion
Corrosion by marine biological action can be initiated in various ways:
By the production of corrosive substances like hydrogen sulphide or
ammonia, which result in direct chemical attack on the metal
By producing or actually being a catalyst in the corrosive action
By the reaction of sulphate-reducing bacteria (SRBs) under anaerobic
conditions
o The most important of these are the bacteria Sporovibrio
desulfuricans. These thrive in the reduced oxygen conditions
created under heavy accumulations of marine growth, under thick
deposits of corrosion products, or under mud
o There are indications that because oxygen is unable to diffuse
through the heavy marine growth the effect of this organism is to
take the place of oxygen in the usual cathodic reaction
By the formation of concentration cells around and under the organisms
Bibliography
Underwater Inspection
M Bayliss, D Short, M Bax
E & F N Spon
Corrosion For Students Of Science And Engineering
K R Trethewey & J Chamberlain
Longman Scientific & Technical
CHAPTER 9
Factors Affecting Corrosion Rates
1. Polarisation And Corrosion Rate
When a metal is exposed to an aqueous solution containing ions of that metal,
both oxidation of metal atoms to ions and reduction of metal ions to atoms occur
on its surface according to the formula: -
Men+ + ne- Me
This means that there are two reactions involving the flow of electrons and the
rate at which these reactions occur can be given by two current densities.
The necessity for using current density as a measurement of corrosion currents
can be demonstrated by considering two pieces of metal; one say, of 10 mm2,
the other of 1 mm2 and suppose they both corrode such that the current flow is
10 electrons per second. The smaller piece will obviously corrode 10 times
faster than the larger piece. Thus the surface area of the corroding metal must
be taken into account when measuring current.
The units of currents density are Am-2 (amps per square meter)
The corrosion rate and the current density are directly related; which makes
the topic quite important when considering the long-term deterioration of metals
in aqueous solution
These two current densities can be indicated as forward and reverse reaction
currents thus: -
i and i and at equilibrium (Eo) i = i = io and io is known
as the exchange current density.
The electrode potential and the equilibrium potential can then be calculated
according to the Nernst equation: -
E = Eo + 0.0001983 ּ T ּ log10 ּ αMn+
η
Figure 7.26
Concentration Polarization (The Double Layer)
The initial polarization at the anode produces a surfeit of positive cations that in
turn causes a non-homogeneous distribution of ions with the most densely
populated layer nearest to the electrode being the Helmholtz and the second
more diffuse being the Guoy-Chapman. In this layer the potential changes
exponentially. This distribution is commonly referred to as the double layer
Activation Polarization Caused by a retardation of the electrode reaction.
The polarization of an anode is always positive and that of a cathode always
negative. Figure 7.27 refers
Figure 7. 27
Anodic And Cathodic
Polarization Curves
It is the usual case in corrosion that two, or even more electrode reactions can
take place simultaneously at an electrode site; for example the cathode and
anode reactions will commonly occur in this way. In this case the anode and
cathode current densities are alike and the electrode shows a mixed potential
(Emix), which is equivalent to the point of intersection between the anodic and
cathodic over-potential curves. Figure 7.28 refers.
Figure 7.28
Over-potential Curves For Two Electrode
Reactions Occurring Simultaneously At An Electrode Site
As stated earlier activation polarization is directly proportional to the current
density. However, this is only true for low polarization values (>30 – 50 mV).
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Chapter 9
Above this level there is a linear relationship between activation polarization and
the logarithm of the current density, which is given by the Tafel equation.
η = a + b log10 i
Polarization curves are therefore drawn as a rule as a function of log10 so that
straight lines are produced; such plots are often called Tafel lines.
Later in these notes the monitoring of corrosion in a seawater environment will
be discussed and reference will be made there to measuring both potential and
current density
2. Environmental Factors Affecting Corrosion Rates
As indicated in paragraph 5 the corrosion rate is predictable within certain
parameters and corrosion engineers work this out when designing a protection
system. There are however, environmental factors that effect the overall
corrosion reaction and these will be indicated here. Specifically the factors
considered will be:
Temperature
Water Flow Rate
The pH of the Water
2.1. Temperature
Most chemical reactions are speeded up by an increase in temperature.
Thus temperature cycling and temperature differences will also have this
effect.
Hot risers, exhaust and cooling water dumps are all sites that can and do
corrode more quickly than the remainder of typical offshore structures.
Studies undertaken by the Dow Chemical Company showed that the
corrosion rate of mild steel and a selected low alloy steel, in a standard brine
solution at a pH of 7.4, approximately doubled as the temperature was
increased from 180o F (82o C) to 250o F (121o C).
Therefore, components like cooling water outlets and hot risers are
particularly susceptible to corrosion and must be inspected regularly.
The effect of seawater temperature is illustrated by the graph in Figure 7.29.
Figure 7.29
The Effect Of Temperature On
Corrosion Of Steel In Seawater
2.2. Water Flow Rate
In general if the flow rate is increased the rate at which metal is removed is also
increased.
If there is impingement of the flow on the metal or aeration takes place in the
region of the surface, then a very much larger rate of metal removal is
experienced locally. The pitting of ships propellers and pump and dredger
impellers are general examples of this.
Tests carried out by P Ffield show how the corrosion of steel pipes carrying
seawater is effected in a straightforward way by increasing the velocity of the
flow. Figure 7.30 illustrates his findings.
Figure 7.30
Effect Of Seawater Velocity On Corrosion
Of Steel At Ambient Temperature Exposed 38 Days
2.3. The pH Value Of The Water
The corrosion rate of metals in directly affected by the pH value of the
electrolyte. Steel for example corrodes least when in a solution that has a
pH between 11 and 12. A resume of the pH system is laid out below. The
resume starts by considering water, which is neutral.
Water is a neutral molecule in which two atoms of hydrogen combine with
one of oxygen, there is a limited amount of dissociation into hydrogen ions
and hydroxyl ions in the normal course of events and this can be noted in
the form of an equilibrium thus: -
H2O H+ + OH-
The Law of Mass Action can be applied to this equilibrium process and
assuming the concentration of water in dilute solution is constant given
Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP) a new equation for water can be
written thus: -
[H+] . [OH-] = constant (I)
This constant has been measured experimentally as 10-14 (STP) and this
value and the relationship equation form the basis of a scale of acidity.
All acids have one common property that is the presence in aqueous
solution of the hydrogen ion.
The opposite of acid is alkali or basic, which means that acids are
neutralised by alkalis and that alkalinity, is associated with hydroxyl ions.
Water as indicated by the equilibrium equation represents a neutral
substance as it contains both acid, (H+) and alkali (OH-) in equal quantities.
Issue 1.0 Rev 0
Issue date: 1 April 2006
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Tuition Notes for 3.4U Course
Factors Affecting Corrosion Rates
Figure 7.31
pH Scale
Bibliography
Underwater Inspection
M Bayliss, D Short, M Bax
E & F N Spon
Corrosion For Students Of Science And Engineering
K R Trethewey & J Chamberlain
Longman Scientific & Technical
CHAPTER 10
Corrosion Protection
1. Corrosion Protection
There are numerous methods for preventing corrosion including, coatings,
inhibitors (controlling the electrolyte), selective design, anodic protection and
cathodic protection. Before considering these methods a brief examination of
the way in which the corrosion process is influenced by the two main variables;
the electrode potential and the pH value will assist in understanding the various
protection methods.
These data are often presented in diagrammatic form known as Pourbaix
diagrams. These diagrams are obtained from laboratory tests carried out under
controlled conditions of constant temperature and no flow.
Figure 10.1
Pourbaix Diagram For
Iron In Water
It can be seen from Figure 10.1 that there are three distinct possible states of
corrosion depending on electrode potentials and pH values: -
Figure 10.2
Variation Of Cathodic Potential With
Current Density For Steel In Seawater
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Chapter 10
Figure 10.3
Sacrificial Anode Cathodic Protection
The anode must be picked from the appropriate galvanic series. The most
appropriate metals are zinc, aluminium and magnesium. Table 10.4
indicates some additional parameters for these anode materials.
Sacrificial Anodes
Table 10.4
Some Properties Of Anode Metals
This method of corrosion protection is almost as straightforward as that. The
main question, which is implied by Table 10.4, is how much anode material
will be required?
This question has two parts:
How large a surface area must the anodes protect?
How long will the protection last?
These form a strongly adherent film that reduces the current requirement
and may reduce environment-sensitive cracking.
3. Advantages And Disadvantages Of Sacrificial Anode Systems
The advantages and disadvantages of sacrificial anode systems are
summarised in Table 10.5
Table 10.4
Advantages and Disadvantages of Sacrificial Anodes
4. Cathodic Protection: Impressed Current Method
An Impressed Current Cathodic Protection (ICCP) system works on the same
principal as the sacrificial system in that the structure is made to be the
cathode. However in the case of the ICCP system the necessary potential and
current flow is provided by a DC generator rather than by a galvanic coupling.
This system can be made to be self-adjusting by incorporating reference
electrodes into the circuit that measure potential. The potential can vary
depending on the circumstances; if the structure has a coating initially that in
subsequent service becomes damaged this will increase the exposed surface
area needing to be protected. The control unit can deal with this by increasing
the current density. If on the other hand there were a reduction in the surface
area; as for instance a calcareous deposit building up, there would be less
surface area exposed and the current requirement would be less.
In both cases the reference electrode provides the means of monitoring the
potential, which varies proportionally according to the current. Figure 10.5
shows the system diagrammatically.
Figure 10.5
The Principle Of Impressed Current
Cathodic Protection Using A Potentiostat
The anode material is selected from the top of the galvanic series not the
bottom. Materials such as titanium, platinised niobium and lead/silver alloys are
used. The anode and supply cables are insulated from the structure to prevent
any of the problems associated with over-protection.
Noble metals, virtually non-consumable anodes, can be used in this system
because in electrolytes of pH 7 or less the anode reaction is the oxidation of
water, rather than metal dissolution: -
2H2O O2 + 4H+ + 4e-
In electrolytes of pH values greater than 7 (alkaline solutions) the reaction is the
oxidation of hydroxyl ions: -
4OH- O2 + 2H2O + 4e-
In seawater the reaction is usually oxidation of chloride ions to chloride gas: -
2Cl- Cl2 + 2e-
Table 10.6 lists some properties of impressed current anode materials.
When designing the system should the corrosion engineers have any doubts
about protecting any particular area of the structure sacrificial anodes may
be installed to work in conjunction with the ICCP system
The ICCP system installed on the Claymore platform was designed to
provide 160 mA m-2 utilising 55 platinum-iridium anodes and 12 reference
electrodes. Also the Murchison platform uses 100 anodes and 50 reference
electrodes. In general in the North Sea the most common anode materials
are Platinum sheathed Titanium and Lead/Silver alloys.
It is vitally important that the power supply is connected with correct polarity.
The negative terminal must be connected to the structure and the
positive terminal must be connected to the anode. Should these
connections be reversed the structure would corrode catastrophically.
Figures 10.7 and 10.8 refer.
Figure 10.7
Diagrammatic Layout Of An
Impressed Current Cathodic Protection System
Figure 10.8
Impressed Current Cathodic Protection
Distribution Of Anodes And Dielectric Shield
As indicated above the actual distribution of the anodes on any structure
may be either: -
Platform Based
Here numerous anodes are attached to the structure at intervals around
it in similar fashion to sacrificial anodes but ensuring that they are
insulated from the structure. Figure 10.8 refers.
Two problems are associated with this method. One is the possibility of
‘shadow’ areas where inadequate protection is provided. This problem
can be solved by the use of sacrificial anodes complementing the ICCP
system as indicated earlier. The second problem is the possibility of
current flowing directly from the anode to the adjacent structure. This
could cause embrittlement as discussed earlier and to avoid this
dielectric shields are employed to insulate the structure electrically. Also
the current is limited by design because each anode is positioned to
provide adequate protection for the local area only. This limits as well the
possibility of embrittlement and coating damage. See Figure 10.8
There is also a diver safety consideration in that these anodes are at
about 80 V potential with some 1000A current. If divers are employed
adjacent to any of the anodes they should be isolated from the system
Remote From The Structure
A number of anodes may be placed on the seabed at a designated
distance from the structure.
This method avoids the possibility of current flowing directly from the
anode to the adjacent structure but there being fewer anodes the current
density is higher and therefore there is still a possibility of coating
damage and embrittlement.
As discussed earlier design considerations generally favour more anodes
distributed around the structure.
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Chapter 10
There is a safety issue with divers but as the anodes are some distance
away from the structure is may be possible to ensure safety by imposing
a 12 m (40 ft) exclusion zone around the anode. See Figure 10.9
Figure 10.9
Diagram Of ICCP System
With Anodes Remote From Structure
4.2. Reference or Control Electrodes
These electrodes are commonly zinc, silver/silver-chloride (Ag/AgCl) or
(SCC) or copper/copper-sulphate (CSE). CSE is favoured in applications
with reinforced concrete.
Reference or control electrodes are vital components of any ICCP system.
They determine the current required from the power source, without these
items the system cannot provide a quantifiable degree of protection. Figure
10.10 refers.
Figure 10.10
Zinc Reference Electrode Installed
On An Offshore Structure
5. Using Coatings To Protect The Structure
Coatings form a barrier between the electrolyte and the surface of the protected
structure. They may be paints, organic films, varnishes, metal coatings or
enamels and even sheathing. It is surprising how effective coatings can be
when consideration is given to the thickness of a typical paint coat. This may be
only in the order of 25 to 100 microns thick for some applications.
5.1. Paints
When paint is applied to a metal surface it presents a barrier to air, moisture
and ions aggressive to the metal. However, paint cannot provide a complete
barrier to oxygen or water. In time these will penetrate through to the surface
of the metal. Any paint system used underwater must have a strong bond
onto the metal surface and therefore high quality metal surface preparation
is required such as SA 3. The bonding between successive coats must also
be strong and the topcoats must provide as impervious a barrier to the
electrolyte as is possible. This last is achieved by ensuring the constituents
making up the topcoats have very low water absorption and transmission
coefficients.
Coal Tar Epoxides are used extensively on offshore structures. They
consist of coal tar and epoxide resin for the binder. These coatings
are highly impermeable to water and resistant to attack by most
chemicals and hydroxyl ions (that are be produced by the cathodic
reaction)
Figure 10.11
Galvanising
Spray coats utilise a specialised torch that is fed with wires of the coating
metal that are melted and blown out by it. The molten metal is expressed in
the form of droplets travelling at 100 to 150 m s-1 that flatten and adhere on
impact with the component
Cladding uses metal skins laminated onto the component. The skin can be
applied by
Rolling
Explosive welding
Figure 10.12
Monel Cladding On
An Offshore Riser
Diffusion requires the component to be heated to just below the
melting point of the coating metal in the presence of the coating in
powder form and in an inert atmosphere. The component is allowed
to ‘baste’ for several hours and the coating diffuses into the surface of
the component.
6. Inhibitors (Controlling The Electrolyte)
Remember the Pourbaix diagram indicates three methods for preventing
corrosion: -
Making the electrode more positive
Making the electrode more negative
Changing the electrolyte pH
This section will outline methods for changing the electrolyte.
Also remember there are four processes in metal corrosion: -
The anodic reaction
Figure 10.13
Anodic Inhibitor
6.2. Cathodic Inhibitors
Cathodic inhibitors affect both normal reactions
In one effect the inhibitor reacts with hydroxyl ions to precipitate
insoluble compounds on the cathodic site thus blanketing the cathode
from the electrolyte and preventing access of oxygen to the site.
In the other reaction increasing the polarisation of the system controls
the evolution of hydrogen. This forms a layer of adsorbed hydrogen
on the surface of the cathode. This type of inhibitor may allow
Bibliography
Underwater Inspection
M Bayliss, D Short, M Bax
E & F N Spon
Corrosion For Students Of Science And Engineering
K R Trethewey & J Chamberlain
Longman Scientific & Technical
CHAPTER 11
Corrosion Protection Monitoring
1. Monitoring Corrosion Protection
It has been indicated several times during this discussion on corrosion that
there are variables presented in-service that cannot be adequately predicted.
Therefore a monitoring regime is necessary to ensure that the designed
corrosion protection system is operating to its design specifications and that
there are no in-service effects interfering with this.
The amount of current from sacrificial anodes or from an impressed current
system required for protection varies:
From metal to metal
With the geometry of the structure
With differences in sea water environment (temperature, pH value etc.)
With any other factors that affects the resistance of the circuit
Since the amount for current required for protection of any structure cannot be
accurately predicted or distributed evenly through the structure, the method of
checking for adequate protection is to measure the potential and current density
of the structure at various places.
2. Inspection Requirements
Monitoring or inspection requirements for corrosion protection systems are
therefore as follows: -
Visual inspections of the anode (both sacrificial and impressed current
nodes) for wear
Visual inspection of electrical connections of the sacrificial system to see
that it is intact and of the impressed current system to ensure that there
are no breaks in the insulation of the supply cables
Potential measurements on the structure to confirm that it is still the
cathode by confirming the readings obtained are in the immunity range of
the Pourbaix diagram
Current density measurements to confirm that the impressed current
system is providing adequate protection
Visual and ultrasonic inspection for corrosion damage including pitting
and loss of wall thickness
The specific visual inspection requirements are detailed in Chapter 12 Visual
inspection. The ultrasonic requirements are covered in Chapter 14
The potential measurements, usually referred to as Cathode Potential (CP)
readings are obtained by:
Taking contact readings with a CP meter
Figure 11.1
High Purity Zinc Electrode (ZRE)
Figure 11.2
Diver-held CP Meter
(Bathycorrometer or similar)
Figure 11.3
Contact CP Reading Taken By An ROV
Figure 11.4
Proximity CP Measurement
4. Current Density Measurements
Current density may be measured using a specialised probe and may be
conducted by either a diver or, more usually an ROV. This type of inspection
would be undertaken for a specific purpose such as investigating a particular
area of the structure that was suspected of being under-protected or following
up a visual inspection that had identified more corrosion than was anticipated.
Specific procedures will be provided for this type of survey.
Figure 11.5
Monitored Electrode
5. Calibration Procedures For Hand-held CP Meters
It is necessary to calibrate CP meters to ensure that the readings obtained are
accurate and comparable with other and previous readings. A standard method
of calibration has been adopted in the offshore industry for this purpose that is
detailed here.
5.1. Necessary Equipment
Three Calomel Electrodes complete with electrical connectors, or three
screw-on calomel cells for hand-held CP meters (these are available for the
Bathycorrometer and can be provided with screw in electrical connectors,
Figure 11.6
Proving Calomel Reference Cells
The second part of the procedure confirms the calibration of the CP meter.
5.1.1.2. Calibration Of The Meter
The calibration procedure for a contact CP meter is basically the
same whether it is diver hand-held or ROV deployed.
test meter. The cable must be properly insulated to avoid any possibility of
the copper conductor being exposed to seawater and affecting the readings.
Select a proven calomel cell and immerse the tip in a bucket of fresh
seawater for 30 minutes
Immerse the Ag/AgCl probe in the same bucket for the same time
Connect the negative terminal of the high resistance voltmeter to the
Ag/AgCl half-cell
Connect the positive terminal of the voltmeter to the calomel
electrode
Take the reading. Acceptable readings are 0 ± 10 mV
Remove the calomel electrode and immerse the zinc block (only)
positioned 100 mm from the Ag/AgCl half-cell. The zinc block is
connected to the positive terminal of the meter system via the clamp
and electrical connection
Take the reading. Acceptable readings are –1.00 V ± 5 mV
The procedure for calibrating an ROV proximity probe applies to a hand-held
probe.
7. Operating Procedures
To ensure that accuracy is maintained and that repeatable results are obtained
CP monitoring methods should follow a procedure as follows.
Ensure any self-contained meters are fully charged and maintain a battery-
charging log. (Usual requirements for battery-operated equipment is 14 to 16
hours from fully discharged)
Ensure the probe tip for contact meters is sharp (hand-held meters are usually
supplied with spare tips)
Soak meters and half-cells for a minimum of 30 minutes before use. (This
allows time for ion penetration through the semi-permeable membranes.)
Confirm the calibration of the system in use according to the appropriate
calibration procedure. Record the results on the appropriate log sheet
Record meter serial number and any other specified details on the appropriate
log sheet
Take a reference reading on zinc on the inspection site prior to starting the
survey
For each contact reading ensure that there is correct metal-to-metal contact
between the probe tip and the cathode surface.
With proximity probe surveys ensure there is a solid electrical connection to the
structure connected to the positive terminal of the surface instrument
For proximity probe readings ensure the standoff between the probe and the
cathode is correct
During the course of the survey ensure that each reading is correctly recorded
on the appropriate log
On completion of the survey take another reference reading on zinc
Recover the equipment, wash in fresh water, dry and store. Charge any battery-
operated equipment as necessary and complete the battery-charging log
Notes: Morgan-Berkley meters can be left soaking in a solution of silver
chloride, on trickle charge continuously if required
If a large number of readings are being taken it is prudent to take
check readings periodically during the survey
8. Normal Cathode Potential Readings Against Ag/AgCl
Following are the normal range of readings expected during a survey of a steel
structure
Over-protected structure >-1.10 V (>-1100 mV)
Zinc -1.00 to –1.05 V (-1000 to –1050 mV)
Protected Steel < -0.80 V (<-800 mV)
Unprotected Steel -0.45 to –0.65 V (-450 to –650 mV)
Calomel (K Cl) 0 to –0.01 V (0 to –10 mV)
Bibliography
Underwater Inspection
M Bayliss, D Short, M Bax
E & F N Spon
Corrosion For Students Of Science And Engineering
K R Trethewey & J Chamberlain
Longman Scientific & Technical
CHAPTER 12
Welding And Welding Defects
1. Joining Metal Components
In considering joining, forming or shaping metal components there are four
ways in which they can be formed into shape. By machining, when the material
is cut away; by casting, where the metal is moulded to shape in the first place;
by forging, where the material is worked into shape; and by fabricating, where
the component is built up a bit at a time from different parts.
The components that are inspected underwater are almost all formed by
fabrication. This being the case, a closer look at this process is in order.
Fabrication can be accomplished by mechanical fastenings, for example bolting
or riveting components together; by welding, where parts are joined together by
metallurgical bond; by brazing, where a metal of a different composition from
the pieces to be joined is melted between them to solidify and thus make a
bond (a stronger version of soldering); or by adhesive bonding, where parts are
glued together. The most important technique for consideration here is welding.
2. Fabricating Offshore Structures
Steel fabricated structures are used extensively offshore as has been indicated
in previous chapters. In fabricating the structures the designers choose to use
welding as the prime means of joining the various parts together. However, it is
extremely difficult indeed to guarantee that any particular weld is free from all
faults and because of this welds are constantly inspected to ensure they are not
about to fail. The knowledge of how the welding was achieved in the first place
is of great assistance when inspecting welded joints because all techniques
have certain faults that are common to that technique. It is therefore important
to have some knowledge of the main types of welding.
2.1. Welding Processes
Currently there are more than thirty-five different welding processes used in
industry. These different welding processes can be classified into seven
major groups. All processes within each group have similar characteristics
and thus similar effects on the parent metals. The seven groups are:
Solid phase welding
Thermo-chemical welding
Electric-resistance Welding
Unshielded arc welding
Radiant energy welding
Flux-shielded arc welding
Gas-shielded arc welding
Figure 12.1
Friction Welding
Diffusion welding This is where high temperatures are created for a
sufficient time to allow atomic diffusion across the joint
2.1.2. Thermo-chemical Welding
A gas flame generates sufficient heat to fuse the joint. Alternatively, an
exothermic reaction can be used, whereby super-heated molten metal is
produced. This is then poured into the joint. For example:
Figure 12.2
Spot Welding
Seam Welding The parts to be welded are run through a pair of
wheels; these replace the electrodes, but have the same effect
2.1.4. Unshielded Arc Welding
This type of welding produces an arc for only a very short period of time and the
contamination of the weld by the air is either accepted or rectified later. For
example:
Stud Welding Many different techniques are used here including the
fusible collar method, which involves the use of round studs. The stud and collar
are held against the work and a current is passed through; the collar collapses,
allowing the stud to drop into a molten pool
Figure 12.3
Stud Welding
2.1.5. Radiant Energy Welding
In this process the work and usually the heat source are in a vacuum.
The usual heat source is a stream of electrons and this type of welding
produces a deep, very narrow weld. For example:
Electron Beam Welding A high-energy beam of electrons is focused
onto the work piece. This beam is powerful enough to vaporise a hole
through the material and the keyhole thus formed is carried forward with
the work. The major disadvantages are that the work must be in a
vacuum and the cost of the necessary plant is very high
Laser Welding This process has only recently become available. It
works in a similar fashion to electron beam welding, but does not require
a vacuum. This process is highly specialised
From the point of view of offshore structures and underwater inspection,
the following welding processes are the most widely used
2.1.6. Flux Shielded Arc Welding
This is the most widely used of all the welding processes. An arc is
formed between a consumable electrode and the work, the heat thus
formed melts and fuses the joint together. The electrode provides the
filler metal and the flux is used to prevent contamination. For example:
Manual Metal Arc (MMA) Welding This is the most widely used
technique. In this process, heat to melt the work piece is supplied by an
electric arc; the electrode is covered by flux and melts down forming
small drops, which are transferred to the weld pool; the flux forms molten
slag that protects the weld together with protective gases formed at the
same time
Figure 12.4
Manual Metal Arc Welding
Common faults associated with MMA are:
Overlap
Porosity
Slag inclusion
Excessive spatter
Lack of fusion
Crater cracks
Arc strike
Incomplete penetration
Undercut
Excessive penetration
Submerged Arc Welding
This method applies the flux separately in the form of a powder. The
electrode is a continuous wire and is fed automatically. The arc and weld
pool are totally submerged under the flux powder
Figure 12.5
Submerged Arc Welding
Common faults associated with this method are:
Lack of fusion
Porosity
Weld profile anomalies
Excessive penetration
Incomplete penetration
Slag inclusion
Undercut
2.1.7. Gas Shielded Arc Welding
This method generates heat by an arc and the weld pool and arc are
both shielded by with an inert gas. The gas can be argon of helium,
which is common with the Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) process, or the gas
may have carbon dioxide or oxygen added, as with Metal Inert Gas
(MIG) welding. For example:
Metal Inert Gas or Metal Active Gas
In this process an arc is maintained between the end of a continuously
fed thin wire electrode and the work piece. The electric current is passed
into the wire through a copper contact tip near the end of the gun. The
arc melts the wire and the base metal and this molten and cooling metal
is protected from the atmosphere by a gas shield directed from a nozzle
concentric with the wire.
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Chapter 12
With the MIG process the gas shield is argon or helium or a mixture of
these inert gases and the process is widely used to weld, light alloys,
nickel and aluminium. With the MAG process, which is more frequently
used in steel, the gas shield is a mixture of Argon, CO2 and O2. Wire is
usually of the solid type but fluxed core wires are used when better
metallurgical properties are required in the joint. See Figure 12.6.
Figure 12.6
Metal Inert Gas Welding
Common faults associated with MIG are:
Porosity
Excessive spatter
Lack of fusion
Incomplete penetration
Excess penetration
Cracking
Arc strike
Undercut
Tungsten Inert Gas
In this process the arc is struck between a non-consumable tungsten
electrode and the weld. The high melting point of tungsten ensures that
no tungsten is melted into the weld pool. Filler metal in the form of a solid
wire is added separately into the weld pool as required. A gas shield
issuing from a nozzle concentric with the tungsten electrode shields the
tungsten filler rod, the arc and the weld metal from the atmosphere. The
gas shield is normally pure argon but helium or argon mixtures may be
used for specialist applications.
Figure 12.7
Tungsten Inert Gas
Common faults associated with TIG are:
Excessive penetration
Arc Strike
Burn though
Porosity
Lack of fusion
Tungsten inclusion
Incomplete penetration
Undercut
Oxide inclusions
3. Types of Welded Joint
There are approximately 110 different welded joint variations; however the vast
majority of these are not seen in the construction of offshore structures.
Therefore it is only necessary to have knowledge of only five types of joint.
3.1. The Butt Joint
The two components that make up this joint are fitted together end to end at
an angle of between 135o and 180o. This joint is used to join pipe sections
end to end, welding plates together and numerous other applications. See
Figure 12.8.
Figure 12.8
Butt Joint
3.2. ‘T’ Joint
The two components are fitted together at an angle of 5o to 90o. This
configuration is found on offshore jackets at nodes and in numerous other
areas. See Figure 12.9.
Figure 12.9
‘T’ Joint
3.3. Lap Joint
The two components are fitted one on top of the other. The angle between
them is 0o to 5o. See Figure 12.10.
Figure 12.10
Lap Joint
3.4. Corner Joint
The two components are connected at the ends to make a joint at an angle
between 30o and 135o. See Figure 12.11
Figure 12.11
Corner Joint
3.5. Cruciform Joint
A joint made by welding two components to a third at right angles, on the
same axis, on opposite sides of the third component to form the shape of a
cross. See Figure 12.12.
Figure 12.12
Cruciform Joint
4. Types of Weld
The two types of weld most frequently inspected on offshore structures are the
butt and the fillet.
A butt weld is defined as: -
“A tension resisting weld in which the bulk of the weld metal is contained within
the planes of thickness of the joined parent metals”.
A fillet weld is defined as: -
“The bulk of a fillet weld is contained outside the parent metal planes or
thickness”.
The fillet weld has less strength than the butt weld. See Figure 12.13
Figure 12.13
Types of Weld
Butt and Fillet Welds
As fillet welds are not used for structural joints that must withstand high stresses
the butt weld will be the type of weld most frequently inspected offshore. All
nodes including any Safety Critical Nodes on the structure will be constructed
with butt welds.
5. Welding Metallurgy
The welding processes outlined in paragraph 2 and the types of joint and types
of weld specified in paragraphs 3 and 4 are all designed for the purpose of
fixing components together safely for the entire duration of the design life of the
structure. In order that this prime aim may be achieved the mechanism by which
welding takes place must be understood. The prime factor in welding is
temperature. The various welding processes, types of weld and types of joint
are all designed so that the heat generated during the welding process can be
dissipated uniformly as the molten metal cools once the weld metal is
deposited. To form an appreciation of how this occurs consider Figure 12.14.
Figure 12.14
Temperature Variation in a Butt Weld
At point 1 within the molten weld pool, the temperature will be above the melting
point of the filler rod metal. The welding current and technique of the welder
determine this temperature. The main heat flow away from the weld pool will be
along the parent plate. Between point 1 and 2, the temperature must raise
above the parent metal melting temperature so that fusion (i.e. melting the
parent plate and mixing with the weld pool metal) occurs. This region (between
point 1 and 2) is known as the fusion zone and can be readily seen if a sample
of the weld is sectioned, polished and etched. The temperature then reduces
from point 2 to 3, which is a region of the parent metal that has sufficient heat
input to cause grain structure modification, known as the heat affected zone
(HAZ).
HAZ
One of the means of making a material softer (often called “annealing”) is
to heat it up and allow it to cool slowly. A common example of this is
copper pipes for domestic water systems that are softened in this way in
order to bend them to required shapes. To achieve this softening effect a
material has to be heated above its re-crystallisation temperature (Trecry).
Above this temperature, grains in the material will reform and grow.
In the diagram of the weld, Figure 12.14, this temperature is reached at point 3
so that the material between point 2 and 3 that has been raised above the re-
crystallisation temperature will be liable to a change of properties. This region
can also be seen on a polished and etched sample of the weld.
Figure 12.15
Weld Regions or Zones
This temperature management is as important for cooling as it is for heat
energy input into the weld. The cooling rate must be as controlled as the heat
flow during the actual welding. In general, fast cooling rates (often referred to as
“quenching”) make the material harder. In steel, this comes about by the
formation of a structure known as ‘martinsite’. Martinsitic steel has a grain
structure arranged in a regular lattice, which makes the steel hard and less
tough (i.e. less able to withstand crack propagation).
Note that if the cooling rate is not properly controlled and the material is allowed
to quench it has the opposite effect to annealing outlined above.
5.1. Further Considerations for Weld Control
While heat input and cooling rate control may be of paramount importance to
the finished quality of a weld there are several other factors that must also
be considered. Defects, for example porosity, often arise in welds due to gas
penetrating the weld pool protection. Gases that are likely to be present in
the weld are hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. These are derived from the
atmosphere, water, hydrocarbons (usually in the form of grease and oil) and
other oxides present in the vicinity of the weld because of a lack of care in
preparation to see that the weld area is clean and dry. These products get
into the arc and provide a supply of gas that can be dissolved in the liquid
metal of the weld pool. On cooling, the solubility of the dissolved gas in
metal reduces and the gas comes out of solution to form bubbles trapped in
the weld metal; or sometimes the gas diffuses into the parent metal.
Hydrogen diffusing into the HAZ will cause hydrogen embrittlement, which
may lead to cracking.
The different temperatures in the regions around the weld will cause
differential expansion. On cooling, if cracking does not immediately occur in
the weld or in the HAZ, the material is put under a permanent stress, unless
Single bevel butt weld a butt weld that has only one prepared face,
welded from one side only
Single V butt weld a butt weld in which the prepared faces will
form a V in section, welded from one side
only
Figure 12.16 refers
Figure 12.16
Standard Weld Terms for Plate Preparation
6.2. Terms Defining Weld Features
Cap, Face of the weld the visible face of the completed weld
Excess weld metal the weld metal lying outside the line joining
the weld toes
Toe of the weld the junction between the cap and the parent
plate
Root the point where the back of the weld
intersects the back face of the parent plate
Weld zone the area containing the weld and both heat
affected zones
Heat affected zone (HAZ) The part of the parent plate that has been
affected by heat from the welding process but
which has not melted
Throat thickness the total thickness of the weld metal
Figure 12.17
Weld Feature Terminology
6.3. Welding Process Terminology
Filler rod the filler metal for a weld in the form of a rod 440 mm long
used in MMA welding
Filler bead when the weld is made up of more than one pass of a filler
rod the successive passes are called filler beads
Run or pass the weld metal laid down in a single pass from a filler rod
Weldment an alternative term to describe the weld zone
Fusion zone the edge of the parent plate along the prepared face and
the root face along which the weld metal fuses with the
parent plate
Root bead weld bead laid into the root that protrudes beyond the back
wall of the parent plate
Figure 12.18 refers
Figure 12.18
Weld Process Terminology
6.4. Welded Nodes and Nozzles
Underwater in-service inspection of offshore oil platforms is almost
exclusively on pipe work and will involve inspection of pipe joints. These will
usually be nodes or nozzles.
Node a node is a T or cruciform joint between two pipes that only
has preparation on the minor member, a single bevel weld.
The minor tubular is called the brace and it is this member
that has the preparation. The major tubular is known as the
chord. In joints where both members are the same size the
through tubular is the chord.
Nozzle Both tubular members have preparation, which also means
that the chord has a hole to match the brace. This is a full
penetration butt-welded joint. This type of joint is commonly
found in pipelines and where fluid flow is required.
Figure 12.19 refers.
Figure 12.19
Nodes and Nozzles
7. Weld Defect Terminology
An inspector must be capable of not only recognising a fault in a weld but
subsequently be able to describe this fault accurately. In common with welding
terminology this aspect of welding also has internationally agreed and defined
terms. In this case the International Institute of Welding (IIW) and BS EN ISO
5817:2003 apply. In the same way that welding terms are defined in this
standard weld defect terminology is also defined. The different types of defect
are listed in 6 categories.
Cracks
Cavities
Solid inclusions
Lack of fusion and penetration
Imperfect shape
Miscellaneous
Only a certain number of these standard terms apply to defects that may be
found on the surface of the weld accessible to the underwater inspector but
knowledge of a representative sample of standard terms from all categories will
assist any inspector when reporting findings and conversing with other
engineers.
7.1. Cracks
These are linear discontinuities produced by fracture, cracks may be; -
Longitudinal
Transverse
Edge
Creature
Centreline
Fusion zone
Weld metal
Parent metal
Figure 12.20 and 12.21 refer.
Figure 12.20
Cracks
Figure 12.21
HAZ Cracking
7.2. Cavities
There are a number of flaws that are covered by this category.
Porosity gas pores that may be located in different locations
Elongated cavities a string of gas pores parallel to the weld axis
Shrinkage cavity a cavity cause by shrinkage of the weld metal
while it is in a plastic state
Wormhole an elongated or tubular cavity formed by gas
trapped during the solidification process, this
may have a herringbone appearance on a
radiograph
Crater a depression caused by shrinkage at the end
of a run if the heat is removed quickly
Crater pipe a hole in the centre of a crater again caused
by shrinkage
See Figure 12.22
Figure 12.22
Cavities
7.3. Solid Inclusions
These are volumetric defects that are caused by solids trapped in the weld
pool before it solidifies.
Inclusion slag or other foreign matter trapped during
welding, this has a more irregular shape than
a gas pore
Oxide inclusion metallic oxide trapped during welding
Tungsten inclusion tungsten inclusion from the tungsten
electrode used in TIG welding
Copper inclusion copper inclusion from the nozzle in MIG, MAG
or submerged arc welding caused by poor
welder control
Puckering oxide covering on the weld or bead that has
irregular surfaces and a deeply entrained
oxide film, which may occur when materials
that form refractory oxides are welded
See Figure 12.23
Figure 12.23
Slag Inclusions
7.4. Lack of Fusion and Penetration
Lack of fusion the weld metal has not bonded, this
can be either
Between weld metal and weld metal (lack of inter-run fusion)
Between weld metal and parent metal (lack of sidewall fusion)
Lack of sidewall fusion no union between the weld metal and
the parent plate
Lack of root fusion no bonding at the root of the weld joint
Lack of inter-run fusion no fusion between adjacent beads in a
multi-pass weld
Incomplete root penetration no weld metal extending into the root
of the weld
Figure 12.24 refers
Figure 12.24
Lack of Fusion and Penetration
7.5. Imperfect Shape
Excess weld metal weld metal lying outside the plane
joining the toes
Excess penetration excess weld metal protruding through
the root
Root concavity a shallow grove in the root
Incompletely filled grove a grove caused by insufficient weld
metal being laid onto the cap
Undercut a grove in the toe of the weld where
parent plate is gouged due to the
welding current
Overlap weld metal spilled over from the cap
onto the parent plate outside the line of
the toe that has not fused with the
parent metal
Burn through a collapse in the weld pool caused by
excessive penetration resulting in a
hole in the weld
Unequal leg length (not a standard term but internationally
understood), describing different leg
lengths on a fillet weld, usually a T joint
Figure 12.25
Imperfect shape
7.6. Miscellaneous
Stray flash, or arc strike burn marks on the parent metal caused
by striking arcs with the welding rod off
the line of the weld
Excessive dressing grinding away too much weld metal
and leaving the weld below the depth
of the parent plate
Grinding mark groves or marks on the parent plate
caused by poorly controlled grinding or
surfacing tools
Tool mark marks indented into the parent plate
caused by chipping hammers or similar
hand tools
Figure 12.26
Miscellaneous Defects
8. Defect Categories and Reporting
Internal weld defects are categorised broadly into two types: -
Planar Defects: These have a large surface area but small volume such as
cracks and laminations. They are essentially 2 dimensional.
Volumetric Defects: Inclusions, porosity and other internal flaws that
have a large volume compared to surface area are in this category. They are 3
dimensional and will also include undercut and lack of penetration. This
category of defect is caused during fabrication, not in-service, while planar
defects may be caused by in-service deterioration.
8.1. Reporting Defects in Welds
As diver inspectors are concerned with in-service inspections volumetric
defects will seldom be identified as they are usually caused during
Figure 12.27
Welding Institute Gauge
Measuring Various Weld Parameters
8.2.2. Welding Institute Leg Length Gauge
This gauge is specially designed for measuring T joint leg length as
indicated in Figure 12.28
Figure 12.28
Welding Institute
Leg Length Gauge
Bibliography
Underwater Inspection
Mel Bayliss
David Short
Mary Bax
Principles of welding technology
L M Gourd
CHAPTER 13
Ultrasonic Inspection
1. Ultrasonic Inspection
Ultrasonic inspection is based on the behaviour of an ultrasonic sound wave as
it passes through the material under inspection. The ultrasonic wave is a stress
pulse travelling at the speed of sound within the material under test. Such a
wave travels in straight lines and will be partially reflected from any interface in
its path. Measurements of the time interval between the transmitted wave and
the reflected wave will give information about the length of the wave’s path
through the material. From this information the thickness of materials can be
measured and the presence of flaws can be detected. For offshore applications
this NDT method is used regularly for corrosion monitoring and occasionally for
weld inspection.
2. Producing Ultrasound
Ultrasonic testing depends on the manner in which sound waves pass through
the material under test. Ultrasonic sound waves are used because it has been
determined that at frequencies in this part of the frequency spectrum sound
waves travel furthest with the minimum loss of energy. Thus the greatest
penetration into solid materials is achieved by this selection. Table 13.1 refers.
2.1. What Is Ultrasonic?
Ultrasound is sound waves at a frequency beyond the range of human
hearing. The frequency spectrum at Figure 13.1 refers.
FREQUENCY SPECTRUM
Velocity of a wave = Frequency x wavelength (f x λ) Speed of sound in air = 330 m sec-1
Speed of light in a vacuum = 3 x 108 m sec-1
10
21
Cosmic radiation
22
10
23
10
Table 13.1
The Frequency Spectrum
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Ultrasonic Inspection
The time for one cycle is known as the periodic time (P) and is measured in
seconds. Therefore: -
Figure 13.2
Graph of a Signal with a Frequency of 1 Hertz (Hz)
Considering a sound wave it can be compared with Figure 13.2 in that as
the sound wave train passes through a material it propagates a stress front
that causes the atoms within the crystal lattice structure of the material to be
alternatively tensely and compressively stressed and relaxed.
Figure 13.3
The Stress Variation with Time at a
Point in a Solid Subjected To Ultrasonic Impulse
from an Ultrasonic Transducer
The frequency of the signal shown in Figure 13.3 may be calculated thus: -
The periodic time (the time taken for one cycle) is calculated hence: -
It is not usual to include all the zeros with the numbers related to frequency.
Normally the writing is reduced by the use of prefixes thus: -
Figure 13.5
Longitudinal or Compression Wave
2.4.1.2. Shear or Transverse Waves
Shear or transverse waves are denoted by the symbol T. Thus VT is
the velocity of propagation of these waves. The direction of oscillation
of the atoms in this mode of travel is at right angles to the direction of
motion of the propagating wave. Figure 13.6 refers.
Figure 13.6
Transverse or Shear Wave
Figure 13.7
Diagrammatic Representation of the Movement of the
Atoms as a Shear Wave Passes through the Material
If Figure 13.7 is compared with Figure 13.5 it may be seen that both
diagrams represent the wave at a given instant in time. The main
difference is in the movement of the atoms. Whereas in the
compression wave the atoms are compressed and ‘pulled apart’ in
the direction that the wave is moving, the shear wave atoms are
displaced pass each other – that is sheared.
2.4.2. Surface Waves
Of the three types of surface wave used in ultrasonic testing none have
uses in underwater inspection.
Raleigh Waves
The Raleigh Wave is the main type of surface wave. These waves travel
only on the surface of the material. The atomic motion of the wave is
elliptical, with the major axis of the ellipse perpendicular to the surface,
thus resembling a surface wave on water. The wave can be easily
damped out if the surface is in contact with either a solid or a fluid. This
mode of travel is not used underwater.
Lamb Waves
These waves are generated when the thickness of the material is
comparable with the wavelength of the Lamb wave. There are two main
types of Lamb waves, symmetrical and asymmetrical. Each has a series
of modes of travel. In this respect they differ from the wave trains
mentioned so far that only propagate in one mode. On land, Lamb waves
are applied for testing thin wall tubing and for laminar defects, which lie
very close to the surface of the part. They are also used to test the
quality of bond in laminate materials.
Love Waves
Love waves travel on the surface of the material without a vertical
component of displacement, which makes them analogous to a surface
compression wave motion.
Table 13.7 summarises properties of these modes of propagation.
Type of Symbol Condition Atomic Motion Single Comments on
Wave Velocity Underwater Use
Table 13.7
Properties of Ultrasonic Waves
3. Velocity of Ultrasonic Waves
In order that ultrasonic waves can be used to measure depths and sizes within
any material it is a fundamental principal that the velocity of the sound wave
remains constant for different samples of the same material. This is in fact the
case; furthermore the ultrasonic wave obeys the laws of light and can therefore
be used with confidence for inspection tasks.
Methods for calculating some of the single value velocities are shown in Table
13.8
Shear or Transverse
Symbols Used
Symbol Meaning
V* (meters second-1) Velocity of sound (meters second-1)
E (Newton meter-2) Elastic modulus
G (Newton meter-2) Shear modulus
µ Poisson ratio
VL VT VS VO ρ E G
Air 333 1
Table 13.9
Acoustic Velocities for Different Modes
in Selected Materials
4. Ultrasonic Wavelength
A further property of the ultrasonic wave is its wavelength. This property
indicates how far the ultrasonic stress wave moves forward during one
complete stress cycle and has to be considered when the maximum sensitivity
of any ultrasonic test is being assessed.
The method of calculation is shown in the following equations.
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Tuition Notes for 3.4U Course
Ultrasonic Inspection
Figure 13.10
Compression Wave Passing From One
Material (Perspex) Into another (Steel)
measurement but gives the relationship of the decay of the power in a signal
as it passes through a piece of material. Figure 13.11 refers.
Figure 13.11
Power in the Ultrasonic Signal
Will Decrease With Distance into the Material
The amount of signal attenuation is given by the curve that joins up the
peaks of the graphs and the attenuation in decibels (dB) is given by
Figure 13.12
Attenuation of the Ultrasonic Signal
between the First and Second Echoes
= 20 log10 (1.5)
= 20 x 0.1761
= 3.52 dB
What would the attenuation be if V2 were exactly half V1 and what would it
be if V2 were one-tenth V1?
(Answer 6 dB and 20 dB)
The last two results calculated are most important as they are both utilised in
practical material testing. It should be remembered that if the signal is
halved that is a 6 dB drop and if the signal is one tenth that is a 20 dB drop.
A table showing the ratios associated with gains of 0 to 20 dB is shown as
Table 13.13.
2 1.26
4 1.6
8 2.5
10 3.2
14 5.0
16 6.3
18 7.9
20 10.0 Ten fold (or one tenth for loss) ratio 10:1
Table 13.13
Decibel Gain for the Range 0 to 20 dB
5.4. The Direction of Propagation of an Ultrasonic Wave
Thus far it has been established that the ultrasonic wave travels at a know
speed in a straight line and it has been mentioned that the wave obeys the
laws of light. In order to predict the direction that the wave travels as it
passes through interfaces into different materials it is necessary to
determine what happens when the wave meets an interface.
An interface is any boundary between two materials of differing properties
(e.g. water and steel, perspex and steel, water and air etc.).
An interface will include the outside edges of a component and indeed, the
back surface is referred to as the back wall. Similarly the surfaces of a crack
or a porosity bubble are boundaries also.
At these interfaces, in accordance with the laws of light, the direction of
travel of the wave after meeting the interface will be determined by the law
of reflection for the wave moving in the initial material (material 1) and the
law of refraction (Snell’s Law) for the wave that passes into the second
material (material 2).
5.4.1. Law of Reflection
This states that the angle the reflected wave makes with the normal
angle to the interface from which the wave is being reflected is the same
as the angle that the incident wave makes with the same normal angle.
Figure 13.14 refers.
Figure 13.14
Reflection of an Ultrasound
Wave from an Interface
When the angle of incidence is 0o the reflected angle is also 0o so the
wave is reflected back along the incident direction. The wave is travelling
in the same material therefore there will be no change in wavelength of
the signal or the mode of travel of the wave. This is the ideal condition for
thickness measurement using ultrasonic compression waves.
5.4.2. Law of Refraction
At an interface, part of the ultrasonic wave is reflected and the rest will
pass into the second material. The path in the second material will still be
a straight line, but the direction of this wave will not be continuous with
the direction of the incident wave, as it will have been turned through an
angle that can be determined by Snell’s Law.
Snell’s Law of Refraction states that: -
Angle β need not be larger that α as shown in Figure 13.14. The value of
β is determined by the properties of material 1 and material 2. The
wavelength will always change between the two materials. See Figure
13.15
Figure 13.15
Snell’s Law
The constant in Snell’s Law is the ratio of the velocity of sound in the two
materials, so that Snell’s Law can be written: -
Figure 13.16
Force Exerted by the Incident
Wave on the Interface
Both these resulting waves in material 2 will be turned from the incident
direction by an angle determined by Snell’s Law and the velocity of
sound in the two materials. Figure 13.17 refers.
Figure 13.17
Reflected and Refracted Shear Wave and
Compression Wave at an Interface of Two Materials
The angle that the compression wave makes with the normal in material
2 is determined from Snell’s Law, which gives: -
The angle that the resulting shear wave makes with the normal in
material 2 is again determined using Snell’s Law, except that this time
the velocity of sound of the shear wave VT2 is used in the equation, so
that: -
Thus the angle that the resulting shear wave makes with the normal in
material 2 βT is the angle whose sine is: -
Example:
Determine the resultant wave angle and wavelengths when an ultrasonic
compression wave of 50 kHz travelling in perspex meets an interface
with steel at an angle of 10o to the normal.
From Table 13.9 VL in perspex is 2730 ms-1
VL in steel is 5850 ms-1
VT in steel is 3230 ms-1
The incident compression wave in perspex will, on meeting the interface,
produce three ultrasonic waves.
A reflected compression wave in the perspex
A refracted compression wave in the steel
A refracted shear wave in the steel
See Figure 13.18.
Figure 13.18
Diagram of Wave Configuration
from a Perspex Block at 10o
5.4.2.1. The Reflected Compression Wave in the Perspex
The law of reflection tells us that the angle of reflection equals the
angle of incidence, so that the reflected wave makes an angle of 10o
to the normal.
The wavelength of the reflected wave will be the same as the incident
wave, as they are both compressive and travelling at the same
speed. The wavelength is calculated from the equation: -
scale (below 100 kHz) a magneto-strictive device is used, and above this range
Piezo electric devices are used. At the moment, ultrasonic non-destructive
testing uses mostly Piezo electric devices, while magneto-strictive devices are
widely used in sonar and underwater signalling.
Magneto-strictive devices use the expansion and contraction of magnetic
materials under the influence of a varying magnetic field, to generate a
mechanical pulse from a magnetic signal. The device also works in
reverse, the input of a mechanical signal generating a magnetic signal.
The Piezo electric transducer makes use of the property that certain
crystalline and ceramic materials have whereby, if the material is
subjected to a mechanical extension of contraction, it generates an
electrical signal related to the size of the mechanical input. This effect is
also reversible, although the efficiency of the conversion is dependent on
the type of use. Early transducers were made from quartz, and Rochelle
salt crystals, but now they are made from a range of synthetic crystalline
and ceramic materials that include barium titanate, lithium sulphate and
potassium zirconium titanate.
In practice the transducer is mounted in a probe assembly for protection and to
enable electrical connections to be made. The crystal is fitted with electrodes;
often silver foil, to apply the voltage across the crystal if it is acting as a
transmitter, or to take the voltage signal from it if it is acting as a receiver. The
crystal is attached to the case by the mounting, which acts not only as a fixing
but also as a backing to the crystal. The backing has a significant influence on
the transducer’s performance. Its impedance controls the bandwidth of the
transducer and the damping of the crystal’s ring. For maximum damping, the
impedance of the backing must equal the impedance of the crystal. Also, it must
have the ability to attenuate completely the sonic energy transmitted from the
back of the Piezo electric element so that this signal is prevented from returning
to the back of the Piezo electric crystal, which would thereby produce an
unwanted signal.
A shoe is added to protect the crystal from physical damage or wear, and also
from the environment. Most transducers are completely sealed units.
Furthermore, the shoe can be shaped to act as a lens. In this respect, sound
waves behave like light waves and acoustic lenses are designed in a similar
manner to light lenses.
The index of refraction is the ratio of the velocities of sound in the lens to those
in the other acoustic media (e.g. sea water), as defined by Snell’s Law.
The shoe should absorb as little of the sound as possible and so its impedance
is usually selected to be between the crystal and the material with which the
transducer is in contact. Shoes are often constructed of perspex.
Also, a probe that operates in a shear mode can be produced from a Piezo
electric crystal that operates in a longitudinal mode, by having a wedge-shaped
shoe. The wedge shape directs the longitudinal wave at an angle to the surface
of the test part. Depending on the angle of incidence, this will produce partial or
total conversion of the longitudinal wave into a shear wave, as previously seen.
Figure 13.20 refers.
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Chapter 13
Figure 13.20
Basic Arrangement of a
Single Crystal Transducer
7.1. Types of Transducers (Probes)
There are a number of different types of probes some designed for specific
tasks. However, in the sphere of underwater inspection and NDT it is only
necessary to be familiar with the main types.
All probes are designed to transmit an ultrasonic signal into the test
specimen with maximum efficiency. The configuration of any probe is
dependant on the actual task it is designed for. There are broadly four types
of probe.
Single Crystal Probes
Twin Crystal Probes
Compression or Zero Degree Probes
Angle Probes
7.1.1. Single Crystal Probes
These probes are designed to utilise a single Piezo electric crystal that
both transmits and receives the ultrasonic signal. The acoustic
characteristics of this transducer are quite specific and the selected
crystals possess particular characteristics. The crystal must transmit the
signal, stop ringing, ring down to rest, pick up any reflected signal, ring
up to produce electrical energy that is passed onto the receiver amplifier.
So, the natural frequency of the crystal needs to be very widely
separated from the ultrasonic frequency being used for the test. Figure
Figure 13.21
Twin Crystal Compression Probe
7.1.3. Compression or Zero Degree Probes
This type of probe transmits longitudinal waves that are transmitted into
the test specimen at the normal angle. Thus there is no refraction and
the signal passes directly through the specimen at the normal. This type
of probe may be single or twin crystal. Figures 13.20 and 13.21 refer
7.1.4. Angle Probes
Angle probes produce an ultrasonic beam that is introduced into the
material at an angle to the interface, and not perpendicular, as is the
case of normal angle probes. The angle is determined to either match
the weld angle of preparation or to introduce the beam at an angle most
propitious to reflect from internal defects. As has been shown this type of
probe, in accordance with Snell’s Law, can produce shear and
compression waves, purely shear waves or surface waves depending on
the probe angle. Figure 13.22 refers.
Figure 13.22
Single Crystal Angle Probe Using a Piezo electric
Crystal in Compression Mode, The Angle on the Wedge
Producing a Shear Wave in the Material
8. Couplant
Ultrasonic testing cannot be carried out in air without the use of a suitable
coupling agent between the transducer and the test surface. This is because
the small mechanical pulses cannot travel across the small air gap that exists
between the two surfaces, because of the mismatch in acoustic impedance
between the shoe of the transducer and the air. For land-based tests, liquids,
greases or pastes are therefore used. Under the sea, the equivalent of the land
based immersion technique exists and transmission across the gap between
the work piece and the probe is not a problem. The surface of the work piece
must, of course, be free from marine fouling or other detritus on the surface as
this would attenuate and scatter the ultrasonic signal to such an extent that it
would not enter the work piece.
9. The Ultrasonic Beam
In order to use the passage of the ultrasonic wave through the material to
search for defects, it is necessary that the effective volume of the material
covered by the beam be visualised. An easy analogy for this is to visualise a
beam of light from a hand torch (flashlight) as this illustrates an ultrasonic beam
exactly.
The shape of the beam can be considered as a short cylindrical portion
containing the Dead Zone and Near Zone followed by a conically shaped Far
Zone (or Far Region).
9.1. The Dead Zone
This is the region immediately ahead of the crystal face. It is a zone that
cannot differentiate reflected signals from defects due to the interference
caused by ringing the crystal to produce the initial pulse. This interference is
due to the crystal vibrations taking time to reach resonance and then taking
D = crystal diameter
4 = constant
λ = wavelength
This equation calculates the length of the near zone from the crystal face in
one material. If, however, the near zone is not contained within the shoe, an
allowance must be made for the change in near zone length as the
ultrasonic beam travels from one material into another with a consequent
change in wavelength.
It is possible to identify reflectors in the near zone but it is not possible to
size defects because of the variations in signal intensity that is a
characteristic of this region.
9.3. The Far Zone
In the far zone (or region) the ultrasonic beam spreads from a cylindrical
shape to a cone, as can be visualised by considering a torch of flashlight
beam. The boundary of the cone is defined by the degree of attenuation of
the maximum power at any cross-section of the cone to a given level of
reduced power, either a 6 dB or 20 dB drop.
The angle of spread of the cone is defined as θ, (in Figure 13.22 the cone
angle is indicated as being θ/2, which shows the actual angle of spread from
the edge of the cylindrical region of the beam. This angle subtends angle θ
at the face of the crystal) the following equation is used to calculate the
angle of spread of the far zone from the boundary of the near zone, which is
θ/2: -
λ = wavelength
D = diameter of the crystal
k = constant for 6 dB drop k = 0.56
for 20 dB drop k = 1.06
This region of the beam is generally the part used for thickness
measurement, flaw detection and flaw measurement as the ultrasonic
energy of the beam decays exponentially according to an inverse square
rule and is therefore predictable. Furthermore there are no discernable
interfering signals in this region to confuse the interpretation of the reflected
signal. Figure 13.23 refers.
Figure 13.23
The Shape of the Ultrasonic Beam
and the Beam Energy Envelope
10. Principles of Ultrasonic Testing
There are two basic principles of ultrasonic testing.
The first is based on the detection of a decrease in energy of the ultrasonic
beam due to absorption by the flaw. This often involves the transformation of
energy due to the internal friction of the defect or a failure to transmit energy
across the air gap of the defect. This is sometimes referred to as the shadow
method. It can be referred to as a through transmission technique also. Figure
13.24 refers.
Figure 13.24
Flaw Detection by Decrease in
Energy of the Ultrasonic Wave
The second principle of ultrasonic testing is based on the reflection of energy
from a flaw or interface. This is the method used in underwater ultrasonic
inspection and it is the basis of a majority of ultrasonic test systems. The
principle is illustrated in Figure 13.25
Figure 13.25
Flaw Detection by Reflection
of the Ultrasonic Wave
11. Ultrasonic Test Systems
From paragraph 10 it will be seen that an ultrasonic test system should be able
to measure either the amplitude of the signal if the first type of test is used or
the time required for the ultrasonic signal to travel between specific interfaces if
the second method is employed. A versatile test system will measure both the
parameters at the same time. For thickness measurement the main use of
ultrasonic testing sub-sea is for the measurement of the time the ultrasonic
signal takes to travel between specific interfaces, as Figure 13.25 illustrates.
A test system for ultrasonic thickness measurement is based on a pulse/echo
flaw detector circuit. A simple block diagram for this arrangement is shown in
Figure 13.26
Figure 13.26
Basic Block Diagram
of a Pulse Echo Ultrasonic System
The technique employed is to generate a short duration (up to about 15 cycles)
electrical pulse that is fed to the transmitting crystal, which then rings and
converts the electrical energy to mechanical vibrations because of the Piezo
electric effect. These pulses are produced cyclically so that a wave train is set
up in the test piece. As these pulses of ultrasound impact on reflecting surfaces
such as the back wall, a crack, an inclusion or a lack of fusion, the wave is
reflected back along the transmission path.
This reflected wave train is detected by the receiving crystal; which changes
these mechanical vibrations into pulses of electrical energy, which is then fed to
the amplifier and timing circuits. The circuits compare the time of transmission
with the time of reception to determine the period of time taken for the signal to
be reflected. This indicates the distance to this reflecting surface. This reflected
signal is finally displayed on a cathode ray tube (CRT) in the case of a flaw
detector and as a digital display in a digital thickness meter
The wave train set up by the pulses of energy effectively sets up a continuous
signal that is used to display information either on the CRT or the digital display
continuously. However electronically there is sufficient time between pulses to
allow the receive crystal to receive the reflected signal.
11.1. The Flaw Detector
There are several types of units that can be used in this system, depending
on the method employed for timing and indicating the pulses of energy. For
ultrasonic flaw detection the indicator is generally a CRT (or cathode ray
Figure 13.27
Drawing of a Baugh and Weedon
PA 1011 A-scan Flaw Detector Control Panel
11.2. A-scan Flaw Detector Controls
All A-scan flaw detectors have the same basic controls because they are all
manufactured to the same standards and specifications. Some may have
additional features or built in computer chips but the basic controls are all
the same. The standard controls are all illustrated on the drawing in Figure
13.27 and their functions starting at the top left of the diagram are: -
The signal processor via the control panel can adjust the speed of
scanning of the spot. Thus the display can be adjusted for different
distances or thicknesses of material.
The transmitted signal is indicated on the screen by the first rise or peak,
and a second peak indicates the reflected signal. This second peak
should represent the thickness of the material provided there is a clear
defect free path as it will be the reflection from the back wall.
If there is a defect inside the material this may present a reflecting
surface to the signal. This situation is discussed later in paragraphs 13
and 14.
Taking the second signal to be the reflection from the back wall the
distance between the two peaks is the time (t) taken for the ultrasonic
wave to travel across the material and return. The thickness of the
material can then be calculated in the following way.
Figure 13.9 gives the speed of the longitudinal wave (VL) in a selection of
materials. For example, take the test material to be structural steel; the
velocity of the longitudinal wave (VL) is 5940 ms-1. The time taken for the
wave to cross this material and back is t seconds, measured from the
trace on the CRT screen. The product of VL and t then gives the distance
travelled by the ultrasonic wave in this test. This distance is twice the
thickness of the material as the wave has to travel there and back, so the
thickness of the material (d) is given by the following expression: -
d = ½ (VL x t)
If a through transmission method was used, see Figure 13.24, that is
where a receiver is placed on the opposite side from the transmitter, the
thickness of the material would be given by: -
d = VL x t
These expressions are based on Newton’s Laws of Motion and are the
basis for ultrasonic testing. However, as stated earlier A-scan
instruments are provided with controls to adjust the CRT display, which is
part of a calibration procedure. This procedure adjusts the instrument for
time base and therefore electronically adjusts the value of VL.
12. A-scan Calibration and Thickness Measurement
With any A-scan instrument the CRT display represent time on the base line or
X-axis, which is calibrated to represent distance, while the vertical or Y-axis
gives the amplitude of the returning signal; the higher the amplitude of this
signal the greater the strength of the reflected signal. Of course, in the case of
thickness measurements this signal will be the back wall echo.
A-scan types of ultrasonic instruments all require calibration before they can be
used for testing. Modern instruments incorporate computer chips that assist in
this process but following is outlined the procedure for a standard instrument so
as to illustrate the various stages that must be completed to ensure a valid test
is completed.
Figure 13.28
IIW V1 Block
If the gain adjustment does not produce these results the amplifier is not
linear and the instrument must be recalibrated internally, which involves
stripping it down to readjust internal trim settings.
12.3. Calibration Procedure for 100 mm Thickness
Place the probe onto the face of a suitable calibration or reference block that
is 25 mm thick ensuring there is adequate coupling
A number of back wall echoes should be displayed on the CRT screen.
Adjust the gain settings as necessary to display the second echo signal
amplitude to 75% full screen height
Adjust the fine range and delay controls to alter the screen display so that
four back wall echoes are shown, all equally spaced across the X-axis
As the screen on the CRT has a graticule that is divided into 10 equal
segments the four echoes are adjusted to 2½, 5, 7½, and 10 divisions along
the X-axis. See Figure 13.29
Figure 13.29
A-scan Flaw Detector
Calibrated to 100 mm
12.3.1. Setting Sensitivity
On completion of calibration it is necessary to adjust the sensitivity to
conform to the requirements for identifying and sizing the smallest
specified flaw. This may be, for example a flaw that is 2 or 3 λ in size,
although this would be a very sensitive setting as the minimum flaw size
that may be achieved is of the order of 1 to 2 λ.
Whatever the required sensitivity is should be detailed in the workbook or
the procedure agreed with the contracting party.
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Ultrasonic Inspection
The procedure will require that the gains be adjusted so that a reflected
signal from the smallest identifiable defect is displayed discretely on the
screen and is not lost in background clutter.
The general practise for scanning with compression probes for
laminations is to adjust the gain setting so that the first back wall echo
from the parent plate is displayed at full screen height.
An alternative method is to adjust to full screen height the first back wall
echo from a specified (say 1.5 mm diameter) hole drilled horizontally into
a reference block at the maximum range for the test.
Figure 13.28 shows a diagram of the International Institute of Welding V1
calibration block. This block is an industry standard calibration block and
contains such a 1.5 mm diameter hole.
12.3.2. Setting Resolution
The final process in the calibration procedure is setting resolution. This is
adjusting the gain controls so that the CRT display is capable of
displaying several reflected signals from the smallest detectable flaws at
the maximum range of the test. This may be accomplished using an
agreed and specified reference block.
The common method is to display the three signals reflected from the
step, cut out and back wall on the V1 block. Figure 13.30 refers.
Figure 13.30
A Method For Setting
Resolution
13. The 6 dB Drop Method For Plotting Laminations
It is common for steel plate to be tested for laminations before structural welding
is undertaken. A normal angle probe will be used and the entire test surface will
be scanned, initially fairly quickly to get an impression of how the reflected
signals are displayed on the CRT display. This is followed by a detailed scan
based on a grid search to fully scan the entire test area.
If any laminations are discovered the initial reaction is to make temporary marks
with a paint stick or chinagraph pencil on the surface of the parent plate to give
a first impression of the size and shape of the defect. This is followed by a
careful scan employing the 6 dB drop method to accurately size the flaw and
determine its shape.
13.1. The 6 dB Drop Method Explained
The probe is manipulated over the defect area until a maximum amplitude
signal is displayed on the CRT. The height of this signal is noted or, if it is
very strong, the gains are adjusted to display this echo at full screen height.
The probe is then manipulated around the defect area until the signal
displayed on the screen reduces in amplitude.
The probe is manoeuvred to a position where the initial echo signal is
reduced to ½ the maximum that was obtained. This represents a 6 dB
reduction in signal strength, which gives this method its name. The reason
for this reduction at this point is that now only half the flaw echo signal is
being reflected from the flaw while the remainder of that signal is now not
reflected but continues on its transmission path through the material.
The centre point where the probe is now positioned is marked accurately on
the surface of the test piece and this procedure is continued until the entire
outline of the lamination is plotted on the surface of the plate.
The outline shape is recorded and measured as necessary. Figure 13.31
refers.
Figure 13.31
6 dB Drop Method
Figure 13.32
Angle Probe Scanning
the Preparation Face of a Weld
The probe is traversed along the weld until the signal from the flaw is
maximised. Further traversing of the probe will drop the signal height on the
CRT in the same manner as for a 6 dB drop but with angle probes the signal is
reduced to 1/10th using a 20 dB drop. This point can be plotted and the defect
size obtained by numerous such manipulations of the probe.
14.1. Lamination Plotting
Should there be any laminations in the scanning area the signal will be
reflected from these and not the flaw. To avoid this the entire area is
scanned with a compression probe prior to using the angle probe. The area
may be marked out in a grid pattern to ensure 100% coverage. See Figure
13.33
Figure 13.33
Scanning for Laminations
15. Digital Thickness Meters
Digital thickness meters measure the thickness of the material using
longitudinal waves propagated by a compression probe and transmitted into the
material under test at the normal angle.
The system method can be demonstrated by considering a thickness measuring
system using a twin crystal compression probe with the instrument having a
CRT display. The screen will display the initial pulse and the signal from the
BWE. The distance measured across the screen, the X-axis, represents the
time difference between these two signals. The thickness of the material can
then be calculated as shown in paragraph 11.2.1. A diagram of this system is
shown in Figure 13.34.
Figure 13.34
Schematic Block Diagram of
the Methodology for Digital Thickness Meters
Figure 13.35
Block Diagram of a Sea Probe
Digital Thickness Meter
If Figure 13.35 is compared with 13.26 it will be seen that the circuitry is
exactly similar except for the method of display.
16. Converting Underwater DTM Readings
With specially designed, underwater DTMs like the Sea Probe (see Figure
13.35) and Cygnus meter the display gives a direct digital readout of thickness.
With these instruments this reading is based on the value of VL for structural
steel because the meter is designed with this velocity set into the circuits. In fact
the meter is factory calibrated for use specifically on structural steel
components. Therefore when these meters are used to test steel structures the
circuitry works out the distance electronically based on the expressions given
above. They will not give an accurate read-out for any other material
To convert readings obtained from materials other than structural steel simply
divide the meter reading by the value of VL for steel and multiply by the value of
VL for the new material.
Figure 13.36
Typical Ultrasonic Inspection
Data Sheet
18. Accuracy of the Readings Obtained With a DTM
A DTM is only designed to give a single readout for each application of the
probe. This is different from an A-scan instrument, which is designed to display
multiple reflections simultaneously on the CRT screen.
It is therefore necessary to consider the effects on the ultrasonic beam
generated by a DTM as the beam propagates through the material under test.
The beam may reflect from an inclusion
The beam may reflect from an isolated corrosion pit
The beam might reflect from the sidewalls of a long narrow plate
If the back wall is very corroded the beam may be totally scattered
Poor probe contact will prevent the beam propagating into the material at
all
If the material under test is very hot a false reading may result due to
different sound velocities between the material and the calibration of the
DTM
Insufficient beam energy will be reflected from a small isolated corrosion
pit because the reflected energy from the BWE will swamp it and the
meter will only display the depth to the back wall
If the scanning surface of the plate is very corroded there may be so
much reflection of the beam that it will not propagate into the material at
all
Should the back wall of the plate be at an angle to the front wall the
reflected signal may not be directed back to the probe and no reading will
be displayed
All of these considerations may be summed up for a DTM by stating that the
major limiting factor with this instrument is that it can only display the depth of
the MAJOR REFLECTOR, It is not designed for any other purpose.
Figure 13.37 refers.
Figure 13.37
Possible Problems Associated With a DTM
Figure 13.38
Sea Probe SP 200
Underwater Digital Thickness Meter
19. Care and Maintenance of Equipment
The care of all ultrasonic equipment follows the same pattern.
Clean all terminations, plugs, leads and controls
Wash off all housings with potable water
Charge all batteries in accordance with manufacture’s recommendations
Do not overcharge (with some batteries this may evolve Hydrogen gas
and cause an explosive hazard)
Store equipment is a dry warm place
Be aware of the danger of electric shock from some components
Never operate equipment that is thought to be damaged – get it repaired
CHAPTER 14
Magnetic Particle Inspection
1. History of Magnetism
Even in very early times, it was known that magnetite (an iron ore FE3O4)
attracted small pieces of iron. Also, if magnetite were shaped into a shaft and
suspended it would rotate and align its longest axis in a North-South direction.
This gave rise to its name ‘loadstone’, derived from an Anglo-Saxon word
meaning ‘way’ or ‘course’. The directive property of magnetite was utilised in
early navigational devices.
The Frenchman De Magnette discovered the first method of forming an artificial
magnet in 1600. He found that heating and hammering an iron bar produced a
‘power’ in the bar that enabled it to attract pieces of iron. This power, named
after him, was called ‘magnetism’.
In 1819, the German Oested observed a relationship between electricity and
magnetism. He noticed that when a compass was placed near a current-
carrying wire, the compass needle showed a deflection. This phenomenon is
now known as ‘electro-magnetism’.
2. Types of Magnetism
There are three types of magnetism: -
Ferromagnetism This is shown by materials which can be strongly
magnetised and which show good magnetic properties
Paramagnetism This is shown by materials, which are weakly attracted by
strong magnetic fields
Diamagnetism This type of magnetism is shown by materials that are
repelled by a strong magnetic field. This externally applied magnetic field
induces a ‘like’ magnetic field within the material; hence repulsion occurs.
Table 14.1 lists some common materials and their magnetic properties.
FERROMAGNETIC PARAMAGNETIC DIAMAGNETIC
Iron Platinum Bismuth
Nickel Palladium Antimony
Cobalt Most non-ferrous metals Most non-metals
Steel Oxygen Concrete
Table 14.1
Magnetic Properties Exhibited
by a Selection of Materials
3. Theory of Magnetism
In ferromagnetic materials, the atoms are gathered together in groups called
domains. These domains have a magnetic moment, one end acting as a north
pole, the other as a south pole. This magnetic moment is created by the
combined effort of the motion of electrons around the nucleus of the atom and
by electron ‘spin’, which is the rotation of the electron about its own axis.
When the material is un-magnetised, the domains lie distributed randomly and
Figure 14.3
Material in a Magnetised State
3.1. Polarity
When the material is magnetised it has a north and a south pole. These
poles are located at opposite ends of the material and magnetism seems to
be concentrated at these points. The ‘north’ or ‘north seeking’ pole of a
magnet is said to be the pole that points towards the earth’s North Pole; the
south pole of the magnet pointing towards the earth’s South Pole. Magnetic
poles show attraction and repulsion, like poles repelling and unlike poles
attracting. See Figure 14.4
Figure 14.4
Like Poles Repel Unlike Poles Attract
3.2. Magnetic Field
This is described as the area surrounding the magnet in which the magnetic
forces exist. Lines of force or lines of magnetic flux represent the magnetic
field. These lines are purely imaginary and were introduced by Michael
Faraday as a means of visualising the distribution and density (flux density)
of a magnetic field. The symbol used for magnetic flux is Φ and the SI unit is
the weber (1 Wb = 108 Mx). The CGS unit is the Maxwell (Mx) and 1 Mx =
10-8 Wb. Table 14.5 tabulates the units used in magnetism. The Tesla is the
SI unit used in practical magnetic particle inspection (MPI).
Equivalent Units
SI CGS SI CGS
Figure 14.6
Magnetic Field Surrounding a Bar Magnet
The magnetic field produced by a current-carrying conductor forms closed
circles perpendicular to the conductor, see Figure 14.7 and 14.8.
Figure 14.7
Figure 14.8
Diagram of a Magnetic Field
Surrounding a Conductor
(Figures 14.6, 14.7 and 14.8 attributed to University of Iowa)
Then the magnetising force H in this coil is N x 1 ampere-turns per meter. (In
common practice the word “turns” is omitted so that the units H are Am-1. In the
CGS units this used to be called “Orsted” (Oe) and: -
This equation for the magnetising force is the basis of the calculations for how
much current to use to set up an adequate magnetic field for MPI.
In free space (vacuum, air or other non-magnetic material), B = µo H. The value
of µo is 4π x 10-7 (T Am-1) and represents the permeability of free space
(sometimes referred to as the magnetic space constant).
In a magnetic material, B and H can vary independently and the coefficient of
B/H is called the RELATIVE PERMEABILITY and is often given the symbol µr
(for air µr = 1 while for certain nickel-iron alloys it can be as high as 100,000).
Relative permeability is not a constant value; it varies with B and H. Figure 14.9
gives an indication of the relative permeability for a selection of ferromagnetic
Figure 14.10
Induced Magnetic Field
The flux density rises rapidly to point A on the diagram and thereafter rises very
much less rapidly as the condition approaches saturation of the magnetic field;
i.e. there is a very small rise in flux density for a very large rise in magnetising
force.
The shape of this characteristic and the saturation value varies from material to
material.
Figure 14.11
Variation of Flux Density With
Magnetising Force
The graph shown in Figure 14.11 shows flux density values for different
magnetising currents for a field being set up in one direction by a DC supply. If
the field is set up by an AC supply, then the magnetic field will experience a
complete reversal of direction for each cycle and successive cycles will trace
out a loop for the relationship between magnetising force and flux density. This
is known as the HYSTERESIS LOOP - refer to Figure 14.12.
Figure 14.12
Hysteresis Loop
In Figure 14.12 OP is the initial magnetisation curve as seen in Figure 14.10.
After point P, the current reduces and the flux density reduces. The curve then
passes through Hc’ to Br’ then to P’, which is the maximum flux density for the
magnetic field in the opposite direction. The current now increases again and
the flux density reduces to Hc and as the current increases in the opposite
direction the curve climbs to point P at maximum H. Successive cycles trace out
the hysteresis loop P, Hc’, P’, Hc, P. The loop shows that energy is used up
each cycle and is dissipated in the form of heat and whilst this heating effect is
rapidly dissipated underwater, on land the material being magnetised will get
quite hot. The value of Br indicates that when the magnetising force is removed
the material will still be magnetic. The name for this is remanence (or residual
magnetism in the USA) and Hc is the magnetising force required to remove it.
This is known as coercivity. In practice, the residual magnetism is removed by
gradually reducing the magnetising force (lowering the current) so that the loops
get smaller, thus reducing the residual magnetism. Figure 14.16 following
refers.
4.1. Remanence or Residual Magnetism
Remanence or residual magnetism is the magnetic flux density that remains
in a material when the magnetizing force is zero. (Note that residual
magnetism and retentivity are the same when the material has been
magnetized to the saturation point. However, the level of residual magnetism
may be lower than the retentivity value when the magnetizing force did not
reach the saturation level.)
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Chapter 14
The terms retentivity and permeability have been used in connection with
magnetism and MPI for very many years and while they still remain in use
the ideas of relative permeability and remanence have given them a more
fundamental explanation.
4.2. Retentivity
When the magnetising force is removed, the amount of magnetism retained
varies from material to material and this effect was know as retentivity that is
a measure of the residual flux density corresponding to the saturation
induction of a magnetic material. In other words, it is a material's ability to
retain a certain amount of residual magnetic field when the magnetizing
force is removed after achieving saturation. (The value of B at point Br on the
hysteresis curve, Figure 14.12). The amount has been related to the permeability
of the material and the general rule was that material with high permeability
having low retentivity while those with low permeability have high retentivity.
Modern permanent magnets are generally made from low permeability/high
retentivity special alloys that have been subjected to large magnetising
forces. See Table 14.13.
4.3. Permeability (µ)
Permeability has been defined as the ease with which a material can be
magnetised. Of course, it is only some of the ferromagnetic group that are
usefully magnetised. Those that are easy to magnetise are: -
Soft iron
Low carbon steel
These were said to have high permeability. As a contrast high carbon steel,
which required more magnetising force to produce the same amount of
magnetisation, was said to have low permeability. See Table 14.13
4.4. Coercive Force
The amount of reverse magnetic field which must be applied to a magnetic
material to make the magnetic flux return to zero. (The value of H at point Hc
on the hysteresis curve.)
4.5. Reluctance
This is another term that has been in use for many years in MPI. It is a term
used to describe the opposition that a ferromagnetic material shows to the
establishment of a magnetic field. Reluctance is analogous to the resistance
in an electrical circuit, however it does not have units while resistance does
of course. (This term is sometimes used as the opposite of permeability; low permeability
would indicate high reluctance and visa versa).
Figure 14.14
Field Strength Indicator Diagram
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Figure 14.15
Field Indicator
This residual field should be removed: -
Prior to MPI to prevent the possibility of magnetic vector fields that
would reduce the sensitivity of the inspection
A vector is the result of two opposing forces that is orientated in a
different direction to either of them. With an unknown residual field
interacting or opposing the applied field the vector will be
unpredictable
On offshore structures before MPI as they are fixed in the earth’s
magnetic field subject to constant vibration and may be weakly
magnetic
After the inspection so as not to interfere with any sensitive
electronic or electrical equipment
Prior to welding as residual magnetic fields may cause arc blow
As required before any other process is initiated that may be
affected by stray residual magnetic fields
The process is illustrated in Figure 14.16 and only requires that the
hysteresis be collapsed. This can be achieved most easily electrically by
reducing the magnetising force over a short period of time as indicated in
the diagram. Practically this may be accomplished by winding a coil
around the site to be demagnetised then using a rheostat to ‘wind down’
Figure 14.16
Collapsing the Hysteresis Loop
To Demagnetise a Material
There are other methods for demagnetising other than reducing the current with
a rheostat.
4.7. AC Aperture Coil
A pre-formed coil consisting of a large number of windings with internal
diameters up to approximately 1 m is connected to an AC supply. The
supply is switched on, which generates a strong magnetic field surrounding
the coil. This equipment is bench mounted. Any component that is to be
demagnetised is passed slowly through the coil along its axis and withdrawn
approximately 1½ to 2 m. As the component is withdrawn it cuts fewer and
fewer lines of flux, which collapses the hysteresis. See Figure 14.17
Figure 14.17
AC Coil
Figure 14.18
Reversing DC Coil
4.9. AC Electromagnets
If an AC induced the residual field it can be removed by stroking with an
electromagnet. The stroking is accomplished in a circular manner ensuring
the return path is as far removed from the metal surface as possible. Figure
14.19 refers.
Figure 14.19
Demagnetising With an AC Yoke
Figure 14.20
Permanent Magnets
Inducing Magnetic Flux
6.1.1. Strength Required for MPI Permanent Magnets
The strength for a permanent magnet used in MPI is stated in BS EN
ISO 9934-1:2001 (this replaces BS 6072:1981 which remains current).
The requirement is that the permanent magnet must be able to lift at
least 18 kilograms with a pole spacing of between 75 to 150 mm. The
area that can be inspected lies between the poles and extends to half the
pole spacing at right angles to this dimension. If the magnet is too weak
the field will be insufficient to give a clear magnetic pattern, if too strong a
dense accumulation of iron particles from the detection medium will
make the patterns difficult to interpret, especially in the region of the pole
pieces.
On straight work pieces like plates and cylinders good contact between
the pole pieces and the work pieces is easily obtained by having shaped
pole pieces, flat for plate and radiused for cylindrical-shaped work
pieces. For more complicated shapes, for example when examining the
weld at 12 o’clock on the joint of a vertical diagonal member on a node,
the pole pieces need to rotate as well as being shaped in order to make
good contact. Figure 14.21 refers
Figure 14.21
Flexible Pole Electro-magnet
Electro-magnets have the advantage that they can be applied and
removed from the work piece easily when the current is off, but this
system does need an electrical supply.
6.1.2. Advantages and Disadvantages of Permanent Magnets
Any system used for testing will have advantages and disadvantages
and the use of permanent magnets, as a system for MPI is no exception.
6.1.2.1. Advantages
Magnets are cheap and readily available
No power supply is required for permanent magnets
There are no contact problems with the poles and the work piece,
thus arching or damage to the surface is avoided
They will be self-supporting and can be used overhead easily
They are relatively lightweight
6.1.2.2. Disadvantages
All permanent magnets loose strength with age and each time a
magnet is used it will loose a small amount of its strength
Figure 14.22
Electromagnet
6.2.2. Advantages
Either AC or pulsed DC can be used to induce the magnetic field
The current can be adjusted thus controlling flux density
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Chapter 14
The magnetising current can be switched off for easy removal from the
metal surface
Mains power can be used there is no need for a transformer
Will not damage the work piece
Lightweight
AC electromagnets can be used to demagnetise
6.2.3. Disadvantages
A power supply is required
Only longitudinal magnetisation can be generated
Mains voltage is carried directly in the yoke
There must be good pole contact on the metal surface to ensure
adequate flux flow in the work piece
6.3. Passing an Electric Current Directly Through the Work Piece
Induced magnetism is achieved by using contact prods to pass an electric
current directly through the work piece. Sometimes these prods are clamped
in place but mainly they are hand held. (This method has been a recommended
method for magnetisation in Det Norske Veritas, Rules for the Design, Construction and
Inspection of Offshore Structures, 1977, Appendix 1, In-service Inspection.)
Passing a current through the work piece produces a circular field between
the contact points as shown in Figure 14.23. The orientation of this field can
be seen to be different to that produced by permanent magnets, which is
longitudinal. The magnitude of the current employed will depend on:
The plate thickness
Prod separation
The current requirement as stated in BS EN ISO 9934-1:2001 is that for
every 1 mm prod separation 4 to 5 Amperes current is required. This means
that if the prod separation is 200 mm between 800 and 1000 Amps are
required. (This requirement is equivalent to 100 Amps per one-inch prod
separation).
Figure 14.23
Magnetic Field Produced
by Current Flow Prods
When using this technique, care must be taken to ensure that the contact
areas are sufficiently clean to pass the current required without arching or
burning.
To ensure that arching is avoided the following applies: -
Do not turn on the magnetising current until there is full and adequate prod
contact
Turn the power off before the prods are removed from the test surface
The prods should have soft tips to assist with good prod contact
Use only low voltage
The prods may be separate, when two hands are required, or mounted on a
bar, which allows one-handed operation.
Direct or alternating current (DC or AC) may be used. DC produces
magnetic fields that penetrate deeper into the work piece. AC produces a
‘skin effect’ which confines the current and therefore the magnetic field, to
the surface skin of the metal.
6.3.1. Alternating Current
Alternating current (AC) reverses in direction at a rate of 50 or 60 cycles
per second. In the United States, 60 cycles current is the commercial
norm but 50 cycles current is standard in the UK. Since AC is readily
available in most facilities, it is convenient to make use of it for magnetic
particle inspection. However, when AC is used to induce a magnetic field
in ferromagnetic materials the magnetic field will be limited to narrow
region at the surface of the component. This phenomenon is known as
“skin effect” and it occurs because induction is not a spontaneous
reaction and the rapidly reversing current does not allow the domains
down in the material time to align. Therefore, it is recommended that AC
Figure 14.24
Skin Effect in a Circular Component
When the conductor is carrying alternating current, the internal magnetic
field strength rises from zero at the centre to a maximum at the surface.
However, the field is concentrated in a thin layer near the surface of the
conductor. This is the "skin effect." It should also be remembered that
with AC the field is constantly varying in strength and direction.
OIS of Great Yarmouth manufacture and supply a composite MPI unit
that is purpose designed and built for underwater use. See Figure 14.25.
Figure 14.25
OIS Mark 2 Sub-sea MPI Unit
and Current Flow Prods
In the case of prod testing the advantages and disadvantages are listed
below
6.3.1.1. Advantages
Either AC or DC may be used
Low voltage may be used (typically 3 V)
Adjusting current output will control Field strength
There will be no collection of indicating medium around the prods
6.3.1.2. Disadvantages
Without good prod contact there will be no induced magnetic field
A heavy transformer must be used to drop the voltage
There is always the danger of arching on the metal surface
There is a danger of overheating the equipment
If arching does occur metal inclusions from the prod tips may result
6.4. Induced Magnetism Using a Coil
A conductor carrying a current induces a circular magnetic field around it as
shown with prods. Therefore, ferromagnetic materials near the conductor will
be in this magnetic field and lines of magnetic flux will be concentrated in
them as they have less magnetic resistance than air.
However, a different shaped magnetic field will be produced if the conductor
is wound in the form of a coil around the material to be tested. See Figure
14.26
Figure 14.26
Longitudinal Magnetisation Produced Inside a Coil
A ferromagnetic material placed in the coil, or outside parallel to and
touching the coil, will experience longitudinal magnetism.
This method is widely used offshore and two practical applications will serve
to show how the technique may be applied.
6.4.1. Evenly Spaced Coil
A flexible cable is wound around the test piece so that the area under
inspection is contained within the encircling coil with individual wraps of
the coil being evenly spaced equidistant to each other. Figure 14.27
refers.
Figure 14.27
Evenly Spaced Coil
Figure 14.28
Close Wrapped Coil
The current requirement for this technique is determined by the formula: -
Figure 14.29
Parallel Loops
This produces a transverse field between the two sides of the loop. The
loop has to be positioned so that the current in the two sides of it is
moving in the same direction or else the magnetic fields will tend to
cancel instead of reinforce. Furthermore the return cables not forming the
parallel loops must be a minimum of 10d away from the inspection area
as shown in Figure 14.29. The direction of the field may be ascertained
by applying the “right hand rule”. The required current may be found by
applying the formula: -
I peak (ac) = 30 x d
It will be noted that this is the coil end effect formula transposed.
6.4.3. The Right Hand Rule
If the thumb of the right hand is extended in a ‘thumbs up’ gesture and
the fingers are loosely gripped the thumb indicates the conventional
current flow and the fingers indicate the direction of the circular magnetic
field produced. See Figure 14.30
Figure 14.30
The Right Hand Rule
The OIS Mark 2 Sub-sea MPI unit may be used for this technique.
Figure 14.32
Variation of Types of Defects Giving Indications
as the Field Strength Increases
6.5.2. Residual Magnetisation
In the residual technique the work piece is magnetised and the indicating
medium is still applied at the same time. However, the actual inspection
is completed with the magnetising force removed and the work piece is
examined with only any residual field producing the flux leakage at any
discontinuities. As these fields are much weaker than those produced by
the continuous method there is much lower sensitivity. Of course, the
technique does eliminate spurious or false indications.
Underwater it could be used re-inspect any suspect area where the
suspicion is that a false indication has been identified.
7. How Defects Interact With the Induced Magnetic Field
Surface breaking and near-surface indications are detectable by MPI because
of the way these discontinuities interact with the induced magnetic field.
The defect will cause a distortion of the magnetic field because either its
permeability is different to the surrounding metal or consequential poles are
formed at the parameters of surface breaking discontinuities. In either case the
flux density will increase.
With a distortion in the field the flux lines will be grouped together raising the
field strength while with consequential poles the tension in the lines of flux will
increase; there will be increased field density due to this, as with the poles of a
magnet. See Figure 14.33
Figure 14.33
Discontinuities Interacting
With the Magnetic Field
The orientation of the defect to the direction of flow of the lines of flux will
determine how strong an indication will be, or even if an indication will be seen
at all. The strongest indication will be given by discontinuities at 90o to the lines
of flux as it cuts through the maximum number and causes most distortion to
the field, if the orientation is at 45o the indication will be less strong because the
defect is cutting less flux lines. If the flaw is parallel with the lines of force it will
not cut any and will not be seen, as it gives no indication. Figure 14.34 refers.
Figure 14.34
Flaw Orientation
Because of the affect that defect orientation has on how strong an indication will
be given it is most important that the induced magnetic field be applied in two
directions, perpendicular to each other. This will ensure maximum sensitivity for
the test and should ensure that all defects are identified no matter what their
orientation within the magnetic field.
8. Detection of the Magnetic Field
In MPI it is essential that a diver inspector know that a magnetic field does
actually exist in the test area that has been set up. There are test devices;
called flux indicators available designed specifically to detect magnetic fields.
Those that are used underwater will be examined and explained.
Figure 14.35
Burmah Castrol Strip
8.2. Berthold Penetrameter
The Berthold Penetrameter is shown in Figure 14.36. When the
Penetrameter is placed on the work piece being magnetised, some of the
induced flux is ‘shunted’ to two slits cut at right angles in the soft iron
cylindrical stud that is the test element. The flux leakage at these air gaps in
the test element can be detected by applying indicating medium to the thin
plate that is held in place by a screw thread and covers the test element.
The indication is a thin line of indicator where the iron particles have
collected at the flux leakage. The direction of the field can be deduced from
which line of the cross is shown up. The field lies at right angles to this line.
Varying the distance between the test element and the plate that covers it
will control the sensitivity. Screwing or unscrewing the cap and setting the
calibration numbers against a datum mark on the swivel holder achieves
this.
Figure 14.36
Berthold Penetrameter
8.3. Gauss Meter
This is an electric powered meter that will read the field strength directly
from the input of a probe that is applied to the test area. The meter gives a
digital readout in Tesla. Figure 14.37 refers
Figure 14.37
Combined Gauss Meter
and White and Black Light Meter
The grains must have low retentivity to facilitate removal after the
test
The ink itself must have a good contrast against the test
background to ensure good visibility and greater sensitivity
The concentration of ferrous particles, additives and fluorescent
powder is specified in the standard, as is the method for testing
the correct concentration in any ink.
9.1.2. Ink Colours Used Underwater
The most common ink used is fluorescent ink and this is available in
different colours, although green is the most popular. Black and Red inks
are also available. The fluorescent powder coating the ferrous particles is
a salt that fluoresces when it is illuminated by ultraviolet light.
9.2. Testing MPI Ink to BS EN ISO 9934-2:2002
The ink or powder must be supplied as certified manufactured to the ISO
standard with a batch number that should be recorded.
The correct quantity of powder as per manufacturers instructions should be
measured and put into a suitable mixing vessel.
Inks are available which include wetting agents however; it is more common
to add such an agent at this stage. The standard does not allow the addition
of more than 10% by weight of any additives to the ink
A wetting agent is a chemical that lowers the surface tension of water; most
washing up liquids contain one
Enough water is added to the mixing vessel to make up it into a slurry, which
is then put into a measuring bucket and made up to the correct quantity with
water
It is becoming increasingly common to have batches of ink supplied in slurry
form all ready to mix with water to the correct concentration
Once the ink is mixed it should be constantly agitated to ensure the
suspension is maintained and a 100 ml sample should be drawn off
The sample is required to complete a settling test to confirm the ink has
been made up to the correct concentration.
9.2.1. Settling Test
The test is completed to the following procedure: -
Draw off the 100 ml sample into a calibrated settling flask. Either a
Sutherland or thistle type flask is suitable. See Figure 14.38
Allow the sample suspension to settle for 60 minutes
Read off and record the quantity of solids that have collected in the
bottom of the flask.
Figure 14.38
Settlement Flask
The recommended concentrations for a valid result are different for
different inks.
9.2.2. Fluorescent Inks
Ferromagnetic particles 0.1% to 0.3% (0.6 – 2.4 gm l-1) by volume in
the ink
Other solids 10% by weight
9.2.3. Non-fluorescent Inks
Ferromagnetic particles 1.25% to 3.5% (6 – 24 gm l-1) by volume in
the ink
Other solids 10% by weight
9.2.4. Carrier Fluid
Water or paraffin
Soluble Additives no more than 10% by weight
10. Lighting and Viewing Conditions
As the chosen method for detecting MPI indications is vision the ambient light
conditions and the quality and quantity of ultraviolet light must be at correct
levels. The standards for adequate lighting is stated in BS EN ISO 3059:2001.
The minimum requirements for ambient and ultraviolet light as stated in the
standard are summarised below.
Figure 14.39
Testing Output From
A Black Light
Figure 14.40
OIS Underwater Black Light
with Castrol Strip Attached by Cord
Figure 14.41
Direct Current
Using DC to induce a magnetic field will produce a field that penetrates into the
work piece and will be a better method for discovering defects that are just
below the metal surface. In ferromagnetic materials, the magnetic field
produced by DC generally penetrates the entire cross-section of the
component; whereas, the field produced using alternating current is
concentrated in a thin layer at the surface of the component.
Alternating Current
AC reverses in direction at a rate of 50 or 60 Hz. In the UK, 50 Hz current is the
commercial norm but 60 Hz current is common in many countries. Since AC is
readily available in most facilities, it is convenient to make use of it for MPI.
However, when AC is used to induce a magnetic field in ferromagnetic materials
the magnetic field will be limited to a narrow region at the surface of the
component. This phenomenon is known as "skin effect" and it occurs because
induction is not a spontaneous reaction and the rapidly reversing current does
not allow the domains down in the material time to align. Therefore, it is
recommended that AC be used only when the inspection is limited to surface
defects. See Figure 14.42
Figure 14.42
Alternating Current
Furthermore as the current is constantly reversing no single value for the
current can be measured. To determine a single measured value for an AC the
Root Mean Square (RMS) value is calculated. This is indicated on Figure
14.42. To calculate the RMS value all that is required is to divide the peak value
by the constant 1.414. The normal situation is that an amperage reading
indicates the current being applied. The meter will be indicating an RMS value.
Therefore to obtain the peak value multiply the meter reading by 1.414. (This
may be required if the applied current is close to the saturation value for the
work piece).
Rectified Alternating Current
Clearly, the skin effect limits the use of AC since some inspection applications
may call for the detection of sub-surface defects. However, the convenient
access to AC drives its use beyond surface flaw inspections. However, AC can
easily be converted to current that is very much like DC through the process of
rectification. With the use of rectifiers, the reversing AC can be converted to a
one-directional current. The three commonly used types of rectified current are
described below. See Figure 14.43
Figure 14.43
Rectified Alternating Current
(Figures 14.30, and 14.43 attributed to University of Iowa)
position
If any indications are identified re-inspect to confirm the findings
With confirmed indications record Location (distance from datum)
Length
Orientation and position on weld
Continuous or intermittent
Branching or not
Weak or strong indication
Complete remedial grinding as per the procedure
Retest after grinding
Mark the ends of the feature with a punch mark if required
Post inspection
Demagnetise
De-rig and recover all equipment to the surface
Wash all equipment with fresh water
Flush out the ink system
Report the results to the client
Cancel work permits
14. Interpretation of Indications
There are three type of indication that may result from an MPI:
Relevant indications These are produced by defects
Spurious or non-relevant Caused by sharp changes in geometry, such as the
toe of the weld
Brazed joints because of the difference in
permeability
Changes in permeability caused by heat treatment.
(The parent plate, the HAZ, the weld itself)
Magnetic writing caused by two different metals
rubbing together
False indications Caused by other factors such as gravity
Figure 14.44 refers
Figure 14.44
Spurious or Non-relevant Indications
15. Reporting Indications
Any indications should be reported in a standard manner.
The distance from the datum mark
The length
The orientation and position relative to the weld
Whether the indication is strong or weak
Whether the indication is continuous or intermittent
Whether it branches or not with the orientation of any branches
Position of the indication, whether on the weld, toe, HAZ, parent plate
etc.
Always use the correct terminology.
An example of a report sheet is reproduced in Figure 14.45
Figure 14.45
Sample Data Report Sheet
16. Recording Indications
The actual MPI indications may be recorded in a number of ways.
16.1. Ultraviolet Photography
A conventional photograph can be taken using either: -
An ultraviolet lamp and a long exposure on the camera
An appropriate ultraviolet filter on the strobe and expose for the flash
16.2. Cast
This is used with dry powder not ink and therefore has no underwater
application. The indication is exposed with the dry powder and a cast such
as ‘microset’ is applied. The dry powder particles are captured in the cast.
16.3. Foil Packets (‘Magfoil’)
These are supplied in ready-made packets that have two compartments that
are separated by an internal barrier that is ruptured when the packet is
applied to the test site. The two compartments contain magnetic particles
and the mixing liquid that are kept apart until the barrier is ruptured. A
triangular wire flux indicator is also mounted inside the packet.
The method of operation is to break the internal barrier and mix the contents
by manipulating the bag. This takes approximately 45 seconds and the
contents will take on a grey colour.
Apply the bag to the test site. The contents will remain liquid for 100
seconds.
Apply the magnetising force during this period
The defect indication will be recorded as a white mark in the packet
Leave the packet in place until the liquid sets (approximately 5
minutes)
The packet can then be removed and the indication length and breadth can
be measured. These dimensions will give an indication of defect length and
depth
16.4. CCTV
Some video cameras will capture the visible light of the fluorescent particles
when the ultraviolet light is directed on them. This signal can be recorded on
disc.
16.5. Rubberised Tape Transfer
An adhesive rubberised tape can be applied to a dry indication. The
magnetic particles adhere to the tape, which can then be peeled off. This
cannot be applied underwater. It may have a possible use in a welding
habitat.
17. Factors Affecting MPI Sensitivity
The sensitivity of a magnetic particle inspection is the effectiveness with which
the test will discover defects and crack-like features in the material. This will
depend in the main on three factors: -
The diver inspector
The equipment being used
The conditions on site
For maximum efficiency of the operation, the diver inspector should, as well as
being comfortable and as well equipped for the dive as possible: -
Have confidence in his ability to use the equipment for a particular test
Be confident in his own ability to detect defects with it
Be sure of the value of his contribution to the efficiency and safety of the
plant or structure he is inspecting.
These last three points are obtained from the competence and confidence
imparted to the inspector by good training and an active involvement in the
inspection function.
The sensitivity of the magnetic particle test will depend on several factors, some
of which will be within the control of the inspector and others not. The sensitivity
of detection depends ultimately on the contrast that can be produced between
the defect and its surroundings and the definition, which tells the size, shape
and orientation of the defect.
Figure 14.46 shows some of the factors that will affect the performance. Like a
chain, it will only be as good as its weakest link.
Figure 14.46
Sensitivity of a Magnetic Particle Inspection
The following points should be considered in connection with the contrast of the
test.
17.1. Surface Condition (1)
The effectiveness of the cleaning processes to produce a bright finish is an
important factor here. A paint background would help if coloured magnetic
particles were being used.
17.2. Lighting (2)
If the ambient lighting is too high, for example because of bright sun near the
surface, the tests must be done at night when fluorescent inks are used. The
diver inspector should monitor regularly the intensity of the ultraviolet lamp
to detect any deterioration in brightness, which would decrease the
efficiency of detecting defects.
Figure 14.47
Field Strength
Flux: Lines of force in a magnetic field
Flux Density: The number of flux lines per unit area. The
unit is the Tesla (T), symbol B, 0.72 T is the
minimum flux density required for MPI.
Flux Indictor: An implement used to indicate the amount of
flux density produced by an external
magnetising force.
Flux Leakage: A point where a line of flux leaves a material
or the pole of a magnet.
Hysteresis: A diagram produced by plotting field
strength (H) against flux density (B).
Permeability (µ): The ease with which a material can be
magnetised.
Poles: The ends of a bar or horseshoe magnet
where flux leakage occurs.
Reluctance: The resistance to the flow of flux in a material,
equivalent to resistance in electricity.
Residual Magnetism: The amount of magnetism remaining in a
material after the external field is removed.
Retentivity: The point on the hysteresis loop that indicates
the residual magnetism in a material that
remains after the magnetising force is
removed.
Saturation: The point at which a material will not accept
any more lines of flux.
Vector Field: The resultant field orientation that is caused
by two fields simultaneously interacting with
each at different angles within a component.
Bibliography
Underwater Inspection
M Bayliss, D Short, M Bax
E & F N Spon
Iowa State University
Web site
CHAPTER 15
Photography
1. Introduction to Photography
Photography is a prime method for recording images of defects that have been
identified by either close visual inspection or magnetic particle inspection.
Photographs provide: -
A permanent record of the subject
Comparatively high-resolution images for detailed interpretation
Close-up, magnified images when required
A cheap method for obtaining verification of inspection findings
Time lapse exposures should this be required
A proven visual recording technique
An easily deployable system
Stereo-photography that may be analysed by photogrammetry to provide
a variety of very accurate computer generated presentations
A readily available method for recording images
An adaptable technique that can be tailored to suit different requirements
Until recently the traditional method of photography using conventional cameras
loaded with conventional colour film was the preferred application of this
technique. However modern digital photography utilising the newest cameras
deployed underwater in specialised housings has taken over the field. It will be
this type of photography that is considered here
With this in mind and having considered the advantages of the system as a
recording method it is necessary to consider the disadvantages of still
photography
It is necessary to ensure that the subject is correctly in frame and in focus
The actual definition of the recorded image is dependant on the quality of the
digital camera. This type of camera records the image electronically not on a
film. The electronics are either Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductors
(CMOS) devices or Charged-Coupled Devices, (CCD) that take in light and give
out electricity. These are rated by the number of “pixels” and the greater the
number per square unit of screen, (the greater the density) the better the
resolution. For underwater applications it is necessary to use the best quality
cameras that provide the best resolution. For the applications considered here
the camera should be at least 6 mega-pixels and preferable greater, up to 12
mega-pixels.
Lighting has to be correct to ensure an acceptable image is captured
Lighting is the most crucial element in this list, followed closely by the number of
pixels.
1.1. Light and Photography
Although digital cameras record the light image electronically a brief look at
the way traditional film records light will assist greatly in gaining a better
understanding of how the camera actually captures the image.
Traditional film is made of celluloid that has an emulsion coating containing
silver halide salts, which react when exposed to light. When the film is
processed the silver halides are converted chemically to dyes to produce
either colour negatives or colour positives, (slides). The slides can be
viewed once processed while the negatives must be further processed to
produce colour prints.
Digital cameras, of course, react to light electronically and the image is
recorded immediately the exposure is taken, however the image will be
sharp or “muddy”, crisp or blurred, good or bad depending on how the
shutter speed and aperture controls are selected by the circuitry. In this
regard the digital camera is the same as the traditional camera, the quantity
and quality of light falling onto the recording medium must be correctly
controlled. In other words the exposure must be correct.
The basis for monitoring and controlling the amount of light entering the
traditional camera was the film speed. The film manufacturers grading the
silver halides used on the film stock determined this, the finer the grains the
slower the film, or the larger the grains the faster the film. The way that the
film manufactures marked the film speed was by evolving a numbering
system that indicated the film speed by increasing numbers.
Traditionally there were two numbering systems; one in the US called the
ASA system (ASA is the American Standards Association), the other was in
Europe called the DIN system (DIN is Deutsch Industries Norm). Both were
an increasing number series where the higher the number the faster the film
reaction to light. Some 20 years ago the International Organisation for
Standardisation (ISO) combined the two systems to one international
standard. The chart in Figure 15.1 shows a typical series
Figure 15.1
Film Speed
As can be seen by consulting the chart the ISO system merely grouped the
other two systems together. Also the chart groups the films into slow,
medium and fast films. Furthermore, it is obvious that as the ISO number
increases the film speed, its speed of reaction to light, also increases.
There is another, more fundamental but less obvious relationship to film
speed and light that is also shown on the chart.
This relationship is more readily demonstrated by considering the ASA
system. Taking 100 ASA as an example; film of this rating will react twice as
quickly to a given quantity of light than 50 ASA but only half as quick as
200 ASA. This relationship between adjacent film speeds is the same for the
DIN system and therefore for the ISO system. Thus ISO 400/27 will react
twice as quickly to light as ISO 200/24 but only half as quickly as ISO
800/30. This relationship is known as being a “one stop” difference, which
will be fully explained when considering the lens system of a camera.
2. The Camera
In its simplest form the camera is no more than a lightproof box with a hole in it
and that contains the film. Indeed that is all the original cameras were. However
modern cameras have evolved and as the film stock became standardised so
cameras developed standard calibrated controls to meter the amount of light
entering to expose the film. Thus the ISO number for a film has a tangible and
fundamental impact on the conventional camera. Modern digital cameras only
differ from conventional cameras in the recording medium and therefore they
have either the same or comparable controls.
2.1. Lens Aperture
All cameras then, have a lens system containing three elements, including
the most fundamental, a diaphragm – called the aperture – that has a certain
diameter, which can be adjusted by the aperture control. The aperture
control is calibrated to integrate with the ISO numbering system although the
units are different.
Aperture controls are calibrated with f-numbers and the size of the aperture
is called the f-stop. In this system f stands for “factor” because that is what it
is. The f-stop is the number representing the ratio of the focal length of the
lens to the aperture diameter thus: -
The method for determining any particular f-stop is shown by the following
examples. Firstly take a typical focal length for a standard lens to be 50 mm
and an aperture diameter (for a given intensity of light) of 12.5 mm.
Then: -
Now for comparison take a typical focal length for a telephoto lens to be 135
mm with an aperture diameter of 33.75 mm (for the same intensity of light).
Hence: -
It can be seen from these two examples that regardless of what the focal
length of the lens is setting the f-stop control to f4 will always allow the
same, metered amount of light to enter the camera, provided the aperture
diameter varies in a standard manner. Of course, the camera, or lens
manufactures design the lens diaphragm to open and close to the correct
diameter in response to the control setting, which provides a universal
standard, integrated with the ISO film speeds.
Altering the aperture control by one step will either double or halve the
quantity of light entering the camera. The chart in Figure 15.2 demonstrates
this.
Figure 15.2
Relationship Between f-stops
and Metered Light
The aperture control steps are called “stops” because each step down stops
a metered amount of light from entering the camera.
2.2. Shutter Speed
The second lens control to be considered is the shutter speed control. This is
more straightforward than the aperture control as it is quite obvious that if the
speed of opening of the lens is either halved or doubled the quantity of light
entering the camera will also be halved or double. The chart in Figure 15.3
shows a standard set of shutter speeds.
Figure 15.3
Shutter Speeds
2.3. Relationship between Aperture and Shutter Speed
There is a fixed relationship between film speeds; apertures and shutter
speeds because they are all calibrated to the ISO film speed even though
different units are used. Changing the lens settings by one stop will either
halve or double the quantity of light getting into the camera and changing the
film speed by one does exactly the same. The chart in Figure 15.4 shows
the relationship between aperture and shutter speed.
Figure 15.4
Relationship Between
Aperture and Shutter Speed
In the chart the example shows that if f8 at 1/16th sec allows the correct
amount of light (1 unit) to enter the camera then f5.6 at 1/30th sec and f11 at
1/8th sec would also allow the same amount of light in. (Conventional light meters
commonly provide exposure values (EV) rather than actual f-stop and shutter speeds
allowing a choice to be made on the spot for any given light situation).
(Problem: Using this chart and Figures 15.2 and 15.3 confirm whether the
arbitrary light units indicated for f22 at 1.125th sec and f2.8 at ½ sec are
correct.)
2.4. How Digicams Compare to Conventional Cameras
The difference between a digital and a conventional camera is the digital
camera does not contain film. The light entering the camera does not fall on
light sensitive silver halides but instead onto a light sensitive computer chip.
This chip may be either a CMOS or a CCD sensor. Either will have
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Chapter 15
Figure 15.5
Bracketing
3. Focusing the Camera
The final control on a lens system is the focus control. In digital cameras
focusing is automatic with a manual override facility. If the digicam is a single
lens reflex (SLR) type manual focus is straightforward as the image is viewed
through the lens and it can be seen in the viewfinder when sharp focus is
obtained. If, however, the subject is being viewed on the camera’s mini-screen it
may be difficult to actually judge when sharp focus is obtained. In the
underwater environment setting the focus control to a pre-determined distance
and then using either a measured prod or string and magnet to actually
measure the camera standoff can overcome this.
Figure 15.6
Focus Using a Measured Rod
There are three other factors that must be considered when focusing the
camera: -
The focal length of the lens
The depth of field
Framing the image or subject in the centre of shot
All three of these factors can affect whether the final recorded image is of
acceptable quality.
3.1. The Lens Focal Length
The focal length of the lens determines the field of view. The actual focal
length of the lens is the distance from the film plane in the camera to the first
optical element of the lens. The larger this measurement the narrower is the
field of view and the greater the magnification. Long lenses are telephoto,
while short lenses, (optical element close to the film plane), are wide angle.
Underwater where it is necessary to get close to the subject because light
levels are always low and contrast is always poor due to the environment
wide-angle lenses are normally used.
See Figure 15.7.
Figure 15.7
Lens Focal Length
3.2. Depth of Field
What is depth of field? On a photograph it is the amount of foreground in
front of a subject and the depth of background behind the subject that
appears to be in sharp focus as well as the subject itself. Figure 15.8 refers.
Figure 15.8
Depth of Field
Suppose the lens is focused on the yellow dot as shown in Figure 15.9
below. This subject generates a yellow dot on the image plane. Once
focused, all subjects that have the same subject to lens distance as that of
the yellow dot will appear sharp. Now, consider a grey dot that is behind the
yellow dot (i.e., with larger subject-lens distance). Since it is out of focus, it
will not produce a sharp grey dot image. Instead, its image is formed
somewhere in front of the image plane. On the image plane, the image of
this grey dot is a circle as shown below. This circle is usually referred to as a
circle of confusion. As the subject to lens distance increases, the size of
this circle increases. The same holds true for a subject in front of the yellow
dot (e.g., the green dot in Figure 15.9). Since these circles of confusion are
actually out of focus images of subjects, if the size of circle of confusion can
be reduced the sharpness of the resulting image can be increased.
This is actually easy to accomplish Since light rays passing through the lens
tube form circles of confusion, the size of a circle of confusion is proportional
to the amount of light that can pass through the lens tube. This means
smaller circles of confusion will be formed if less light can pass through.
Restricting how much light can pass through the lens is the function of the
diaphragm in the lens tube that sets the aperture values. Therefore, a
smaller aperture means a smaller diaphragm opening, which, in turn, means
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Chapter 15
allowing less light to strike the film/CCD plane. Thus smaller circles of
confusion are produced and, as a result, a sharper image is formed.
Figure 15.9
Depth of Field
In practical terms to produce the greatest depth of field: -
Use the shortest possible focal length lens as the shorter the focal length the
greater the depth of field because the light path of the lens is shorter
Make the camera to subject distance as long as possible as the further the
camera is away from the subject the greater is the depth of field
Use the smallest possible aperture as the smaller the aperture the less light
enters and the greater the depth of field
This means that setting the aperture at f22 gives a greater depth of field than
setting f2.8. The higher the f-stops number the smaller the aperture and the
greater the depth of field. Conversely the lower the f-number the bigger the
aperture and the depth of field is less.
3.3. Framing the Subject
At first glance this would appear to be the easiest part of using the camera,
having set all the controls just point in the right direction and shoot.
Unfortunately this is not the case unless extreme close-up photography is
considered where special close-up lenses or dioptres are used in
conjunction with specially designed close-up frames. In all other cases it is
the photographers own responsibility to ensure that the actual required
subject is in the centre of the photograph. Always remember that an
Figure 15.10
Parallax
4. Light and Underwater Photography
As photography is all about recording light and as it is being considered for
underwater use it is necessary to examine how light is affected by water. As
light entering the water passes through an air/water interface the light wave will
be subjected to the laws of light and some will be reflected while the remainder
is refracted as it passes through the interface. (The laws of light have been
examined in Chapter 13). As the light wave penetrates the water it is subjected
to absorption (attenuation), which is the dissipation of the light wave energy as it
passes through the water. The two most noticeable effects of this are that as
the depth increases it becomes darker, there is less light penetration and also
colours disappear as the water becomes deeper.
4.1. Colour Absorption
Looking at the loss of colour firstly it will be seen that in open sea conditions
the red light is absorbed first followed by orange with indigo and violet
penetrating much deeper. See Figure 15.11
Figure 15.11
Colour Absorption in Sea Water
4.2. Loss of Light Intensity
The loss of light intensity is due to: -
Reflection
Because of reflection at the surface of the ocean only those light rays
meeting the interface at, or very close to the normal angle will penetrate into
the sea. This, of course, means that only a limited amount of the visible light
ever penetrates into the sea at all. If the surface of the sea is rough this will
exacerbate the problem by providing many more reflecting surfaces as
numerous different angles of incidence. Figure 15.12 refers
Figure 15.12
Loss of Light Intensity
With Increasing Water Depth
Attenuation
What light does penetrate the interface will be attenuated as it penetrates
deeper into the water. The rate of attenuation increases with increasing
water depth. See Figure 15.12
Scatter
As the light passes through the water is meets suspended particles in the
sea and is scattered, reflected, by these particles. See Figure 15.12.
These effects on the passage of light in water will also occur horizontally
which is where they will impact most strongly on the underwater inspector
trying to record images for an inspection report.
The effects outlined here can largely be overcome by introducing artificial
light into the scene normally in the form of flashlights for photography and
floodlights for video.
large an angle to the centreline of the lens of the camera as possible and
within 1/3rd the visibility distance to the subject. See Figure 15.13
Figure 15.13
Strobe Placement to
Avoid Backscatter
Orientating the strobe in this fashion will avoid backscatter, reflected light
from suspended particles, as far as possible.
6. Close-up Weld Mosaic Photography
Diver inspectors will often be required to take close up photographs to record
the results of a CVI or an MPI. For this type of photography there are a number
of factors to keep in mind.
The subject area will be quite small so framing will be more critical
The depth of field will be minimal so focus will also be more critical
There will be a minimum standoff distance determined by the camera
lens
Some form of prods may be required to maintain a correct standoff
A scale will be required in each frame
If a weld is photographed a complete mosaic of the entire weld will be
required
Weld mosaic photographs require a minimum of 40% overlap for each frame;
see Figure 15.14 and 15.15
Figure 15.14
Weld Mosaic Photographs
Figure 15.15
Close-up Weld Photograph
Showing Member Identification Tabs
Figure 15.16
Identification Board on
a Spool-piece (North Sea)
7. Specific Applications for Offshore Photography
There are two specialised applications for underwater photography that are
used periodically in offshore inspection. Taking photographs to record
indications of defects identified during MPI is one and Stereo-photography that
is subsequently analysed by computer programs, called photogrammetry is the
other.
7.1. MPI Photography
With modern digicams this should be a straightforward photographic
application. The weld should have a tape measure and identification labels
applied as shown in Figure 15.15 and the photograph should be taken as a
close up as indicated in paragraph 5. An example of a digital photograph
recording a weld sample with fluorescent ink illuminated by an ultraviolet
lamp set up in The Welding Institute’s MPI practical workshop is shown as
Figure 15.17.
Figure 15.17
MPI Indications Test
Photograph
7.2. Stereo-photography and Photogrammetry
This application of photography requires a stereo-pair of photographs that
have been taken by a specially set up stereo-photographic pair of cameras.
The photographic results are then analysed by special computer programs
that have been evolved from aerial photography and the results can be
presented as drawings, photographs or digital printouts.
These photographs have been used for a number of inspection tasks: -
Damage survey
Weld defect analysis
Corrosion pitting assessment
Marine growth assessment
Anode wastage assessment
Scour survey
In addition some engineering tasks have been undertaken: -
Production of engineering drawings compiled from stereo-
photographs for sub-sea components
Producing measurements of the ovality of tubular members
Figure 15.18
An Example of a Photograph
Taken With a Camera That
Incorporates a Reseau Plate
A diagram of a typical stereo-camera rig set up for producing photographs
that will be subjected to photogrammetry is shown in Figure 15.19
Figure 15.19
Stereo-Cameras Set Up
to Take Photogrammetric Pairs
Finally stereo-photography can be completed with small format cameras and
with digital cameras but the photographs produced will be used for viewing
in 3 dimensions rather than being used for photogrammetry.
8. Specific Requirements for Inspection Photographs
When photographs are taken to record inspection findings each frame must
include: -
A Scale
The subject in frame centre
Identification of the component
In addition the following points should be addressed: -
When taken by a diver inspector ensure there are no items hanging in the
frame, umbilicals hog-off lines or the like
Make sure there are no exhaust bubbles in shot
Avoid camera shake; be comfortable before taking the shot
Position lighting to avoid backscatter
Always be prepared to bracket the exposure
With digicams it may well be possible to take photographs using hat lights or
ROV vehicle lights but always remember that underwater photography is always
in a low contrast situation. This means that artificial light is even more crucial to
obtaining good, acceptable results than normal.
Figure 15.20
A Typical Photo-log
10.1. Care of Equipment
Prior to use the following points should be completed: -
Ensure that the batteries are fully charged, if rechargeable complete
charging log
Set the camera controls to any required settings
Prepare a photo-log sheet
Choose any close up or special lenses required for the specific task
Inspect, lubricate and secure any seals and sealing faces on the
camera, housing or strobe. Switch on camera and strobe for test
Take a test shot and switch off unless deployed immediately
Fit the camera to the ROV or pass it to the diver inspector and switch
it on as necessary
Remove any lens caps as required
After the dive complete the following: -
Bibliography
Underwater Inspection
M Bayliss, D Short, M Bax
E & F N Spon
CHAPTER 16
The Use of Video in Offshore Inspection
1. The Scope of Use for Video Underwater
Every time an ROV is put into the water video is used extensively for, navigating
to the work site, observation of any ROV task, video surveys and diver
observation when in support of divers. All offshore divers are deployed with a
hat camera and it is extremely common in all other aspects of underwater work.
In the case of diver-deployed systems these are used for, monitoring the diver’s
well being, monitoring the job, survey work and site identification. The methods
of deployment including the advantages and disadvantages of each are
summarised in the following tables 16.1 to 16.4. Figure 16.1
1.1. Diver Hand Held
Advantages Disadvantages
Can be manipulated into tight areas The diver only has one hand free
Best for recording CVI Lighting for the camera may be an
issue
The diver can either give a Movement around the work site
commentary or be asked questions may be restricted by the extra
cable and the camera is difficult to
swim with
The diver can respond to surface
instructions and direct the camera to
show specific items
Table 16.1
Diver Hand-held CCTV
Advantages Disadvantages
Enhances diver safety as he can be Increases the load on the diver’s
more closely monitored as he works neck and shoulders
Can be used to assist in site or When used for CVI the issue of
component identification parallax must always be addressed
Can be used to monitor the diver as When the diver is directed to show
he works and may generate helpful a specific item to the surface he
suggestions to improve work may not be able to see it himself,
efficiency due to parallax again
The diver can respond to surface
instructions and direct the camera to
show specific items
If the diver is working at a specific
task requiring specialised knowledge
engineers on the surface can more
easily monitor the task and offer
specific advise
The diver can be asked questions or
may give a commentary
Table 16.2
Diver Head Mounted CCTV
Figure 16.1
Parallax Between Diver’s Eyes
and the Video Camera
Advantages Disadvantages
May be safely deployed in There will be occasions when
circumstances where personnel access into tight areas is
could be at risk impossible
As long as the ROV is serviceable The detail on the monitor screen
the video can be kept on the job may be limited as it is dependant
indefinitely on camera resolution. A diver
would have his eyes on the job
The video can be sent to any There is no human on the job and
accessible site at any time as there this can impact on the work at
are no decompression consideration times
Vehicle lights give very good Cost may be an issue at times
illumination for the best quality
picture available
Dependant on the type of ROV high
currents can be tolerated so that the
job can continue
Dependant on the type of ROV
several different types of camera and
stereo-video cameras can be
deployed to the work site
A wide variety of sensors can be
fitted to the vehicle again depending
of the class of ROV
Table 16.3
ROV Deployed CCTV
Advantages Disadvantages
Excellent for monitoring an item or Limited range of vision even if it
area continuously has 360o pan and 180o tilt
Can be safely deployed in any area Needs regular cleaning
that may present a danger to
personal safety
Barring un-serviceability will be Deployed for one specific task only
constantly available
Table 16.4
Fixed, Remote Operated CCTV
2. Types of Video Camera
There are different types of Closed Circuit Television (CCTV) cameras in use
underwater. Some are used specifically by ROV whereas others are used
universally. The older type of tube camera is virtually superseded by more
modern developments.
2.1. Tube Cameras
Rough handling or strong light sources can easily damage this type of
camera also it will not be able to function in strong magnetic fields. They can
even be damaged if left for periods of time either without a lens cap or being
constantly pointed at one spot. One advantage with this type of camera is
that depth of field is very good. Figure 16.2 shows a diagram of one of these
types of camera because it indicates the working principal of video cameras.
Figure 16.2
A Tube Camera
The camera consists of a photo-cathode at the front end that emits electrons
in return for and in proportion to the amount of light focused on it by the lens
system. The more light focused on it, of course, the more electrons there are
emitted. The cathode at the back end is an electron gun that emits a stream
of electrons that are focused into a beam and made to scan the target by the
electro-magnets. When this focused electron beam scans the target the
electron density, which electronically represents the image that already
exists on the target either enhances the strength of the electron beam or
detracts from it. This effectively has changed the light image into a series of
electrical impulses known as the “picture signal”. The picture signal is
collected by the electron multiplier where it is amplified and transmitted
down the line.
Modern CCD cameras do not work exactly like this but they do have
electronic components internally changing light into electrons thus producing
a picture signal.
2.2. Silicon Intensified Target (SIT) Cameras
This type of camera has been in use offshore at least since the late 1970s
and is still extensively used on ROVs where it is most frequently used for
navigation. The SIT camera is a low light camera that can be used in light
levels equivalent to bright starlight. This means that the vehicle lights can be
kept at a low level thus avoiding backscatter from suspended particles and
allowing the maximum penetration possible for the camera. The ROV
personnel thus have the best chance of seeing ‘landmarks’ as they go about
the work site or navigate to it.
This type of camera does not have good resolution and is a monochrome
camera. It is not used for actual inspection work but is extensively used in
support of inspection tasks.
2.3. Charged Coupled Device (CCD) Cameras
This type of camera is widely used and operates on the same principal as a
digital camera as outlined in Chapter 15 paragraph 2.4. These video
cameras are lightweight and physically small and are the normal type fitted
to divers helmets and band-masks. Because they are solid state they are
robust and can tolerate some rough handling. Normally colour cameras are
deployed, monochrome is available.
Unlike tube video cameras CCD cameras are not damaged by very strong,
bright lights and will operate in magnetic fields. The major restriction with
them compared to a tube camera is that depth of field is more limited. These
cameras are very widely used to record inspection results.
3. Advantages and Disadvantages With CCTV Recording
In underwater inspection and NDT different methods for recording inspection
results are widely used because it is so difficult to go back for a second look.
The time, effort and money involved in deploying resources underwater are so
high that it becomes imperative to get it right first time. With some forms of
inspection there is no facility built in to the method that allows results to be
recorded, which is one prime reason why CCTV is so widely used and video
recordings have been so extensive.
Advantages Disadvantages
CCTV transmits ‘real time’ images. The system cannot freeze fast
movement because the picture signal
is transmitted at the equivalent of 1
frame every 1/50th sec. (Fast
movement may be caused by the
current moving the ROV or diver, it
does not have to be caused purely by
deliberate fast panning)
Instant playback ensures that the There is normally only a 2D image and
recording is actually correct before without the depth dimension picture
leaving the work site information may be difficult to interpret
When deployed with a diver the human The sense of touch is not available
senses of 3D vision and touch can when deployed by ROV
greatly assist in the interpretation of the
item being inspected
Table 16.5
Advantages and Disadvantages of
CCTV as a Recording Method
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Chapter 16
4. Equipment
Mention has been made several times thus far of ‘CCTV’ this refers to the video
system that gathers the pictures. The system consist of a number of items
viz a vie:
The camera Converts focused image into the picture signal
The umbilical The cable used to carry the picture signal to the
monitor and the control signals to the camera
Surface control unit Controls camera functions, focus, pan, tilt, lights
Monitor Receives and decodes the picture signal converting
it back to a visual image
There will most frequently be a number of ancillary items included with the
system such as:
Video typewriter Used to type in headings, member or
component identification information
and labels as necessary
Video Cassette Recorder Most often two are installed. The “black
box” running all the time as a safety or
security measure and another for
inspection purposes only
Video Printer This device will print an individual
frame from any recorded video
DVD Recorder Rapidly replacing VCRs to record the
picture signal
5. Picture Quality
Modern cameras are much improved over the older tube types but the actual
picture definition and resolution is still less than what is obtainable from still
cameras. This means that very fine detail cannot be seen on the video screen.
The actual quality of the picture signal from a tube camera is determined by the
way it is transmitted. The picture signal is made up of ‘packets’ of information
each packet representing one scan line; see Figure 16.1. The number of scan
lines per picture is determined by the transmission standard. The two most
popular are:
PAL/Secam The European systems transmitting 625 lines per field
NTSC The US system transmitting 510 lines per field
This picture signal when recorded on videotape will be further degraded:
Video Home System (VHS) Only uses 200 lines per frame
Super VHS (S-VHS) Only uses 400 lines but does record
luminance (brightness) and chrominance
(colour) separately to improve quality. (to
operate correctly this require either two co-axial cables
or a special S-VHS cable)
Figure 16.3
Camera Movements
The camera movement commands apply to the camera not the carrier and
are relative to the picture displayed on the monitor.
Picture Framing
The best technique is to aim the camera mid-water or towards a neutral
background to begin so that any required headings and introductions might
be inserted. This also gives an anonymous start point for the recording.
This should be followed by a general shot taken as far away from the subject
as is comfortably possible within the limits of the underwater visibility. This
will give an overall impression of the area when the video is later reviewed.
Then move the camera in to complete the actual task whether a GVI, CVI or
MPI.
6.4. Video Logs
As with all other inspection tasks a written record is required. A typical log
sheet is shown at Figure 16.4
Figure 16.4
Sample Video Log
6.5. Care of Equipment
A check list of the requirements for care of the equipment follows: -
Wash in potable water after use
Inspect for damage before and after each use
Store in a warm dry environment
Keep the lens cap in place at all times when the camera is not in use
Always handle with care
Do not leave power on out of the water as this generates heat that
may damage seals
Lamps must be switched off out of the water
Protect all topside equipment from the elements
Issue 1.0 Rev 0
Issue date: 1 April 2006
Page 404 of 532
Tuition Notes for 3.4U Course
Chapter 16
Bibliography
Underwater Inspection
M Bayliss, D Short, M Bax
E & F N Spon
CHAPTER 17
Inspection Methods Available to Assess
Underwater Structures
1. Visual Inspection
There are a number of methods used to conduct an inspection or damage
survey but the prime method is visual inspection because it has a number of
advantages over other methods. Table 17.1 refers
Table 17.1
A visual inspection will be completed before any other inspection method or
non-destructive test is undertaken to identify any features or areas of concern
that may impact on the quality of these other methods.
To properly assess the extent of any defects identified during a CVI it will be
necessary to measure the flaws. Comments on standard measurements are
contained in paragraph 13.
2. Closed Circuit Television (CCTV)
This method is used extensively to record the results of a visual inspection
when diver inspectors have been deployed. When ROVs are employed to
complete inspections this is the prime method of inspection. The advantages
and disadvantages of this method are summed up in Table 17.2.
Advantages Disadvantages
CCTV shows real time pictures Cannot freeze fast movement
Video recording is a permanent record Poor resolution compared to
photography
Additional information can be included Gives a two dimensional image
in the picture, CP readings, depth etc.
Instant playback When diver deployed can cause
diver fatigue
Safety When diver hat-mounted deployed
parallax must be considered
A commentary can be given
Table 17.2
3. Photography
This method of recording inspection information is widely used and is fully
explained in Chapter 15. With digital cameras photographs can be obtained in
real time and be viewed immediately. Stereo-photography is also possible as is
photogrammetry.
4. Cathodic Potential Readings
This method is extensively used to monitor the corrosion protection coverage of
offshore structures. The methods are fully explained in Chapter 11. It should be
remembered that this is not a defect detection method. It is used to monitor the
entire structure and data obtained is analysed to determine whether some other
inspection or action needs to be taken.
5. Ultrasonic Inspection Techniques
These techniques are fully explained in Chapter 13. Ultrasonic digital thickness
meters are widely used as another means of monitoring corrosion. A-scan
instruments can find and size internal defects in welds or the parent plate
although this application of the method is much less widely used.
To provide a measured record that may be used later for relocating the
defect
To provide measurements so that any repair components can be
manufactured
A measurement may be taken directly or by comparison. The methods are
outlined below.
14. Linear Measurement
Straight measurements between two points may be taken with traditional means
or electronically.
14.1. Ruler
An engineer’s ruler may be used for measurements up to 1m. The accuracy
for this method will be ± 0.5mm.
14.2. Magnetic Tape
Magnetic tapes up to 3m in length are used for measuring welds. The
accuracy will be ± 1.0mm in 1m.
14.3. Flexible Tape Measures
Flexible tape measures may be fibre or steel and are available up to 100m in
length although 30m tapes are the most common in use offshore. The
accuracy will be ± 2mm over 5m.
14.4. Electronic Methods
Both sonar and infrared methods for ranging and measuring are employed
for taking measurements up to 1000m (for area mapping). The accuracy will
depend on the actual method but infrared methods may achieve ± 1mm over
5m.
15. Circular Measurements
There are several means of taking circular measurements one of which is a
comparison method.
15.1. Callipers
This method is an indirect method of measuring and therefore a comparison.
The diameter of the item is accurately taken by either the inside or outside
callipers and the measurement is taken between the points of the calliper
legs. Measurements up to 1m diameter may be taken. The accuracy
depends on the ruler being used but will be ± 0.5mm usually.
15.2. Vernier Gauges
Vernier gauges are used to take both inside and outside diameters up to
300mm. The accuracy is ± 0.1mm.
15.3. Specialist Jigs
Ovality gauges are made up for specialist applications and can measure up
to 1m diameter. They are usually a comparison method and accuracy will be
± 2mm.
Figure 17.3
Pendulum Gauge
17. Dents and Deformations
Impact damage can be measured either directly, or by photogrammetry or
electronically.
17.1. Profile Gauges
If the damaged area is less that 300mm profile gauges may be used. They
are a comparison method and the accuracy will be ± 0.5mm. Care must be
taken not to disturb the setting of the pins once the profile is obtained. See
Figure 17.4
Figure 17.4
Profile Gauge
17.2. Pit Gauge
Small corrosion pits or similar may be measured with a pit gauge that
consists of a calibrated plunger that is pushed into the pit and the depth read
off from the calibrated part.
17.3. Linear Angular Measurement (LAM) Gauge
The LAM is an accurate measuring device specifically designed to take
angular and depth measurements. It can effectively measure:
Pit depth
Misalignment
Weld leg length
Weld throat thickness
Excessive weld metal
Undercut
All the weld profile angles and measurements
The gauge can take measurements from flat or curved surfaces. Figure 17.5
refers.
Figure 17.5
LAM Gauge
17.4. Casts
A cast may be made of any depression to accurately mimic the exact shape.
Several materials may be used.
Plasticine
Putty
Two part compounds (e.g. Microset)
There are a number of problems that may occur when using casting
materials: -
The cast may be difficult to remove without distortion
The cast may be deformed or damaged during transfer to the surface
The cast is a negative image
The casting material may be difficult to apply. In cold seawater two
part compounds may not flow and malleable materials do not mould
easily. A hot water box may be required
17.5. Straight Edge
This method may also be used for small deformations. Holding the straight
edge over the area and using a ruler to measure vertically down at small
increments obtains a profile of the damage. The accuracy may be ± 0.5mm.
17.6. Taut Wire
This method may be used for any size deformation. A wire is stretched over
the deformed area and vertical measurements taken at small increments
obtain the profile.
Issue 1.0 Rev 0
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Inspection Methods to Assess Underwater Structures
The wire should be set up in two planes at 90o to each other to ensure that
any out of straightness of the member is measured. Accuracy of ± 0.5mm
may be achieved with care. Figure 17.6 illustrates the method.
Figure 17.6
Taut Wire
Bibliography
A Handbook for Underwater Inspectors
L K Porter
HMSO
Underwater Inspection
M Bayliss, D Short, M Bax
E & F N Spon
CHAPTER 18
Inspection Maintenance and Repair, Quality
Assurance and Control, Recording, Reporting
1. Legislation Relating to Inspection of Offshore Structures
In 1992 the UK Government brought into force The Offshore Installations
(Safety Case) Regulations SI 2885 (1992). These regulations expand the
Health and Safety as Work Act (1974) to offshore structures in the UK sector
of the North Sea. These regulations are very wide ranging in scope and are
further clarified and are made more precise by amplifying guidance notes,
Approved Codes of Practice and further Statutory Instruments.
DCR SI 913 (1996) Design and Construction Regulations
PSR SI 825 (1996) Pipeline Safety Regulations
PFEER SI 743 (1995) Prevention of Fire, Explosion and Emergency
Response Regulations
MAR SI 738 (1995) Management and Administration Regulations
PUWER SI 2932 (1998) Provision and Use of Work Equipment Regulations
(Plant and Equipment)
There are numerous requirements laid down in this legislation but the main
intent for all of it is to reduce any risk to be As Low As Reasonably Practical
(ALARP).
DCR SI 913 (1996) and TOISCR SI 2885 (1992) specify and rely on
VERIFICATION NOT CERTIFICATION. The regulations also specify that there
must be an appointed DUTY HOLDER who has the authority to carry out a self-
certification scheme. The Duty Holder will normally be the operating company.
The Duty Holder is responsible for ensuring that the structure remains in a safe
condition to carry out its design purpose.
The regulations specify that verification must be obtained from an
INDEPENDENT VERIFYING BODY (IDVB). There are five IDVBs appointed by
the regulations: -
Lloyds Register of Shipping
Det Norske Veritas
Bureau Veritas
Germanischer Lloyd
American Bureau of Shipping
There is no statutory requirement to inspect structures, however the Duty
Holder must satisfy the IDVB that a particular structure or component does not
require any inspection to ensure safety and obtain verification of this. The IDVB
does have the authority to stop all operations on any structure if it considers that
Figure 18.1
Unique Identification System
Figure 18.2
5.1.3. The Box Matrix System
The box matrix system firstly denotes a letter for each type of component
Member M
Diagonal member F
Node N
Riser R
Conductor C
Pile guides P
Anodes A
And so on for all types of components.
Then the levels are denoted by letters starting with A at the top of the
jacket working up the alphabet as the depth levels increase. Finally there
are 2 digits that represent the x and y co-ordinates. See example ME 45
in Figure 18.3
Figure 18.3
The Box Matrix Marking System
5.2. Clock Orientation and Datum Points
In conjunction with the platform marking system datum points will be nominated.
Tubular members are always inspected clockwise and so the clock orientation
is nominated. The 12 o’clock position is invariably the datum point and this may
be marked with up to three punch marks during the fabrication stage. Figure
18.4 shows the common orientation for reading the clock and indicates the way
the datum point may be marked.
Figure 18.4
Clock Positions
5.3. Safety Critical Elements (SCE)
Another design function is to calculate, identify and specify the numerous
Safety Critical Elements (SCE) that exist on the jacket, the platform modules
and in all the systems and sub-systems. A SCE is any part or parts of an
offshore installation the failure of which would cause or substantially
contribute to a major incident or a component the purpose of which is to
prevent or limit the effect of a major incident. Examples of SCE are: -
Systems Primary structure
Fire and water systems
Fire and gas detection systems
Hydrocarbon containment systems
Subsystems Mooring system
Deluge system
Control panels
Equipment Mooring system main bearing
Fire pumps
Fire detection heads
Electrical equipment in hazardous areas
6. Production of the Raw Materials
During the design stage of the structure’s development decisions are made
regarding what materials are to be used in the fabrication of the structure.
These materials are chosen with careful attention as to their suitability for the
design task. Mild steel to the 50D specification with tight quality control over
manufacture is a common choice for North Sea steel structures. Other materials
are selected for different design specifications and concrete for gravity
structures is equally carefully specified.
Taking steel as an example the steel foundry producing the steel will provide
certified documentation with casting specification and material composition.
Plates are serial numbered and totally traceable. Other specified materials will
have similar documentation.
All these documents are verified and filed as part of the QC function. The
materials supplied to the fabrication yards are stored in controlled locations so
that it remains fit for purpose and traceable. As it is issued certification goes
with it and is filed with the “as built” drawings and other documentation.
The raw materials may contain flaws or manufacturing defects in spite of the
best QA and QC arrangements which has two ramifications: -
The QA systems employed to minimise defects will be aimed at 100%
effectiveness, however 98% may be realistically achievable. This would be
normally acceptable provided that these defects were with design limits.
The presence of manufacturing defects in the raw material would not normally
cause in-service failures but there is a small risk that they might. Within the
realms of good engineering practice and design tolerances this is acceptable.
7. Fabrication Stage
The QA and QC continue throughout the fabrication stage of the structure
development. Welding procedures and parameters are all carefully applied and
certified. Concrete composition is monitored confirmed and certified. All the
inspection documentation and certification is verified and filed with the
remaining documents continuing to build up the QA database.
The types of flaws that may occur during fabrication are discussed in Chapter
12.
8. Launching and Installation
The launching and installation stages in the structure life are again subjected to
tight QC and the relevant supervision, inspection, control and reporting
processes continue to be implemented and recorded. It is reasonably obvious
that launching a 15,000 T jacket, swinging it from horizontal to vertical, then
sinking it upright in the correct position at the correct orientation must require
very through procedures and tight control. See Chapter 4 Figure 4.9.
It is at this stage that the most extensive underwater inspection will take place.
The inspection undertaken on the structure so far has been extensive and will
not be so comprehensive for the remainder of the life of the structure, although
it will continue un-interrupted.
8.1. Base Line Survey
The first major in water inspection will be totally comprehensive including the
entire jacket and all underwater components, attachments and
appurtenances including, of course, the Safety Critical Elements. The
seabed surrounding the structure will be inspected up to 30 to 50 m from the
base. A complete CP system survey will also be completed including CP
readings and an anode count to confirm the presence and the physical
integrity of each anode. This survey is usually referred to as the Base Line
Survey.
The Base Line Survey will confirm that: -
The structure is in the correct position
Whether any significant damage has occurred during launch and
installation
That any damage that is identified is accurately reported and
recorded
That any significant defects are highlighted for immediate rectification
The structure will only be declared fit for purpose when either there are no
reported significant defects or any reported significant defects have been
rectified and re-inspected and the results of the Base Line Survey are
accepted by the Duty Holder and verified by the appointed Approved
Verification Body.
The Base Line Survey will be used to evolve or modify an ongoing
inspection program that will extend throughout the remaining life of the
structure.
8.2. In Service
The in-service IMR program will ensure that adequate monitoring is
accomplished to satisfy the requirements of the Duty Holder, safe working
practices and to achieve verification by the IDVB.
The usual program for in-service inspections is based on a five-year cycle.
Some items are inspected each year while others are inspected less
frequently within the five-year cycle. Each year 20% of all SCE are inspected
as a matter of routine so that over the five years all will be inspected once.
There is always the option to change the schedule should the need to do
this be identified. The typical annual inspection would include: -
CP survey
Inspection of all riser, conductors and caissons
CVI of 20% of selected representative welds
MPI of 20% of selected representative welds
Complete GVI of the entire structure
Debris and marine growth survey
Scour survey
Items on the damage register may be monitored during the annual
inspection.
The annual inspection program reports are monitored and used to update
the damage register and to modify the IMR program as necessary.
Figure 18.5
Extract of a Typical CNC Table
Figure 18.6
Extract of a Typical Technical Specification
Key to Abbreviations
Abbreviation Meaning
AW Anode Wastage
CP Cathodic Potential Readings
CR Corrosion
DB Debris
LK Leak
WT Wall Thickness
LI Lack of Integrity
SD Seal Displacement
PD Physical Damage
CD Coating Damage
It is normal that either the CNC includes follow up actions that are authorised to
be implemented without further instructions in the event of finding any
anomalous items or to have a table of technical specifications that lays down
these follow up actions. The method for applying the CNC is straightforward.
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IMR, QA and QC, Recording and Reporting
When any item is identified as being outside the CNC the actions dictated by
the technical specification are implemented. The item and all the data
concerning it is recorded and submitted in the inspection report. Any authorised
immediate follow up action is implemented and the fact that this has been done
together with the results of the actions taken is recorded and reported.
The flow chart in Figure 18.7 refers
Figure 18.7
Flow Chart for CNC Actions
In the flow chart the reference to the job card applies to the actions taken by the
Duty Holder’s engineering department. A job card system for initiating work
actions of any kind is a common approach to control of resources, personnel
and finances throughout industry.
10. Documentation in an Anomaly Based Reporting System
The documentation involved with an anomaly-based system is normally
standardised data report sheets and is commonly on a computer-based system.
With this method the responsible engineers become familiar with one method of
presentation of information which saves time when reviewing the inspection
data. Using standard data sheets also ensures that all the required information
is included and does not rely on memory. The data report sheets will be
reviewed and subsequently form the basis for: -
Further follow-up or additional structural inspection programs
Maintenance or repair projects
Any engineering analysis that is required by the Duty Holder
Reports submitted to the IDVB for verification
On completion of any review action the reports will be archived to become part
of the QA records for the structure.
Figure 18.9
Typical Data Sheet
10.4. Data Sheet Design
When designing a data sheet the first question is what is its purpose? Is it
part of a QA system? If it is there must be a procedure that goes with it as
the data sheet performs the function of applying the requirements of the
procedure and ensuring that nothing is left out as well as providing the
validation that the procedural requirements have been met. The data sheet
would normally become part of the archives for the Quality System and as
such it becomes part of the QA. Similarly is the data sheet to be included
into a computer reporting system? If it is then is the system a database
system? If the answer to these questions is yes then the database will
normally be able to generate the data sheet and the design will be done on
the computer through the computer program.
Any data sheet will have a number of fields and these will access data base
information in a computer reporting system.
If the data sheet is not part of a database but is to be a form in a system
stored on the computer the different fields will refer to different files in the
computer. The types of information likely to be required so that any data
sheet can be designed are: -
Does the Client or Sponsoring Engineer have to be nominated?
What type of inspection is it designed for?
What is the CNC?
What type of component is to be inspected?
What is the extent of the inspection?
The actual fields on the data sheet would normally allow the following to be
recorded: -
Customer or client or sponsoring engineer
Contracting company
Location (platform)
Type of component and reference number
Type of inspection
Resource used to gather the data (ROV, Diver)
Dive number
Date
Data sheet reference number
Any specialist equipment used for the data gathering
What cleaning standard has been achieved
Inspection controller’s name
Comments not covered elsewhere
Anomalies
Drawing of the component
Signatures
Page number
11. Written Reports
If required, written reports will follow a standard layout as dictated by the
operating company. As a guide the usual report layout will contain the major
items enumerated below.
Title This is normally the specified project title with the date of
starting and the completion date
Signing off sheet This is a sheet containing the signature of the project
managers and key personnel involved with the project
Table of contents The page numbers for the items included in the report
Introduction Gives the purpose of the report. It will contain: -
Location
The extent of the inspection or project
The client
The contractor company name
The dates of the inspection
Summary This is a very condensed resume of the report which will
contain: -
The overall scope of the inspection
Listings of any anomalies out side the CNC
Results This is the body of the report that lays out all the findings
and the total extent of the inspection. It will refer to the
appendices where the raw data sheets are contained
Conclusions or
Recommendations Both, either or neither of these may be included in the
report. Unless qualified engineers have prepared the report
these paragraphs should be omitted
Appendices These are the data sheets, logs, drawings and any other
raw data gathered during the inspection
12. Verbal Reporting
Verbal reports are normally concerned with diver intervention and frequently
follow a question and answer scenario with the topside asking specific
questions for the diver inspector to respond to. The voice reproduction is via the
diver communication unit and may leave something to be desired regarding
clarity of reproduction. A radio procedure approach is adopted with the diver
being the control station. Some prowords are used but “over” is seldom used.
Care must be exercised to speak plainly and the diver’s speech is sometimes
difficult to understand because of poor amplification. When receiving verbal
reports from saturation divers the situation can be quite difficult indeed, as their
speech has to go through a “de-scrambler” because of the distortion to the
voice pitch caused by the helium environment. Always: -
Use correct terminology
Maintain a fluent flow of speech (decide what to say before you speak)
If a full verbal report is to be recorded onto a video ensure that the introduction
includes answers to the questions: -
Who is speaking?
Where is the inspection site?
What actions are being completed?
When is the verbal report being made?
13. Corrosion Protection and Coating Inspection Report Requirements
The normal inspection reporting requirements for CP surveys are
Visual assessment of anode condition, and deposits including their type
and extent
% Anode wastage (may be required to be measured)
Sacrificial anode stub integrity
Impressed current cable and cable duct integrity and electrode
connection
Marine growth build up on any anodes
Metallic debris in contact with the structure identify location, type and
quantity
CP readings at specified sites or spacing
Photographs of representative anodes
Coating Inspections will normally require that the following be assessed: -
Note the % present of topcoat, primer and bare metal
Note any blistering and burst them and try to collect a sample of any
deposit
Assess the surface condition of the steel under any blister
Note the % of any paint cracking
Note any paint sagging with the extent
Note any paint wrinkling with the extent
Note any flaking and note the extent
If inspecting Monel cladding be especially careful to inspect very closely for any
breaks or deformation however small in the Monel surface.
14. Procedure for the Close Visual Inspection of a Weld
Verbal reports are commonly recorded onto data sheets during the actual
inspection. A typical procedure for a weld CVI would include: -
Complete surface checks of all the equipment
Obtain the work permits
Locate the correct weld
GVI to assess any gross damage and the build up of marine growth
Figure 18.10
Typical CVI Data Sheet
15. Summary of Other Recording Methods Used Underwater
Because of the nature of underwater inspection with intervention methods being
so costly and weather dependant a good deal of effort is expanded to ensure
that any data gained during inspection activities is recorded in the event of a
future need to reassess any item. The methods for recording can be very simple
or complex as illustrated in the following notes.
15.1. “Scratchboards”
This may be a rigid white plastic board or a plastic sheet of paper with a
pencil. Can be used underwater by a diver to make a sketch or take notes
when nothing else is available.
15.2. Sketches
These can be useful if there is no other way of recording what the diver
inspector has identified or incorporated into a report to show a point of detail.
15.3. Photography
Good quality images of any anomalous items or points of interest may be
obtained by photography and prints included in any type of report.
15.4. CCTV
This is a prime method for recording all manner of inspection information
and is extensively used throughout the underwater commercial industry. The
video records real time images that subsequently may be easily
incorporated into a report.
15.5. Radiography
A radiograph is a permanent record by itself and is easily incorporated into a
report.
15.6. Casts
These may be taken on occasion but they are difficult to take and difficult to
incorporate into a report. There are other ways of recording the images set
into casts and whenever possible these are used in preference to taking a
cast. When they are taken care must be exercised in storing them as they
can easily be damaged.
15.7. EMD, EMT and ACFM Incorporating Computer Recording
These methods are all available with computer recording facilities and the
ability to have the program print out the data. This is ideal for incorporation
into a formal report.
15.8. Sampling
This is normally a specialist form or recording for marine life for example. It
does have other uses such as collecting gas escaping from the seabed for
analysis. Storage of samples is a difficulty that must be anticipated before
the sampling is undertaken.
16. Certification of Personnel and Equipment
Any Quality Management System (QMS) will include the requirement that
personnel and equipment is certified to a known standard. In the case of
personnel in the UK sector of the North Sea the Certification Scheme for
Weldment Inspection Personnel (CSWIP) scheme for underwater inspectors
has been adopted. The notes in the preface outline the CSWIP organisation.
The scheme certificates four types of inspectors as detailed in the preface. The
more important proficiencies for each level of certification are outlined below
Figure 18.11
Chain of Command and Lines
of Responsibility
18.4. Managing Individual Tasks
Even though an inspection is anomaly based the fact that all components
have actually been inspected must be recorded as well as the fact that every
task has been fully completed. As any inspection task is likely to have
several elements, cleaning, marking, CVI, MPI etc, as well as any
component may be subjected to more than one inspection method (task)
then keeping track of the precise state of an inspection campaign can
become very difficult. A method that may help is to keep a ‘tally board’ or
spread sheet. Table 18.12 refers.
Component CVI MPI CP Phot ACFM DTM FMD
NJ56 X X X
MF55 X X X X
FF31 X X X
MF49 X X X
NC14 X X X
Table 18.12
Sample Spread Sheet
The sample spread sheet shows that component NJ56 must be visually
inspected, be non-destructively tested by MPI and have photographs taken.
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As the various inspections are completed the dates are entered into the
boxes. Additional boxes may be required for tasks with additional sub-tasks,
CVI will normally require cleaning to SA 2 ½ and so on.
19. Personnel Responsibilities
On an annual platform inspection the inspection controller will need a full
understanding of the responsibilities of all the members of the management
team offshore and onshore. A resume of the salient responsibilities for these
team members is laid out below.
19.1. The IDVB
The IDVB is government approved to act in the capacity of verification that
the Duty Holder has discharged his responsibilities under the appropriate
legislation. The five IDVB are listed in paragraph 1. Regarding the IMR
program the Duty Holder remains responsible that the program is sufficiently
detailed to ensure that the structure remains fit for role. The IDVB verifies
this fact only.
19.2. The Operator, Client, Operating Company, Duty Holder
The Duty Holder is responsible in law to ensure that the structure remains in
a safe condition so as not to endanger personnel and is fit for design
purpose. The client is the party contracting for the IMR services.
19.3. The Client’s Project Manager
The project manager for the client will be a nominated engineer from the
operating company’s engineering department. He will receive daily reports,
be responsible for the day to day administration of the contract for the Duty
Holder and will issue any instructions regarding the requirements for the
contract and any follow up requirements for the Duty Holder The CAR
reports to him directly.
19.4. The Client’s Representative {Client Approved Representative
(CAR)}
The CAR will oversee the works being carried out offshore and will be the
Project Manager’s on site representative. He will ensure that the terms of the
contract are honoured and will pass all information regarding the daily
working of the contract to and from the Project Manager who is on shore.
He will ensure that the contract is conducted to the standard of safety
required by the Duty Holder. He will liaise with the operator’s other offshore
managers such as the OIM and any other CAR on site. Any additional work
will be authorised by the Project Manager but the CAR will give the on site
instructions.
The CAR is responsible for the acceptance of all the inspection data
including, CDs, Videos, Photographs etc.
Contractually he may be authorised to stop work if contractual requirements
are not complied with and he may stop work or diving if he considers that
safety is compromised. He cannot order a dive to start. He may only inform
the Dive Supervisor that all the safety and administration requirements are in
place.
19.5. The Legal Representative
The client’s legal department will interpret the legal contractual requirements
and advise the Project Manager accordingly.
19.6. The Contractor
This is the party providing the actual services specified in the contract. This
will be the offshore contracting company providing the vessel, services and
staff to fully comply with the contract requirements. The contractor has a
legal obligation to health and safety to provide a safe workplace and
procedures.
19.7. The Inspection Controller
May be employed by the contractor, a third party or the client. He is
responsible for the efficient management of the inspection program,
ensuring that all procedures are properly applied and fully implemented. He
plans the dive tasks with the Dive Supervisor and the Superintendent or
Offshore Manager or Party Chief. He briefs divers, supervisors, and pilots on
the overall tasks for the next 24 hours. He ensures that all data is correctly
stored and reports anomalies to the Offshore Manager and CAR. He will
liaise between, the Offshore Manager, the CAR, the Captain, and the OIM
and on shore Project Managers as required.
19.8. The Superintendent, Offshore Manager, Party Chief
This person is the contractor’s offshore project manager. He will be in overall
command of the entire offshore contractor’s spread with regard to
contractual requirements, administration and logistics. He is the team leader
and has to ensure the efficient running of the entire project on a daily basis.
He will liaise with the CAR, the contractor’s on shore project manager and
the client’s Project Manager. The Inspection Controller is directly responsible
to him.
19.9. The Dive Supervisor
The Dive Supervisor is responsible for the safety of any person under
pressure while under his direct supervision. He is the only person who can
initiate a dive. He can terminate the dive at any time that he feels the
wellbeing or safety of the divers is in jeopardy. He is not responsible for
saturation divers while they are in the saturation chambers on deck not in
the diving bell.
19.10. The Captain
The ship’s master is responsible for the safety of all persons on board the
vessel whether crew, passengers, supernumeries or even stowaways. He
can stop the diving on safety grounds but he cannot start a dive.
19.11. The OIM
He is the manager of the offshore installation and controls the daily activities
of anyone on the platform and for 500m around the platform. He controls all
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Chapter 18
the work activities for the entire platform and the 500m zone and can order
work of any kind to stop.
19.12. The Divers
The divers are required to be fully qualified for the type of diving they are
employed for and must have appropriate inspection qualifications on an
inspection project. They are directly responsible to the Dive Supervisor.
19.13. ROV Supervisor
He is responsible that the ROV remains operational for the agreed
contractual periods daily. He must ensure that all specified equipment is fully
serviceable and correctly calibrated. The ROV Pilots are directly responsible
to him. He is directly responsible to the Offshore Manager. He may be
qualified to CSWIP 3.3U.
19.14. ROV Pilots
The pilots are responsible to the ROV Supervisor. They will be responsible
for servicing, maintaining and flying the ROV safely. On an inspection
contract sufficient numbers of pilots must be CSWIP 3.3U qualified.
20. Decommissioning
When the fields become depleted the various platforms and seabed
completions will be removed. The QA and QC will continue throughout this
process to ensure that everything actually is removed and to verify that the
ocean floor is left clear of any debris.
Bibliography
A Handbook for Underwater Inspectors
L K Porter
HMSO
Underwater Inspection
M Bayliss, D Short, M Bax
E & F N Spon
CHAPTER 19
Other NDT Methods Used Offshore
1. Introduction
There are a number of non-destructive test methods employed for particular
inspection tasks on offshore structures. These methods may not be used so
frequently as the NDT techniques outlined in Chapters 13 and 14 but they are
important additions to the spread of techniques that can be employed to test
structural integrity. An outline of the methods principles of operation,
advantages and disadvantages and uses is contained below.
2. Radiography
Radiography is a well-proven method of NDT that has been employed in
industry for many years to test welds and many other items. It is extensively
used in the Health Service as X-rays to enable health workers to see inside the
human body. Offshore radiography is used in pipeline survey, topside platform
inspections and occasionally underwater for specific tasks. The world’s Navies
employ radiography for specialist mine disposal activities. Table 19.1 indicates
the advantages and disadvantages of the method as a non-destructive test.
Advantages Disadvantages
Permanent records are produced as Safety requirements are very high
radiographs
The radiograph can be viewed by Storage and transport of the
many radioactive sources are expensive
due to the safety requirements
It is a well proven method In the UK Government approval is
required
Measurements can usually be taken The radiographers must be HSE
directly off the radiograph controlled and carry dosimeters
Cleaning standard is only SA 1 Costs are high because of the safety
requirements and the production
methods to produce radioactive
isotopes
Interpretation of the radiograph often
requires trained radiographic
interpreters
Table 19.1
Advantages and Disadvantages
of Radiography as an NDT Technique
3. Production of Radiation
Radiography employs two methods of producing radiation and two types of
radiation, X-rays and Gamma (γ) rays. X-rays are produced electronically and
therefore there is no storage of radioactive sources but the equipment is bulky
and heavy, γ rays are produced by radioactive isotopes that are always a
source of radiation and are therefore always potentially harmful to personnel
and storage must be extremely carefully controlled.
3.1. X-ray Production
X-rays can be produced within a thermionic valve where a stream of
electrons emitted from the cathode bombards an anode. The impact of the
electrons on the anode produces photons or X-rays. See Figure 19.2
Figure 19.2
Production of X-rays
As well as being bulky and heavy high voltages are required to produce the
electron stream and this presents a hazard to diver deployment.
Commercially this equipment is not used underwater.
3.2. Production of γ Rays
γ Radiation is produced by the spontaneous disintegration of the nuclei of an
unstable element as it emits particles thereby reducing to a lower energy
state to become stable. The units of measure of this radiation are the Curie
(Ci).
Some radioactive isotopes exist naturally but they emit low levels of
radiation and commercially artificial isotopes are produced by bombarding
certain elements, such as Iridium, with neutrons. This changes the atomic
structure of the element because the neutrons are captured in its nucleus.
The most common source used offshore is Iridium 192, which has a
radiation output of some 480 Ci when first produced. This drops as the
isotope ages. Iridium 192 can penetrate approximately 90mm of steel but is
Issue 1.0 Rev 0
Issue date: 1 April 2006
Page 453 of 532
Tuition Notes for 3.4U Course
Other NDT Methods Used Offshore
Figure 19.3
Diver Deployed Radioactive Source in Housing
Issue 1.0 Rev 0
Issue date: 1 April 2006
Page 454 of 532
Tuition Notes for 3.4U Course
Chapter 19
Figure 19.4
Source Placed at 12 O’clock
Setup for First Exposure
(Arrow indicates direction of 3 o’clock)
Figure 19.5
Source Connected to Surface Unlocked
With Key Removed Ready to be Exposed
Figure 19.6
Placing Film Cassettes For Double Wall
Single Image Technique
4. Safety
It is imperative to maintain an 8m-exclusion zone at all times. The most
important factor when handling radioactive sources is safety; there can be no
compromise. The company supplying the source, equipment and radiographers
must be Home Office approved and the staff are all ‘badged’ and monitored.
5. How the Method Works
The radiation emitted from the source will cause silver halides contained in the
film emulsion to react in the same way that light causes a reaction in
photography. The more radiation falling on the film the darker it will appear
when developed. Figure 19.7 illustrates the method.
Figure 19.7
Radiation Exposing the Film
The preferred method of recording an image is the single wall, single image or
panoramic technique, which is illustrated in Figure 19.8. The alternative when
there is only access to one side is the double wall single image technique as
shown in Figure 19.6.
Figure 19.8
Single Wall Single Image or
Panoramic Technique
Figure 19.9
Image Quality Indicator
6. Electro Magnetic Detection Techniques (EMD or EMT)
Eddy current testing of welds is widespread offshore because developments
have taken place to improve the equipment design to better adapt it to the
environment. Eddy current techniques are used to: -
Detect and size for length and depth surface breaking cracks in
conducting materials whether magnetic or non-magnetic
Inspecting tubes and bar materials during production
Sorting pure metals and alloys
Taking coating thickness measurements
Assessing stress in conducting materials
Figure 19.10
The Eddy Current Principle
These eddy currents will induce another magnetic field that is called the
secondary field, which has the opposite orientation to the primary field.
These two fields can be balanced via the instrumentation that can have a
display that would then read zero.
This would be the case with a plane conducting material with no
discontinuities. If there were a surface breaking crack in the plate this will
cause the lines of current flow to bunch together which in turn will cause the
induced lines of magnetic flux to bunch. As seen in Chapter 14 this
increases the flux density, this in turn increases the magnetic field strength
in the secondary magnetic field. This causes an imbalance between the two
fields that will be indicated on the instrument display, which is commonly a
CRT. Figure 19.11 refers.
Figure 19.11
Effects of a Crack
Interacting With the
Eddy Currents
There are a number of factors that can affect the eddy currents apart from
surface breaking cracks: -
Probe lift off can cause spurious indications
Varying permeability can cause spurious indications
If the probe is close to the edge of a plate “edge effect” will cause spurious
indications
Differenced in material thickness can cause spurious indications
Figure 19.12 refers
Figure 19.12
Spurious Indications
Can size a defect for length and Well proven industrial technique
depth
Lower cleaning standard required Better for use with remedial grinding
Table 19.13
Advantages of EMD/ACFM Over MPI
Finally there are a number of important points to note that must apply during
any EMD or ACFM inspection.
The probe operation must be agreed between the surface technician and the
diver inspector
The terminology to be used during the dialogue between the technician and
the diver inspector must be agreed and understood by both
Cleaning standard must be a minimum of SA 2
The diver inspector must appreciate the important points concerning probe
manipulation and know the name of the parts of the probe
Figure 19.14
Methodology for ACPD
To size the depth of the crack the two readings are compared and a simple
formula is applied to calculate the actual crack depth. A probe designed for
underwater deployment is shown in Figure 19.15.
Figure 19.15
ACPD Underwater Probe
8. Alternating Current Field Measurement (ACFM)
ACFM will find and size surface-breaking defects in most metals even through
coatings up to 5mm thick. ACFM has largely replaced MPI offshore in the UK
sector of the North Sea. The method is applied by diver inspectors and may be
achievable by ROVs in the near future. The diver inspector manipulates the
probe and the surface technician interprets the results and records the data.
The minimum qualification for the diver inspector is 3.1U. A 3.2U diver inspector
is often specified, however as remedial grinding may be necessary. The
scanning techniques and terminology are as for the EMD techniques in
paragraph6.1 above. ROV deployed probes will require 3.3U qualified
personnel.
Cleaning standard of SA 1 is required.
8.1. How the Method Works
The ACFM method was evolved to combine the ACPD technique of sizing
with a method that does not require surface contact. This is achieved by
inducing an electric field similar to EMD methods. With ACFM the induced
electric field then induces magnetic fields as with EMD methods and these
magnetic fields are measured electronically to determine crack length and
depth. The fact that electric fields exhibit the skin effect is utilised to confine
the measurement of the magnetic field to the crack area only. Figure 19.16
refers.
Figure 19.16
Principle of Operation of ACFM
8.2. Application of the Technique
The standard ACFM probe contains both the field induction and the
magnetic field sensors in one probe assembly. No electrical contact is
required to the worksite and therefore cleaning to SA 1 is sufficient.
There are two cables connected to the probe, one for input current to the
field induction unit and one to carry output current from the magnetic field
sensors. These two cables are contained in a single umbilical. Care should
be exercised not to pass this close to the probe assembly as it could alter
the induced field strength.
The diver inspector under directions from the surface technician manipulates
the probe. The surface technician will brief the diver as detailed in paragraph
6.1 before the inspection. Interpretation is completed on the surface by the
surface technician and the results are all recorded in real time and can be
reviewed at any time during or after the inspection.
The system does not suffer from probe lift off as EMD does. Cracks can be
sized for length and depth.
9. Flooded Member Detection (FMD)
Flooded members can be detected in two ways
Gamma γ Radiography
Ultrasonically
The most widely used in the North Sea is radiography.
FMD is used to identify tubular members that have flooded. It is used as a batch
testing method on a “go/no go” system. If a member is tested and found to be
dry it is a “go” and considered to be serviceable and fit for purpose. If it is
flooded it is a “no go” and is identified for further follow up analysis and testing
to determine where it has failed, why it has failed and what ramifications this
has on the structure.
9.1. γ Radiographic FMD
This technique places and exposes a γ source on one side of the tubular
while a dosimeter is held opposite on the other side. The radiation
penetrating the tubular will be much less if it is flooded than if it is dry. The
diameter and wall thickness of the member must be known so that the
expected doses may be calculated. The most common source used for this
method is caesium 137 and safety zones must be established around the
ROV when it is on deck with the source fitted. The last person to leave the
ROV before launching is the radiographer and the first person to approach it
on recovery is the radiographer.
No cleaning is required as long as the thickness can be assessed as the
software will compensate for the marine growth.
Figure 19.17 illustrates the technique and Figure 19.18 shows a typical
configuration on an ROV.
Figure 19.17
Radiographic FMD
Figure 19.18
Radiographic FMD Mounted on ROV
Figure 19.19
Ultrasonic FMD
The cleaning standard is SA 2. As this method is diver deployed the
necessary cleaning can be accomplished by the diver prior to taking the
reading.
10. General Point for all FMD Readings
All FMD readings must be taken at either the 6 o’clock position on any
horizontal members or as low as possible on any vertical or vertical diagonal
members. This is because this is the point where liquid will accumulate. It is
also vital to know the diameter and wall thickness of any member that is to be
tested.
Bibliography
A Handbook for Underwater Inspectors
L K Porter
HMSO
Underwater Inspection
M Bayliss, D Short, M Bax
E & F N Spon
CHAPTER 20
Cleaning for Inspection and Profile Grinding
1. General Comments
There are two prime reasons for cleaning areas of structures. The first is to
prepare the area for CVI, MPI or other NDT. The second is to remove excessive
marine growth, debris or other fouling. In either case only discrete areas of the
structure will be cleaned, not the entire jacket. A number of methods for
cleaning exist and are tabulated in Table 20.1
Table 20.1
2. HP Water Jets
HP water jets are widely used offshore as are the grit entrainment and LP grit
blasting systems. These methods of cleaning have potential to harm the
operator and therefore some safety considerations must be included with any
discussion as to their use. A Hughes standard system is shown in Figure 20.2
Figure 20.2
Hughes HP Water Jet
Safety considerations are:
Never block or wire the trigger open
When in use never point at anything other then the area to be cleaned
Keep clear of any retro-jets
Never get any part of the body in front of the jet
Ensure that all HP hoses, fittings and unions are in test, good condition and are
correctly fitted and tightened
If grit is used be aware of the grit entering the life-support system because of
circulation in the water
If grit penetrates the suit or gloves take medical advice immediately
Treat the equipment with respect, it is capable of maiming or even killing if not
handled correctly
All HP water jet or grit guns must be properly designed for underwater use.
2.1. Diving Medical Advisory Committee (DMAC) Advice
The Diving Medical Advisory Committee (DMAC) has published the following
advice on managing any accident that might occur while using this type of
equipment.
The wound caused may appear insignificant and give little indication of the
extent of the injury beneath ant the damage to deeper tissue. Large
quantities of water may have punctured the skin, flesh and organs through a
very small hole that may not even bleed.
Initial mild damage to the wall of an organ may result in subsequent rupture,
particularly if infection has been introduced. The development of subsequent
infection is particularly important in abdominal injuries.
2.2. Management of any Injury
The outcome depends upon the extent of the initial injury and the presence
or absence of infection, and even through the injury seems trivial on the
surface and the patient has no complaints, it is of great importance to
arrange for medical examination as quickly as possible. Where surgical
examination is not immediately possible in a remote situation, first aid
measures are confined to dressing the wound and observing the patient
closely for the development of further complaints over four or five days. The
development of fever and a rising pulse rate suggest the injury is serious
together with persistence or occurrence of pain. On evacuation, the diver
should carry the following card, which outlines the possible nature of the
injury.
This man has been involved with high pressure water jetting up to 14,500
psi (100Mpa, 1000 bar, 1019 Kgcm-2) with a jet velocity of 900 mph
(1440 Kmhr-1). Please take this into account when making your
diagnosis. Unusual infections with micro-aerophilic organism occurring at
low temperatures have been reported. These may be gram negative
pathogens such as are found in sewage, bacterial swabs and blood
cultures may therefore be helpful
3. Standard of Surface Finish
The standard of surface finish that is normally adopted in the North Sea was
originally a Swedish standard for specifying blast cleaning of steel prior to the
application of paint coatings. This standard in now incorporated into BS EN ISO
8501-1:2001, BS 7079-A1: 1989 and .BS EN ISO 8501-1: Supplement: 2001,
BS 7079-A1: Suppliment 1: 1996 The specifications from these standard
normally applied offshore are:
SA 1 Light cleaning, removal of gross fouling (for general visual inspection)
SA 2 Cleaning to paint coat including removal of loose paint and corrosion
products
SA 2 ½ Very thorough blast cleaning with grit entrainment resulting in dull
matt metal finish. (This is the most widely adopted cleaning level
applied offshore as it leave a surface, sometimes referred to as
stippled, that does not unduly reflect light. It is an excellent surface
for CVI, MPI CCTV, Photography and all other NDT.)
SA 3 Thorough blast cleaning to bright shiny metal. This is good for most
inspection but will reflect light and is therefore not such a good surface if
CCTV and Photography are employed.
4. Area to Be Cleaned
The size of the cleaned area must be large enough to ensure that there is a
valid inspection but small enough to ensure that time is not wasted in un-
necessary cleaning.
For CVI and MPI the area cleaned to SA 2 ½ should include the weld and an
area 75mm wide either side of it. Also an area large enough to allow access for
inspection equipment and the diver inspector should be cleaned to SA 1 either
side of the weld. An area approximately 1m wide should be sufficient. See
Figure 20.3.
Figure 20.3
Cleaned Area
5. General Applications of Profile Grinding
Profile grinding may be required during the fabrication stage of the structure’s
life as a means of improving the profile of fabrication welds that may have
process faults such as, excessive weld metal, undercut, poor restart, stray arc,
spatter or any other fabrication flaws. If pressure vessels such as caissons and
conductors are constructed to PD 5500:2000 all welds should be dressed to
comply with the requirements of the standard. Profile grinding obviously has an
established place in welding fabrication.
Regarding the in-service stage for any structure the need to employ
profile grinding may be dictated by:
The need to establish whether or not any indications identified during
MPI or EMD investigations are actually cracks
The requirement to grind out any cracks that are actually confirmed
during inspection activities
The practice of removing identified notches and stress raisers discovered
during the normal IMR cycle
When profile or remedial grinding is undertaken it will be authorised either by
the CNC or by instructions from the Duty Holder’s engineering department via
the on site Client Representative. The actual parameters for the grinding will be
given in a written instruction.
6. Specific Application of Profile Grinding
The most common application of remedial grinding is when crack-like features
are identified during either MPI or EMD activities undertaken as part of the
annual IMR program.
A common inclusion in a typical CNC is the instruction to grind out any
indications to a maximum depth of 2mm in 0.5mm steps. There is normally a
requirement to re-inspect after each step to determine whether the indication
has been ground out or not.
The on-shore engineering department in accordance with their requirements
and procedures will initiate further follow up actions if the indication remains
after the full 2mm depth is reached. Figure 20.4 applies.
Figure 20.4
Remedial Grinding
Bibliography
A Handbook for Underwater Inspectors
L K Porter
HMSO
Underwater Inspection
M Bayliss, D Short, M Bax
E & F N Spon
APPENDIX 1
Technical Drawings – How They Apply to
Inspection
1. Types of Drawing
An engineering drawing is a type of drawing that is technical in nature, used to
fully and clearly define requirements for engineered items, and is usually
created in accordance with standardized conventions for layout, nomenclature,
interpretation, appearance (such as typefaces and line styles), size, etc.
Engineering drawings are often referred to as "blueprints" or "bluelines".
However, the terms are rapidly becoming an anachronism, due to the fact that
most copies of engineering drawings that were formerly made using a chemical-
printing process that yielded graphics on blue-colored paper or, alternatively, of
blue-lines on white paper, have been superseded by more modern reproduction
processes.
The process of producing engineering drawings, and the skill of producing
them, is often referred to as technical drawing, although technical drawings are
also required for disciplines that would not ordinarily be thought of as parts of
engineering.
Common features of engineering drawings
A variety of line styles are used to graphically represent physical objects. Types
of lines include the following:
visible - are continuous lines used to depict edges directly visible from a
particular angle.
hidden - are short-dashed lines that may be used to represent edges that are
not directly visible.
center - are alternately long- and short-dashed lines that may be used to
represent the axes of circular features.
cutting plane - are thin, medium-dashed lines, or thick alternately long- and
double short-dashed that may be used to define sections for section views.
section - are thin lines in a parallel pattern used to indicate surfaces in section
views resulting from "cutting." Section lines are commonly referred to as "cross-
hatching."
Here is an example of an engineering drawing. The different line types are
colored for clarity.
Black = object line and hatching
Red = hidden line
Blue = center line
Magenta = phantom line or cutting plane
2. Engineering Drawing
In most cases, a single view is not sufficient to show all necessary features, and
several views are used. Types of views include the following:
2.1. Multiple views and projections
Orthographic projection - show the object as it looks from the front, right,
left, top, bottom, or back, and are typically positioned relative to each other
according to the rules of either first-angle or third-angle projection. Not all
views are necessarily used, and determination of what surface constitutes
the "front," etc., varies from object to object. "Orthographic" comes from the
Greek for "straight writing (or drawing)."
Section - depict what the object would look like if it were cut perfectly along
cutting plane lines defined in a particular view, and rotated 90° to directly
view the resulting surface(s), which are indicated with section lines. They are
used to show features not externally visible, or not clearly visible.
Detail - show portions of other views, "magnified" for clarity.
Auxiliary Projection - similar to orthographic projections, however the
directions of viewing are other than those for orthographic projections.
Isometric - show the object from angles in which the scales along each axis
of the object are equal. It corresponds to rotation of the object by ± 45°
about the vertical axis, followed by rotation of approximately ± 35.264° [=
arcsin(tan(30°))] about the horizontal axis starting from an orthographic
projection view. "Isometric" comes from the Greek for "same measure."
Key To Indicate
First Angle Projection
Key To Indicate
Third Angle Projection
5. Additional Information Included on Drawings
Although writing on drawings is kept to the minimum; Notes--textual information-
-are also typically included in drawings, specifying details not otherwise
conveyed. Notes are almost always in completely uppercase characters, for
uniformity and maximal legibility after duplication of the drawing, which may
involve substantial reduction in size. Leaders may be used in conjunction with
notes in order to point to a particular feature or object that the note concerns.
Drawings are numbered in accordance with the system incorporated into the
QA system. The actual drawing number is included in the Title box.
Titles are concise and normally in the bottom right hand corner of the drawing.
They are normally all in upper case. Typically the Title box includes:
Project title
Drawing number
Drawing title
Description of the project
Scale
Date of drawing
Office of origin
Office drawing project number
Draftsman name
Approval signatures
6. Size of Engineering Drawings
Sizes of drawings typically comply with either of two different standards, metric
or U.S. Customary, according to the following tables:
Bibliography
Wikipedia
The free encyclopedia
APPENDIX 2
Exercise in Writing an Engineering Description of
a Component
1. What Is Required
The CSWIP 3.3U and 3.4U practical examinations both require that a written
description of a component be prepared and submitted for assessment. A
photograph of the component will be provided and the candidate must write a
description of the feature in engineering terms, in approximately 150 words.
This is an engineering description to ensure that the candidate can discuss
engineering items with other engineers. It is not an inspection of the component.
This exercise mimics this examination requirement. You are required to prepare
a written description of the item shown in the photograph in Figure A2.1 in
approximately 150 words. On completion of the exercise submit your
description to the course instructor and he will give you an assesment of it.
When you have digested the assessment attempt a second description of the
item in Figure A2.2 and submit this for the instructor to assess.
2. Points to Note
Take into account the following points while preparing your description.
What material do you assess the component is made from?
Only describe the specific features of the item that you can actually see
What function does the item fulfill? Is it a clamp or a guide?
How is it constructed? Is it welded or bolted?
Are there any attachements to the item such as bonding wires?
Can you see evidence of bolts, liners or any other features normally
associated with the component?
Figure A2.1
Component One
Figure A2.2
Component Two
Figure A2.3
Component Three
APPENDIX 3
Types, Capabilities and Limitations of ROVs and
Submersibles
1. ROV Classification
ROV classifications as stated in Chapter 21 are specified in IMCA guidance
note 051. Some extra notes on the capabilities and limitations of the various
types of vehicle are laid out below. A typical system is illustrated in Figure A3.1.
Figure A3.1
Typical ROV System
2. Class 1 Pure Observation
Pure observation vehicles are physically limited in size and power and will
provide live video only. This type of vehicle has limited applications but has the
advantage of being very easy to mobilise and deploy. A class 1 vehicle is
shown in Figure A3.2.
Figure A3.2
Class 1 ROV
This type of vehicle may be used for diver support. When engaged in this task
the diver’s safety is enhanced as is the efficiency by: -
Locating the job site
Providing a real time overview of the diver’s work
Provide extra lighting
Monitoring the diver’s well being
3. Class II Observation With Payload Option
These are vehicles that can carry additional sensors such as CP probes and
sonar as well as additional cameras. They may have simple manipulators fitted
of the two function extend and grab type. These are slightly more powerful
vehicles that are capable of performing their original design function with at
least two additional functions added. They will have multiplexing facilities and
some spare umbilical capacity. See Figure A3.3
Figure A3.3
Class 2 ROVs
Figure A3.5
Figure A3.6
Class 3 ROV Components
Figure A3.7
Subsea Offshore “Pioneer”
Figure A3.8
Slingsby Engineering
Multi-role Vehicle (MRV)
Figure A3.9
Hydrovision Diablo
Figure A3.10
Perry Tritech Super Scorpio
This type of vehicle may have a considerable payload fitted including: -
Side-scan Sonar gives object location to both sides of the ROV
Sub-bottom profiler measures a section through the seabed strata and
indicates composition. The ROV must maintain an altitude of 5 – 6cm
Parametric sub-bottom profiler uses an array of transducers to obtain
a panormic view of the seabed
3D mapping sonar an array of transducers provide a 3 dimensional view
of the seabed
Scanning sonar shows a sonar picture of the seabed in front of the
ROV
Ranging Sonar or Avoidance sonar an echo-location sonar that
gives a bearing and distance to an object in range of the sonar beam
Bathymetric Unit (Altimeter) measures depth and altitude, can be
linked to thursters to maintain depth automatically
Ultrasonic trench profiler provides an image of the pipeline trench
Spot-scan trench profiler a high frequency scanning device that
provides either a longitudinal or lateral trench profile
Spot-scan profiler profiles the pipeline by laser scanning
Pipe-tracker a magnetometer that plots the pipe by detecting magnetic
anomalies
Laser sizing and ranging lasers can give accurate ranges to objects
and can also size even quite small objects such as dents in the pipeline
SIT cameras low light monochrome video camera
Lights
Pan and Tilt Camera
Boom Cameras
Emerergency Acoustic Transponder
Emergency High Intensity Flashing Strobe Light
Gyro compass
Depth sensor
Digital Still Camera
Stero Cameras (if required) photogrammetry in real time is
available to give accurate dimensions of any anomalies
Current Density probe
CP probe
Ultrasonic digital thickness meter measures pipeline wall
thickness when required.
Temperature sensor
Salinity sensor
Odometer
Acoustic responder
Pipe tracker
Wheels
Sampling Equipment
A diagram of a typical pipeline survey ROV is shown in Figures 21.11 and 21.12
Figure 21.11
Diagram of a Typical
Pipeline Survey ROV
Figure 21.12
Diagram of a Typical
Pipeline Survey ROV Front View
Figure A3.13
Soil Machine Dynamics Bottom Crawling Cable Burial ROV
Figure A3.14
Slingsby Engineering ROV 128
Cable Burial/Retrieval System
6. Class V Prototype or Development Vehicle
This type of vehicle is either under development or does not fit into any of the
other four categories.
7. General Work Completed by ROVs
There are numerous tasks completed by ROVs and as the technology improves
so the number of tasks increases. The type of work completed by ROVs
currently includes: -
General survey with video
General survey with sonar
Close inspection wit video
Riser inspection
Pipeline surveys
Scour survey
Debris survey
CP survey
Recording details photographically
Stereo-photographic survey
Flooded Member Detection
8. Pipeline Survey
Work class ROVs are used extensively for pipeline survey work. While pipelines
appear to be simple structures there are a number of features associated with
them that are warrant of note.
8.1. Pipeline Features
A selection of the more important pipeline features follows but see also
Chapter 2.
Risers pipe work that carries product up to or down from the production
facility
Riser Clamp clamp that holds the riser in place on the jacket
PLEM Pipeline End Manifold, which is the termination of the
pipeline under an SBM
Valves positioned strategically along the pipeline to control the flow of
product
Flanges the ends of pipes that are bolted together to form a sealed joint
between two pipe runs
Weight coat reinforced concrete coating applied to the pipe to provide: -
Protection from physical damage
Passivate the pipe to provide corrosion protection
Add weight to the pipe to provide some stability
Trenches trenches to bury the pipeline for protection and stability
Rock dumps 200mm graded rocks dumped onto sections of pipe where
protection and stability are required but trenching cannot be accomplished
Cross-over a point on the pipeline where one line crosses over
another. Each pipe is prevented from touching the other by purpose built
bridges or grout bags. Pipeline protection frames (igloos) may be built over
the crossing.
Kilometre post every kilometre is marked on the pipeline survey plan.
These plans are used to navigate the vessel to the correct geographical
position for the survey
Saddle blocks large concrete constructions in the shape of a horse saddle
that are used to anchor the pipeline to the seabed
Expansion loops large purpose designed u bends in the pipeline built
in to provide for the expansion and contraction of the pipeline caused by
thermal or mechanical expansions and contractions
Tie-in the seabed location where a pipeline is joined to a riser,
PLEM another pipe or a manifold etc
10. Submersibles
Submersibles may be un-manned or manned. It is more common to deploy
manned submersibles. Both types are used for specialised tasks and neither is
a widely used as ROVs.
10.1. Autonomous Unmanned Vehicles (AUV)
These have been deployed for seabed mapping and pipeline inspection.
They are normally deployed pre-programmed and fly the mission on this
program. Their use is limited. Advantages and disadvantages are
summarised in Table A3.15
Bibliography
Handbook for ROV Pilot/Technicians
Chris Bell, Mel Bayliss, Richard Warburton
OPL
APPENDIX 4
Communications Techniques
1. General Comments
Good communications are crucial to any project and offshore inspection
campaigns are no exception.
2. Diver Communications
Since the traditional diver rope signals were initiated to have some
communications with a working diver technology has taken over. The
communications to a diver now generally consist of hard wire communications
systems with de-scramblers on line when divers breath helium. The usual
system is simplex with the diver having priority. A press to talk switch (pressel
switch) must be depressed to be able to speak to the diver.
It is possible to have a duplex or round robin system which is more like a
telephone with both parties able to talk at the same time.
Through water communications are available but are mainly used by police
divers and archaeologists.
It is common to use a very loose radio voice procedure when using these
systems and at times the speech reproduction is quite poor.
3. Normal Communications Systems
These vary in different parts of the world but in the North Sea the following are
all available:
Telephone (both internal and to shore)
Two way intercoms (internal and to other vessels)
Electronic mail
The telephone systems may be satellite or cell phone. The methods of
communication over the two way systems are all based loosely on radio voice
procedure but of course the telephone systems are used as for normal
conversation.
4. Voice Procedure
Radio communications use voice procedures to ensure that the system runs as
smoothly as possible. The following points should always be observed:
Distress calls always have precedence over any other call absolutely
Keep conversations brief and to the point, do not “chat” or be un-
necessarily verbose, which will tie up the air ways
Do not break into other person’s calls listen out before transmission.
Unless it is a matter of urgency or distress to break in
Do not use swear words on the air
Do not stammer or use “er” or “um” think of what you want to say before
you speak
Speak clearly and with a normal speech rhythm (RSVP)
Use the proword “over” when you finish your sentence and expect a reply
or use the proword “out” when you finish your sentence and do not
expect a reply
Use the proword “roger” to acknowledge reception of the other person’s
transmission
4.1. The Phonetic Alphabet
This is an international set of standard words used in place of letters. Alpha
stands for letter A and Bravo for letter B etc. The full alphabet is:
A Alpha N November
B Bravo O Oscar
C Charlie P Papa
D Delta Q Quebec
E Echo R Romeo
F Foxtrot S Sierra
G Golf T Tango
H Hotel U Uniform
I India V Victor
J Juliet W Whisky
K Kilo X X-ray
L Lima Y Yankee
M Mike Z Zulu
Appendix 5
Extract of Offshore
Technology Report OTH 84 206
1. Category A (Defects)
Cracks
Cracks can be divided into three categories:
Fine cracks – not more than 1mm wide
Medium cracks – between 1mm and 2mm wide
Wide cracks – more than 2mm wide
The edges of the fracture are normally sharp and the aggregate may also be
fractured. The usual cause is structural movement. Although all concrete
structures have some cracks in them they will not become significant until they
are measurable, which usually only occurs in-service
Delamination
A Delamination is a thin sheet of concrete, which has become partially or
completely detached from the main structure. Beneath the Delamination the
surface of the structure is much rougher and shows aggregate. Delamination is
caused by corrosion of a layer of reinforcement or possibly impact damage and
is principally an in-service defect
Pop-out
A pop out is a small conical depression in the concrete surface, usually with a
piece of corroding reinforcement at its base. It is caused by the expansion of
isolated particles in the concrete or by corrosion of the ends of reinforcing bars.
This causes the surface of the concrete to be put under tension and will so
produce local failure in the form of a conical piece of the concrete popping out
from the structure. The edges will usually be sharp and well defined. Pop outs
are an in-service defect
Impact Damage
Impact damage is described as a rough area in which the smooth surface of the
concrete has been removed by means of a blow or impact. It is caused by a
blow from an object, which will dislodge part of the structure usually at the
edges or corners. Impact damage could occur either during the construction
phase or the installation phase. It should have been found and corrected
Tearing
Tearing is crack-like in its appearance but the width will vary and the edges are
often rough and indistinct. Coarse aggregate will not be broken. It will be widest
at the mid-length point and it will tend to taper towards the ends. There may be
some indications of rust staining. While the concrete was inside the slip form
shutter it adhered to the surface of the shutter and so when the shutter was
moved upwards the concrete was torn apart
Exposed Reinforcement
The steel reinforcement bars become visible on the surface of the concrete
accompanied by rust staining. There are two ways in which this occurs: either
by displacement of the steelwork during construction or by removal of the
outside covering of concrete during the in-service life of the structure (impact
damage)
Figure A5.15
Exposed Reinforcement
Faulty Repair
Any repair, which allows the ingress of seawater to the reinforcement cage,
should be described as faulty. Normally this will have the appearance of a
patch, which will be of different texture and colour to the surrounding concrete.
There may also be cracking around the edge of the repair and maybe a poor
porous surface to the repair. The cause is normally a defect, which has
occurred during the construction phase and ahs been repaired badly
Figure A5.16
Faulty repair
Variable Cover
Concrete protect the reinforcement cage by passivation but in order for this to
be effective then there must be a minimum thickness of concrete over the
reinforcement. This defect may not be visible but in extreme cases there may
be some rust staining seen. The cause is either due to the reinforcement cage
being displaced or the slip form shutter being dislodged. Variable cover is a
construction defect.
All of the above are defects primarily because they will allow a more or less
unrestricted flow of seawater to the reinforcement cage, thus allowing corrosion
to take place
2. Category B (Areas of Concern)
Embedded Objects
Consists of objects such as wire, nails, wood etc., which have been accidentally
dropped into the concrete while it is still wet and become embedded objects.
They will all have been included at the time of construction
Figure A5.17
Embedded Object
Cast in sockets
The visible description of cast in sockets is just a small hole, which may have
some threads visible inside. They will have been caused by the use of bolt
fixings during the construction phase. The bolts will have been removed leaving
the sockets still embedded in the concrete. They may well be filled with mortar.
Cast in sockets will have been included during the construction phase
Figure A5.18
Cast in Socket
Figure A5.19
Recessed Metal Plate
Water jet damage
Water jets can be used to cut through concrete, so great care must be taken in
order to prevent the damage of the surface of the concrete during cleaning
operations. If damage occurs it will form dark lines in an irregular pattern over
an area of concrete, which has been cleaned. Aggregate may be exposed and
the surface will feel rough to the touch.
The damage is caused by the use of pressures, which are too high, or by the
use of a jet which is too small.
Water jet damage will occur in-service
Figure A5.20
Water Jet Damage
Abrasion
Abrasion can look similar to water jet damage but the surface will be smooth.
Although the aggregate may well be visible the edges will be well defined.
Abrasion will be caused by movement of hard objects against the concreter
wearing away (abrading) the surface of the concrete. This is normally an in-
service problem
Figure A5.21
Abrasion
Figure A5.22
Formwork Misalignment
Blowholes
These will be small holes in the surface of the concrete usually less than 10mm
in diameter with sharp edges. There will not normally be any aggregate visible.
Blowholes are caused by air bubbles being trapped against the formwork face.
There will always be some blowholes in a concrete structure but they will not be
significant unless they are frequent, due to insufficient vibration of the liquid
concrete slurry
They will occur during the construction phase
Figure A5.23
Blowholes
Scabbling
This will have a rough surface appearance due to the surface of the concrete
having been removed so exposing the course aggregate.
This is an intentional removal of the smooth surface, usually prior to placing
further concrete. It will normally be done at the construction phase
Figure A5.24
Scabbling
Rubbing down marks
Irregular marks on the surface of the concrete may have the appearance of
brush marks on wet concrete.
These are caused by the rubbing down of the concrete to remove surface
blemishes as they emerge from the formwork. It may indicate a repair.
Rubbing down marks will have been done at the construction phase
Good repair
This will be a repair, which has a smooth and complete appearance, which in
not likely to allow seawater ingress to the reinforcement cage.
This will have been done to repair a slight defect from the construction phase
Figure A5.25
Good Repair
Regular horizontal ridge
These are ridges formed on the surface of the concrete, which are spaced
regularly and will normally extend all around the structure.
As the slip form shutters rise the concrete should be self-supporting as it
emerges from the bottom of the shutter. The shutter will be jacked up
approximately once every hour and will then be stationary for the next hour.
While the shutter is stationary there is often some sagging of the concrete from
the base of the shutter, which will form a ridge.
This will be formed at the construction phase
Irregular horizontal ridge
Irregular horizontal ridges may be from 50mm to 250mm apart but will not
expose aggregate.
These ridges are a feature of slip forming. The shutters are tapered at the top
and the pressure of each pour of concrete may cause outward movement of the
shutters at the bottom allowing grout seepage below the shutters.
These are formed during the construction phase
Vertical drag marks
These are straight vertical marks with a coarse surface, sometimes referred to
as pebble runs.
Figure A5.26
Vertical Drag Marks
Resin mortar repair
This is a patchy of a plastic type of substance on the surface of the structure.
It indicates that a defect has been repaired, maybe in the service life of the
structure.
It can be an in-service blemish
Figure A5.27
Resin Mortar Repair
Curing compound
These are large areas of coloured coating, which may well be peeling off and
flaking.
Curing compounds are applied to concrete during the construction process to
reduce water loss by evaporation during the curing of the concrete.
Therefore curing compound will be applied during the construction phase
Figure A5.28
Curing Compound
Grout run
These will often be associated with a construction joint and will have the
appearance of ragged, irregular runs of grout, adhering to the surface of the
concrete.
They are formed by the leakage of concrete from the bottom of poorly fitting
shutters. The concrete underneath will be unaffected by the run and so it will not
pose a problem.
Grout runs will be formed during the construction phase
Figure A5.29
Grout Run
4. General Concrete Terms
Spalling
Spalling does not appear as a specific term, this is because spalling is
considered to be a symptom of something more serious. A spall is a loose piece
of concrete, which must have come from a spalled area. One of the Category A
defects will be the cause of the spall.
Grout
Grout is semi-fluid slurry consisting of cement and water.
Gunite
Concrete sprayed by compressed air. Will have high strength and density, used
to repair walls and as weight coat on pipelines. It has a darker colourisation
than normal concrete.
Cable Duct
Cast tubular duct through which the pre-stressing tendons will run. Normally
grout filled after tensioning.
Prestressed concrete
Concrete that has all the tensile and shear stresses relieved by the introduction
of compressive stress on the structure.
Base Raft
Erosion from water borne particles both in the splash zone and near the
seabed may be caused by cavitation in the water flow
Frost damage in the splash zone, water will penetrate the structure to a
degree and will freeze and expand during winter weather thus causing
the concrete to crack and spall
Chemical attack, such as salt attack will cause the concrete to become
softened; it occurs near the surface of the structure and will take a very
long time to show. Alkali Aggregate Reaction from the aggregate can
cause cracking but takes a number of years to manifest itself
Corrosion of the reinforcement can occur if the seawater is allowed to
flow too freely through the concrete reinforcement cage or pre-stressing
tendons. This could lead to catastrophic failure, especially with pre-
stressed structures