POSTGRADUATE DIPLOMA IN TEACHING (PGDT)

JANUARY SEMESTER 2020

HPGD3103

INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES

MATRICULATION NO : CGS02047926
IDENTITY CARD NO. : 910914146341
TELEPHONE NO. : 016-7643578
E-MAIL : NAJMIFSPPP@OUM.EDU.MY
LEARNING CENTRE : MALACCA LEARNING CENTRE
CONTENT PAGE

1.0 INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY

1.1 DEFINITION OF INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY 1

1.2 DEFINITION OF INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN 2

1.3 INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY VS

INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN 4

1.4 LEARNING THEORIES 4

1.4.1 BEHAVIORISM 5

1.4.2 CONSTRUCTIVISM 8

1.4.3 COGNITIVISM 9

2.0 DICK & CAREY MODEL (ONLINE LESSON PLAN) 10

3.0 REFERENCES 19
1.0 INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY

1.1 DEFINITION OF INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY

Instructional Technology is the art and research of creating a learning system and also

coming up with a feedback mechanism into the learning system in such a way that the system is

sensitive to the dynamics of each learning experience individually as well as experience as a

whole of everyone and is built in such a way that the system is ever moving forward in its

effectiveness and delivery of the subject matter.

Instructional technology is technology used to support teaching and learning. Keeping in

mind that technology is one of many tools that teachers have at their disposal, it is important to

remember that instructional technology should add to instruction, not replace it. At the very basic

level, a method or style of delivering information to a student or audience is devised and then put

into action. The delivery technique and audience are then monitored in some way so as to

determine the effectiveness of the delivery process. This feedback data then gives the designers

of the delivery mechanism a way to measure the effectiveness of the process and a chance to

improve upon the process by introducing new elements and/or eliminating ineffective elements

of the delivery method and try again, and again.

When most people think of technology, their first image is of a computer. Certainly,

computers are the primary technology available in schools today. Using computers and

multimedia software, students can create presentations that, unlike their paper and pencil

counterparts, incorporate text, graphics, video, and audio. This capability makes it possible for

students to include images of documents, places and people central to the concepts they are

1
studying. Students can also organize and present what they have learned in formats that support

their learning styles. Computer-based laboratories use probes which, when attached to the

computer, allow students to measure and graph variables such as temperature, force, light, and

pH, and to analyze the relationships between these variables. But technology is more than

computers. While every child may not be able to see animals in the wild, every child can see,

hear, and learn about wild animals through multimedia technology. For an instance, students can

have the opportunity to learn and identify polar bears, lions, and other wild animals through

images, video clips, and sounds on the internet.

Students practice reading and listening skills by answering questions that encourage them

to think about both the science and social living issues related to these animals. Where do these

animals live? What do they eat? Why do some have thick fur? How do they interact with each

other? Students create their own stories about what they have learned using a software program

that allows them to make their own pictures of the animals, assemble them into slide shows, and

print out their own books to share with classmates and family. The teacher takes videos of the

students’ activities as part of their assessment and to share with students and parents.

1.2 DEFINITION OF INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

Instructional Design is defined as “a systematic process” that is employed to develop education

and training programs in a consistent and reliable learning or it can also be thought of as a

framework for developing modules or lessons. Instructional design has caused educators and

trainers to stop and think-to review their goals, to explore new delivery formats, and to re-

conceptualize traditional learning models. It makes educators and trainers more conscious of

their instructional decisions and helps to focus their instructional expectations. Thus, it is

2
important to understand what is meant by "instructional design," what is involved in the process

and what the assumptions/principles are on which it is based. An overview of the field should

also include the rationale for such a process along with a discussion of its advantages and

disadvantages. Finally, the overview should include a look at representative models, the special

need for instructional design in distance education, ways to integrate it into existing

organizations, and ways to use it with conventionally taught courses.

The process of designing, developing, evaluating and managing the entire instructional

process in a systematic way to ensure effective and efficient learning is the definition of

Instructional Design. It is based on theories in instructional and learning, designs of systems,

system of information and management (Morrison, Kemp & Ross, 2001). And instructional

design theory is theory that offers explicit guidance on how to better help people learn and

develop. The kinds of learning and development may include cognitive, emotional, social,

physical and spiritual…There are two major aspects of any instructional situation: the conditions

under which the instruction will take place and the desired outcomes of the instructions.

For this assignment question 2 , the model that we focused on is Dick and Carey Model.

It is a procedural system including ten major process components (nine basic steps in an iterative

cycle and a culminating evaluation of the effectiveness of the instruction).

The instructional designer focuses on structuring and sequencing the events of instruction

and creating conditions that foster learning. This approach can actually enhance the integrity of

the subject matter, because it views it in relationship to the learner, in terms of what the learner

knows and what must be learned. Sequences are mapped according to the way a learner can

comprehend the new materials in light of previous learning. Content is organized to be consistent

not only with the principles of the subject area, but also with the principles of learning theory.

3
Thus, while initially instructional design and traditional instruction may seem to be at odds, their

distinctive emphases can, in fact, support and enhance each other.

1.3 INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY VS INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

Instructional technology is the systematic application of theory and other organized knowledge

to the task of instructional design and development.

Instructional Technology = Instructional Design + Instructional Development

Whereby the meaning of Instructional Development:

The process of implementing the design plans.

The simplest way to describe the difference between Instructional design is:

Instructional Technology : ideas about how people should teach

Instructional Design : A systematic way for creating an instructional intervention

1.4 LEARNING THEORIES

Learning means bringing changes, by learning human enters into new society and culture.

Learning Theory describes how students absorb, process, and retain knowledge during learning.

Cognitive, emotional, and environmental influences, as well as prior experience, all play a part in

how understanding, or a world view, is acquired or changed and knowledge and skills retained.

Learning theory is a part of philosophy of education. There are three types of learning theories;

behaviorism, cognitivism and constructivism.

4
 1.4.1 BEHAVIORISM

Behaviorism (or behaviourism) is a systematic approach to understanding the behavior of

humans and other animals. It assumes that behavior is either a reflex evoked by the pairing of

certain antecedent stimuli in the environment, or a consequence of that individual's history,

including especially reinforcement and punishment contingencies, together with the individual's

current motivational state and controlling stimuli (Orey, 2001). In short, behaviorism is a

learning theory based on the idea that behavior can be controlled or modified based on the

antecedents and consequences of a behavior. It begins with the experiments by Ivan Pavlov

(1849-1936) which he is best known for his paradigm of Classical Conditioning. Behaviorism is

used for shaping classroom behavior and helping students learn basic facts and skills. For

instance, if students who complete all homework this week, they do not have to take the quiz on

Friday. That’s behaviorism in classroom which in the end with rewards and punishment for

students. Although behaviorists generally accept the important role of heredity in determining

behavior, they focus primarily on environmental events. It combines elements of philosophy,

methodology, and psychological theory. Behaviorism emerged in the early 1900s as a reaction to

depth psychology and other traditional forms of psychology, which often had difficulty making

predictions that could be tested experimentally, but derived from earlier research in the late

nineteenth century, such as when Edward Thorndike pioneered the law of effect, a procedure that

involved the use of consequences to strengthen or weaken behavior.

1.4.1.1 BEHAVIORISM LEARNING STRATEGIES FOR ONLINE

LEARNING

5
  DIRECT INSTRUCTION (DI)

Direct instruction (DI) is a popular behaviourist instructional strategy for classroom

teaching. In other words, it is the use of straightforward, explicit teaching techniques, usually to

teach a specific skill. It is a teacher-directed method, meaning that the teacher stands in front of a

classroom and presents the information. this model has the following four phases (Eggen and

Kauchak 1996, 2001). :-

1. Introduction and review: The teacher reviews the critical-thinking skills and explores their

connection to the students’ background knowledge. The teacher then tries to capture student

attention and motivate the students to learn by describing the goals and explaining the value of

the critical-thinking skills.

2. Presentation: The teacher presents information such that it can be processed and encoded

effectively. Moreover, the teacher models the critical-thinking skills in an interactive manner.

3. Guided practice: The teacher provides students with opportunities to practice the new

critical-thinking skills. During this stage, the teacher encourages student interaction and applies

the concept of scaffolding to assist students in encoding information to their long-term memory.

4. Independent practice: To enhance students’ retention and transfer of the learned critical-

thinking skills, the teacher asks students to practice the skills on their own. This stage focuses on

automaticity, which frees working memory, allowing it to focus on application. During this

stage, group work for problem-solving and homework can effectively increase learning.

However, this strategy can sometimes be boring because the students cannot be focus

during teaching and learning sessions in classroom. Furthermore, direct instruction is often

associated with traditional teaching-style to classrooms full of students who are passively sitting

6
in desks and taking notes. Hence, it may be considered as outdated by some educators and

reformers. So, this learning strategy can be teaching via online such as YouTube channel or

education websites.

For learning strategies for online learning based on behaviorism, the learning strategies

that suited for online learning is Direct Instruction. Online learning such as giving lectures

through videos and websites is better than learning in classroom because online learning can be

done after school hours so that students can learn continuously and repeatedly until they finally

understand to learn. In addition, learning strategies for behaviorism for online learning are

mostly related objective-based course units and self-assessment online which it is more on

content than learning activities and learner support. Behaviorists claim that it is the observable

behavior that indicates whether or not the learner has learned something, and not what is going

on in the learner’s head. However, behaviorists suggest Implications for Online Learning with

respect to the behaviourist school:

1- Learners should be told the explicit outcomes of the learning so that they can set

expectations and can judge for themselves whether or not they have achieved the

outcome of the online lesson.

2- Course designers have to define sequences of instructions using conditional or

unconditional branching to other instructional units and pre-determining choices within

the course.

3- Learners must be tested to determine whether or not they have achieved the learning

outcome.

7
 4- The behaviouristic approach for learning suggests to demonstrate the required

operation, procedure or skill, and to break it down into its parts with appropriate

explanation before learners are expected to copy the desired behaviour. Learners are

supposed to build proficiency from frequent review or revision with check tests at

strategic points or repeat practice with feedback.

1.4.2 COGNITIVISM

Cognitivism is a theoretical framework for understanding the mind that gained credence

in the 1950s. The movement was a response to behaviorism, which cognitivists said neglected to

explain cognition. Cognitive psychology derived its name from the Latin word cognoscere,

referring to knowing and information, thus cognitive psychology is an information-processing

psychology derived in part from earlier traditions of the investigation of thought and problem

solving (Ertmer and Newby, 1993). Behaviorists acknowledged the existence of thinking, but

identified it as a behavior. Cognitivists argued that the way people think impacts their behavior

and therefore cannot be a behavior in and of itself. Cognitivists later argued that thinking is so

essential to psychology that the study of thinking should become its own field. Cognitivism also

explain the mind should be opened and understood. Therefore, it has high effect on e-learning

courses. Cognitive psychology claims that learning involves the use of memory, motivation and

thinking, and that reflection plays an important part in learning.

1.4.2.1 COGNITVISM LEARNING STRATEGIES FOR ONLINE

LEARNING

8
 Cognitivism also recognized the importance of individual differences, and of

including a diversity of learning strategies in online instruction to accommodate those

differences. For basic instructional approaches, instruction is designed to promote processing

activity akin to that of an expert. For online approaches,

1.4.3 CONSTRUCTIVISM

Constructivism learning theory is the role which experiences-or connections with the

adjoining atmosphere-play in student education. The constructivism learning theory argues that

people produce knowledge and form meaning based upon their experiences (Hung, Nichani,

2001). In short, it is a learning theory that focuses on how information is received, organized,

stored, and retrieved by the mind (Duffy and Jonassen, 1992). Two of the key concepts within

the constructivism learning theory which create the construction of an individual's new

knowledge are accommodation and assimilation. Assimilating causes an individual to

incorporate new experiences into the old experiences. This causes the individual to develop new

outlooks, rethink what were once misunderstandings, and evaluate what is important, ultimately

altering their perceptions. Accommodation, on the other hand, is reframing the world and new

experiences into the mental capacity already present. Individuals conceive a particular fashion in

which the world operates. When things do not operate within that context, they must

accommodate and reframing the expectations with the outcomes. In overall, learning is

understood as interpretative and emergent, and under the control of the learner.

1.4.3.1 CONSTRUCTIVSM LEARNING STRATEGIES FOR ONLINE

LEARNING

 COOPERATIVE LEARNING

9
 For online learning strategy based on constructivism, cooperative learning is regard as the

best learning strategy. Cooperative learning or small-group learning, is an instructional strategy

in which small groups students work together on a common task. The task can be as simple as

solving a multi-step math problem together, or as complex as developing a design for a new kind

of infrastructure. In other words, students perform substantially better in classroom tests after

cooperative learning whether in group study in home or at school or cooperative together online

by face-to-face or text chatting to learning something. Cooperative learning is an off-shoot to

constructivism and based on social learning model (Slavin, 1995). By it, learners cooperate,

argue and interact as they learn whether in classroom or online chatting. Other than that, it is an

antithesis of Direct Instruction (DI) which is more popular for behaviourist. For basic

instructional approaches, the goal structure must be negotiated through teacher-learner

interaction. For online approaches, the uses of discussion forums and chat, email transfer

amongst learners, group projects, streaming media use such as Youtube or any video website and

provision for social activities on the net are the online learning strategies for constructivism.

2.0 DICK AND CAREY MODEL

Dick and Carey Model is an instructional system design (ISD) that is useful for

structuring the design task. It consists of 10 components (9 components with 1 revise instruction

components) and it is a procedural, step-by-step model that is used to design learning

environments from the analysis of “instructional goals” (Figure 1). This model has been used for

constructivist learning environments.

10
 Figure 1: Dick and Carey Design Model

So, for my lesson plan the topic I want to teach is based on Science form 5 in chapter 1,

Microorganisms and Its Effects On Living Things. Before the teaching process is start, I must do

my online lesson plan based on Dick and Carey Model.

2.1 COMPONENT 1: IDENTIFY INSTRUCTIONAL GOALS

The first component is to figure out the instructional goals. This component means that

you are able to, or will be able to, identify what it is the students need to learn. In other words, it

is to identify what new information and skills you want the learner to master regardless any kind

of subject. For this model, I choose to teach science form 5 syllabus with the chapter called,

Microorganisms and Their Effects On Living Things.

For my online lesson plan, I want to teach my students from chapter 1 of Science form 5,

Microorganisms and Their Effects on Living Things. The goals are based on the textbook of

Science Form 5 Curriculum Specifications. The link is here http://www.stsimon.edu.my/mn/wp-

11
content/uploads/2015/05/hsp_sc_f5.pdf . The goal is to make them learn and understanding the

microorganisms and their effects on living things as well as classification of microorganisms,

good and bad microorganisms and lastly, the effect to our lives and the treatment to combat

harmful microorganisms.

2.2 COMPONENT 2: WRITE INSTRUCTIONAL ANALYSIS

Instructional analysis is the second step. This means you are determining the skills that

your students will need to learn what you plan to teach them. Determine a step by step process

that will allow the learner to meet the goal(s). The analysis includes determining what skills,

knowledge, and attitudes that are needed in order for the learner to be successful at reaching the

goal(s).

For my online lesson plan, to teach them about my chosen topic I must identifying the

subtopic of the chapter 1 based on Huraian Sukatan Pelajaran. The subtopics are, understanding

the classification of microorganisms, synthesizing ideas about the factors that affect the growth

of microorganisms, applying knowledge about useful microorganisms, analyzing the harmful

effects of microorganisms, analyzing ways to prevent infection caused by microorganisms,

understanding how diseases caused by microorganisms are treated and realizing that

microorganisms have profound effects on human being and the balance in nature. The domain of

learning is the verbal information in online learning. For this domain, students will be learned

through explanation from the website regarding the definition of microorganisms and identify the

types of microbes such as virus, bacteria, fungi, spore, protozoa and others. For instance, the link

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aPmPep2r6uo which explain microorganisms and types of

microbes. The intellectual skills for them is to identifying the main groups of microbes or types

of microbes, the characteristics and its effects towards living things. The psychomotor for my

12
online lesson plan is students to see through microscope on main groups of microbes as well as

identify pictures of microbes from internet or video such as this link,

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nfdwt_6b4Qs which the students can watch the video on

how the microorganisms look like under the microscope. The attitude part is to show curiosity

and achievement of understanding microbes. Lastly, the cognitive strategies are to troubleshoot

during the identification of each microbes and the differences.

2.3 COMPONENT 3: WRITE PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES

Performance Objectives consist of a description of the task or skills to be learned, the standards

or criteria, and the conditions that the task must be performed. So, it is to write specific

statements of what the learners will able to do when they complete the instruction.

For my online lesson plan, the terminal objective is the students will be able learn and

understanding the microorganisms and their effects on living things as well as classification of

microorganisms, good and bad microorganisms and lastly, the effect to our lives and the

treatment to combat harmful microorganisms by following the textbook Science Form 5 KBSM

as well as via the link description from online, https://www.slideshare.net/shukorsudin/science-

form5-microorganisms-and-their-effects-on-living-things. For the performance objective,

students will be able to identify microbes with corrected images as well as their classification

and functions in this online quiz link,

https://quizizz.com/admin/quiz/5825e0750a0d754977e8cd89/microorganisms. Other than that,

students will be able to matched the names of the microbes to the pictures of microbes and

identify the structure of each microbe as well as its effect towards living things.

13
 2.4 COMPONENT 4: IDENTIFY ENTRY BEHAVIORS

This component is to identify the general characteristics of the learners, including skills,

experience, motivation levels, and basic demographics; which relate to the skills and topics that

will be taught. The information should have enough detail to allow you to identify the correct

starting point of the instruction so that they do not waste time reviewing material they already

know and does not content they need to know. The goal is to start the learning process at a level

they already understand so you can scaffold the instruction by providing a structure that they can

build upon. So, it can determine what skills, knowledge, and attitudes (entry skills) are needed by

a learner to be successful to meet the goals.

For my online lesson plan, the target learners for my teaching is the boys and girls from

Form 5 SPM from one class who eager to learn and know about the Chapter 1 of syllabus

Science form 5. The context analysis is they will be learning and experimenting via online on

Science in school and after school hours. Blended learning can be done as videos and tasks can

be assigned online. Other than that, form 5 students are computer literate and able to use

computer, they can find information on websites regarding the topic that I want to teach them

from subtopics such as definition of microorganisms, classification of microorganisms and its

effect on living things.

2.5 COMPONENT 5: DEVELOP CRITERION-REFERENCED TEST

This component is to create a test (consistent with the performance objectives) that will reflect

what you’re hoping to teach the students. This is meant to help the students understand what they

have or have not mastered yet, and are a checkpoint for the parents or administrators. So, it

14
develops assessments that are parallel to and that measure the learners’ ability to perform what is

described in the objectives.

For my lesson plan, there is a checklist for Terminal objective which is to view and

identify the types of microbes by look and analyze for the students such as view the physical

structure of each microbe. There are 3 checklists for performance objective. The checklist for

Performance Objective 1 is view student’s procedure of observation. This checklist is for

students for able to identify each microbe as well as name them, able to compare each microbe

with the definition, structure and appearance and lastly able to remove or replace each microbe

on microscopic stage. For checklist for Performance Objective 2, this part is for experiment only

for students. The instruction is the students must place each microbe to microscope stage and

view it through microscopic lens by watching online video such as from this link,

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nfdwt_6b4Qs. Lastly, for checklist for Performance

Objective 3 is the observation of students’ procedure by placing the microscope to its rightful

place when not in use, in handling with care by watching from online video such as this link,

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SUo2fHZaZCU .

2.6 COMPONENT 6: DEVELOP INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGY

Identify a theoretically based strategy (based on the previous five steps) to use in the

instruction to achieve the goal(s). This includes pre-instructional activities; presentation of new

content; active learner participation and practice with feedback; and follow-through activities

that assess students' learning and relate the newly learned skills to real-world applications.

15
 For my online lesson plan, the delivery system is before instruction, I have to strategize

my lesson plan as well as sequencing of content: according to sequence of experiment based on

text book and it is done by grouping via pair-work in hands-on experiment. The learning theory

and teaching strategy used this online learning is Direct Instruction which it is related to

behaviorism theory model. So, the strategy that I will used to teach for student is by online

learning based on the link, https://www.slideshare.net/ishangoyal121/microorganism-ppt. Other

than that, to give the students to learn more as well as hands on to do such as experiment based

on Science Form 5 page 8, they can watch the video online such as this link,

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h0xTKxbIElU. So, they can answer based on the experiment

from the textbook.

2.7 COMPONENT 7: DEVELOP AND SELECT INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS

This component is to produce the instruction which usually includes guidance for

learners, instructional materials, and assessments. So, it ensures learners have what they need

ready for the lesson.

For my online lesson plan for this component, it will have based on existing videos

available, which can be employed before class such as the link,

https://www.slideshare.net/shukorsudin/science-form5-microorganisms-and-their-effects-on-

living-things. This link is suitable for learners to learn and define microorganisms, types and

classification of microorganisms and its effects on living things. By this link, it can make the

students learn and understand the topic during their after school hours. In other words, during

online learning also there will be an online video learning for the students to make them learn

understand the topic visually such as the link, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aPmPep2r6uo

which it explains the topic from start to finish.

16
 2.8 COMPONENT 8: DEVELOP AND CONDUCT FORMATIVE EVALUATION

For this component, it is to conduct a series of evaluations to collect data to identify

problems with the instruction or opportunities to make the instruction better. This is called

formative evaluation. There are three types of formative evaluation, one-on-one evaluation,

small-group evaluation, and field trial evaluation

For my online lesson plan, I used a one-on-one evaluation by questioning students about

the topic they just learned and taught by me via online quiz. This quiz will be answered by the

students and it has 26 questions however, the questions may be varied or random. The link in this

description https://www.proprofs.com/quiz-school/story.php?title=Nzg0NTUxSVH8. The quiz is

for an evaluation by me to analyze whether students can answer the online quiz very well or vice

versa. By that, I will advise the students who did answer not very well to re-learning by online so

that by continuous learning online, they are finally understand the topic as well as answered very

well in quiz and examination.

2.9 COMPONENT 9: DEVELOP AND CONDUCT SUMMATIVE EVALUATION

This component is to evaluate the effectiveness of the instruction following the formative

evaluation and instruction is revised. This is generally done by an independent evaluator. So, it

judges the worthiness of the entire program with the focus being on the outcome.

For my online lesson plan, the outcome is to determine whether students were able to

understand by learning microorganisms and its effects on living things. By that, I will conduct

test paper based on chapter 1 which includes all subtopics. The question format will be based on

Science SPM examination format for chapter 1 only. There are two sets of questions, with the

17
link is description for test set 1,

https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSc9MJvUcx0gSVI3MUAXtpDL2cdxsQhIflrczrTbx

XLhgJLnTA/viewform and test set 2,

https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSc9cLen_yCb0jGsmOLF2UmbkUXYInFOJ_LJmn

7WiJy0TtCm8w/viewform. Both of sets consists of 50 questions each and they will answer

online based on the links given.

2.10 COMPONENT 10: REVISE INSTRUCTION

This component is after the formative evaluation. In this component, the learners will

revise the instruction, gain feedbacks based on the formative evaluation and later, will do

improvement to ensure that the online learning will be better in future. In addition, the

instruction will be evaluating objectives to see if they were achieved and revise if required. Some

revise question such as were scientific skills achieve? The problem was too easy, or harder? And

were materials sufficient?

For my online lesson plan, adjustments and improvements will be made to make the

online learning for students better as well as their eagerness to learn after school getting increase.

In the end, the ultimate goal of every ID model, is to improve the instruction by the

instructor.

18
3.0 REFERENCES

Akbulut, Yavuz. (2007). Implications of Two Well-Known Models For Instructional Designers

In Distance Education:Dick-Carey Versus Morrison-Ross-Kemp. The Turkish Online Journal of

Distance Education. 8.

Duffy, T.M,. , & Jonassen, D.M. (1992). Constructivisim: New implications for instructional

technology.

Ertmer, P. A., & Newby, T. J. (1993). Behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism: Comparing

critical features from an instructional design perspective.Performance improvement quarterly,

6(4), 50-72.

Hung, D., & Nichani, M. (2001). Constructivism and e-learning: balancing between the

individual and social levels of cognition. Educational Technology, 41(2), 40-44., 8, 75-86

Orey, M. (2001). Emerging perspectives on learning, teaching, and technology. Retrieved from

http://projects.coe.uga.edu/epitt/index.php?title=Main Page

Slavin, R. E. (1995). Cooperative learning: Theory, research and practice. 2nd ed Boston: Allyn

and Bacon.

19