Effects theories continued (Bullet theory, Cultivation theory, Spiral of

Silence, Media Hegemony)

Introduction

In continuation of the Effects theories from the previous week, this chapter
takes a look at four more theories that have been applied in the explanation of
the general effects of mass communication on the audience. The theories
under discussion here are: The Bullet theory, Cultivation theory, Spiral of
silence and Media hegemony.

The Bullet theory

This is one of the earliest theories that were used in explaining the effects of
mass communication. Based on the general state of fear, alarm and
uncertainties during the World Wars, people tended to respond en mass to
the propaganda that was being used as part of the warfare. Some media
observers and communication analysts rushed to what has been often
criticized as a 'simplistic conclusion' that communication messages produced
strong and more or less universal effects on all audience members who
happen to be exposed to such messages. In line with the idea of instant and
uniform response to communication, the theory was also known as the
'Hypodermic Needle theory' or the 'Transmission Belt theory'.

The theory implies that the mass media could influence a very large group of
people directly and uniformly by ‘shooting’ or ‘injecting’ them with messages,
which would produce a desired response immediately.

The instruments used as symbols in the theory (a bullet and a needle)

suggest a powerful and direct flow of information from the sender to the
receiver. The bullet theory graphically suggests that the message is a bullet,
fired from the "media gun" into the viewer's "head" and whenever one is hit by
the bullet the response must be to fall. With similarly imagery the hypodermic
needle model suggests that media messages are injected straight into the
body of the receiver and that he or she is immediately influenced by the
message.

Case Study: Orson Welles and "War of the Worlds"

An example of the application of the Bullet Theory was illustrated by Orson

Welles' "War of the Worlds" radio drama. Based on an 1897 science fiction by
H.G Wells titled, "The War of the Worlds", an American actor, Orson Welles,
produced a radio adaptation for broadcast on October 30, 1938. On the eve of
Halloween, radio programming was interrupted with a "news bulletin" for the
first time. The was told that aliens from planet Mars had begun an invasion of
Earth starting from Grover's Mill, New Jersey. It became known as the "Panic
Broadcast" that stirred terror in the hearts of many Americans. Approximately
12 million people in the United States heard the broadcast and about one
million of them actually believed that a serious invasion from Mars was
underway. Consequently, a wave of mass hysteria disrupted lives and work,
religious services were disrupted, and the streets were jammed with traffic as
people tried to seek safer refuge, and communication systems were. People
fled their city homes to seek shelter in more rural areas, some raided grocery
stores to stock up food supplies. As a result of the broadcast, the nation was
in a state of utter chaos that could be likened to the aftermath of the terror
attacks in New York on September 11, 2001.

Criticisms of the Bullet theory

The Bullet theory was severely criticized by later researchers who argued
that:

 The theory had a very limited scope of application if any. This model of
communication was likely to obtain only in situations of wars and
emergencies or in highly autocratic societies when and where
members of the audience have neither time nor platforms to make their
own decisions regarding how to respond to messages, usually from the
authorities.
 It assumed that audience members were gullible and would quickly
respond to any media message they are exposed to.
 It also assumed that the audience was passive and had little or no
intellectual ability to process information before reacting.
 Factors such as biographic differences (e.g. age, gender, educational
qualification) and psychographic characteristics (such as attitudes,
values, emotional state) mean that different individuals are likely to
respond differently to communication messages rather than in a
uniform manner.

As more and more doubts were expressed about the validity of this theory,
some researchers (Lazersfeld et.al., 1944) conducted studies during the 1940
US presidential elections to determine whether campaign messages in the
mass media did produce instant and uniform responses from voters. They
found that contrary to the magic bullet effect, the majority of voters were not
influenced by the campaign propaganda in the mass media. Instead,
interpersonal communication such as campaign rallies and town hall meetings
had more impact on voter decision than the media.
Thus, the bullet theory was overtaken by a variety of other functional theories
such the two-step of flow theory and Diffusion of Innovations.
Today, in the era of interactive communication facilitated by new media such
as the internet, social media (tweeter, Face book, You tube) the Bullet theory
has become even more irrelevant.

Nevertheless, there are some who still believe that communication has instant
and mass impact on audiences. Some have spoken of the growing
manipulation of the human mind by powerful global TV networks and film
makers. In 1985, James Combs, a professor of political science and film
studies, warned that "Students of political communication should learn from
Orwell that in the future, communication can be used to stamp out human
minds."

QUESTIONS FOR CLASS DISCUSSION

 Are there current situations in Pakistan and South Asia in which the
Bullet theory might apply?
 How did the audience in Pakistan react to warnings in the mass media
about COVID-19 in 2020?

Cultivation Theory

"The television set has become a key member of the family, the one who tells
most of the stories most of the time." - (Gerbner et.al 1980)

According to research done by George Gerbner, the average viewer watches

television four hours a day. Heavy viewer watch even more. As Gerbner puts
it, "For heavy viewers, television virtually monopolizes and subsumes other
sources of information, ideas and consciousness." The effect of all this
exposure is what Gerbner calls 'cultivation' -

Cultivation can be defined as the propagation of a common viewpoint,

common roles and common values to the audience.

The Cultivation theory therefore focuses on the enormous appeal of television

and the consequences for social experience - the degree to which our
experience is mediated through the words and images of this dominant
medium. According to George Gerbner and his colleagues at the Annenberg
School of Communication, University of Pennsylvania, television is
responsible for a major 'cultivating' and 'aculturating' process according to
which people are exposed systematically to a selective view of society on
almost every aspect of life, a view which tends to shape their beliefs and
values accordingly. The environment is so monopolized by television that its
lessons are continually learned and relearned. Television is therefore seen as
a social force and agency of socialization and control.
In one of the surveys which led to this theorization, Gerbner and Gross (1976)
found that heavy viewers gave answers (about certain issues) that were
similar to the way those issues were presented on television. Light viewers,
on the other hand, gave responses that were very different from television
reality.

Critics of the Cultivation theory argue that the studies upon which the theory is
based did not control for other variables that might have influenced the
results. They maintain that if such variables were controlled, the effect of
television in cultivation of values or habits might become minimal.

The Spiral of Silence theory

This has been described as "a theory which gives the mass media more
power than many other theories. It was developed by Elizabeth Noelle-
Neumann, and its focus is on the dynamics of public opinion. Neumann
argues that the mass media have powerful effects on public opinion because
of three characteristics: cumulation, ubiquity and consonance of opinions.
These three attributes refer to the unified or common picture of an issue that
is often presented by different media (newspapers, magazines, radio,
television networks and other media).

The Spiral of silence theory states that whenever there is a controversial

issue, people take sides depending on what they perceive to be the dominant
view. People first gauge whether they are among the majority or whether
public opinion is shifting to their position. If they find that they are in the
minority, or that public opinion is changing away from their point of view, they
tend to keep silent. And the more they remain silent, the more other people
feel that the particular point of view is not represented, and the more they also
remain silent, thus creating a spiral or chain of silence. In other words, the
willingness of an individual to speak out on an issue is greatly influenced by
the individual's perception of the climate of opinion. If the climate of opinion
goes against the individual's opinion, he or she will keep quiet. And the reason
for doing so is the fear of isolation.

According to Neumann, the mass media affect this spiral of silence in three
ways:

 They shape impressions about which opinions are dominant

 They shape impressions about which opinions are increasing
 They shape impressions about which opinions one can hold in public
without becoming isolated or seen as insensitive.
Criticisms of the Spiral of silence theory have dwelt on the use of alternative
media, underground movements and even the current explosion of New
media, which are giving voice to the voiceless.

QUESTIONS FOR CLASS DISCUSSION

In most Arab societies, the mass media have powerful effects on public
opinion. They are tightly controlled by government, and therefore there is not
much divergence of public opinion, especially on controversial issues. Yet, the
revolutions that are today known as the Arab Spring did take place. What
was responsible for this shift away from the spiral of silence that could have
prevailed?

Media Hegemony

The concept of 'Hegemony' is derived from Gramsci's 1971 term for a ruling
ideology. According to Karl Marx, "The history of the human race is the history
of class struggles". Societies have dominant classes, be they upper class, the
ruling class, the economic power house, the political leadership, celebrities,
experts, military power, monarchy, and the middle and lower classes. In the
global society, some countries are identified as 'superpowers', 'developed
nations', 'industrialized nations' or 'nuclear powers'. At the other end, there are
'developing', 'emerging' or even 'Third World' nations

Media Hegemony theory states that the mass media play a huge role in
making the ideas of the ruling class in society to become the ruling ideas.

Proponents of this theory argue that the culture of media - news,

entertainment, fiction, adverts and opinions - help to maintain class divisions
and class domination in society. Hegemony refers to ruling ideas dominant in
a society in a way that makes the established order of power and values to
appear natural or normal. The ruling ideology may not be imposed but
appears to exist and accepted by virtue of an unquestioned consensus.
Hegemony defines unacceptable opposition to the status quo as deviant,
dissident, rebellion or even subversion. Thus, hegemony constantly reasserts
definition of social reality. The mass media do not define reality on their own,
but give preferential access to the definitions of those in authority - news
sources, attributions, expert voices, celebrities, news subjects.

The mass media, through ownership, control, content and coverage maintain
or reinforce the class structures that are already in existence. As the mass
media are controlled by the dominant class, they are used to implement the
control of the ruling class over the rest of society.
The role of the mass media in sustaining the ideology of the ruling class
(media hegemony) is based on three assumptions:

 The training and socialization of journalists includes routines,

orientations and guidelines that are influenced by the dominant
ideology
 Journalists tend to cover topics and present news that reflect the
wishes and agenda of the ruling class
 Journalists tend to present pro-American coverage and negative
coverage of foreign countries, especially Third World countries.