Introduction to Cognitive and

Physiological Psychology
Lecturer: Dennis Edwards
PhD, MA, MSc, DipEd
 What is Psychology?
Definition (Baron, 2001): The
science of Behaviour and
cognitive processes
What is behaviour? Any observable
action or reaction of a living
organism (overt to simple changes in
electrical impulses in our brain)
What are Cognitive Processes? Every
aspect of our mental life i.e
thoughts, memories, reasoning etc.
 Origin of Psychology
Philosophy + Physiology = Psychology
By the late 19th c. philosophers began
asking questions about the human mind
eg. What is the connection between
the mind and body and do people
have free will or are our actions
predetermined by action in/ outside
our bodies?
Descartes argued for Dualism i.e the
mind and body are separate entities.
 Origin of Psychology
Other philosophers however argued for
INTERACTIONISM i.e mind influences
the body and vice versa
By the end of the 19th c. far too many
questions were being raised and mere
reasoning was insufficient in providing
answers.
The answer…EMPIRICISM/ the
EMPIRICAL APPROACH
 Origin of Psychology
To do this the field of physiology played
an imp. role
Between 1860 -1880 men such as:
– Johannes Miller & Herman Von
Helmholtz provided insight into the use
of physiology in understanding the
human mind
With the input from the philosophers
and the physiologists the possibility of a
scientific field of PSYCHOLOGY emerged.
 Origin of Psychology
In 1879 Wilhelm Wundt founded the
1st formal lab for research in
Psychology at the University of
Leipzig & b/c of this he is often known as
the “Founder of Experimental
Psychology”
G. Stanley Hall, a student of Wundt
was influential in bringing Psychology
to the US. He also founded the 1st lab of
psychology at Johns Hopkins in 1883.
What should Psychology Study?
Wundt & Structuralism
– Focus should be on analyzing the
contents of consciousness i.e identifying
the basic structures of the human mind.
– Introspection- a method in which
trained individuals report in detail
on their conscious experiences in
response to specific stimuli that are
presented to them under carefully
controlled sits.
What should Psychology Study?
William James & Functionalism
– Strongly influenced by Darwin’s
Theory of Natural Selection,
Psychology should focus on the
functions of conciousness.
– Focus was therefore on how
consciousness helped human beings
cope with the challenging and
changing world around them
What should Psychology Study?
John B. Watson & Behaviourism
– Behavioursim- the view that only
observable, overt activities that can
be measured scientifically should be
studied by psychology while
ignoring cognition and other
internal states.
– Psychology should focus on
behaviour rather than
consciousness and experience.
What should Psychology Study?
Behaviourism burst onto the scene in
1913 in an article written by John B.
Watson.
He argued passionately about psychology
only studying what we can observe.
Watson also received support from B.F.
Skinner who argued that because internal
mental states cannot be studied
scientifically they should not be a part of
psychology. E.g we can watch a mad man
go in the bin for food but we cannot
What should Psychology Study?
Behaviourism was highly challenged by:
– Psychoanalysis and Humanistic
Psychology, which argued that people
really do have free will and are strongly
motivated by future plans and goals and
the desire for self growth
– Cognitive Psychology (the ultimate
challenge) which involved a renewal of
interest in all aspects of cognition i.e on
memory, reasoning and problem solving
and used techniques for observing
activity
What should Psychology Study?
– By the 1960’s the development of
computers provided the needed tools for
conducting research.
– Soon after techniques for observing
activity within the brain of fully awake
people as they performed various
cognitive tasks emerged.
– This resulted in behaviourists changing
their view from not studying
unobservable behaviour.
What should Psychology Study?
Can you now see how psychology is “ the
science of behaviour and cognitive
processes”?
It studies all aspects of human behaviour-
everything we think, feel, experience, or
do- and is no longer restrained by the
various ‘isms’ previously discussed.
 Issues in Psychology
Stability vs. Change
– To what extent do we remain stable
over time & to what extent do we
change?
Nature vs. Nurture
– To what extent are aspects of our
behaviour learned or shaped by
inherited tendencies?
Rationality vs. Irrationality
– To what extent does logical thought and
reason guide& affect our behaviour
Psychology & the Scientific Method
Scientific Method- refers to using
values & standards in an effort to
study virtually any topic.
Values & Standards which make up
the scientific method are:
– Accuracy
– Objectivity
– Skepticism
– Open mindedness
Psychology & the
The Role of Theory
Scientific Method
– Theory: framework for explaining
various events or processes.
– Steps
Formulation based on existing
evidence.
Organize existing information and
make predictions about.
Test the hypotheses (testable
predictions derived from theories)
Results (confidence vs. further tests)
Accept or Reject
Psychology & the Scientific Method
The Scientific Method vs. Common
Sense
Conclusions about behaviour based
on common sense are often:
– Inconsistent and contradictory and our
thinking is subject to several forms of
errors because we are NOT perfect
information- processing machines.
 Forms
Confirmation Bias
of Errors
– The tendency to rely on or prefer
information that confirms our own
views or what we already believe.
Availability Heuristic
– A mental shortcut in which we tend
to view as more important
information easier to bring to mind or
think of more frequently.
Rational vs. Intuitive Thought
– Tendency to do or believe in
something because you have a gut-
feeling instead of rationally thinking
out the situation.
 Forms of Errors
Critical Thinking then becomes a
must!
– Never jump to conclusions
– Keep an open mind
– Always ask “How?”
– Be skeptical
– Never be stampeded into accepting a
view because others do
– Be aware of the role your emotions can
play
Answering Questions about Human
Behaviour
Three (3) basic procedures are used
to do this:
– Observation
– Correlation
– Experimentation
 Observation
Systematic Observation
– A basic method of science in which the
natural world, or various events or
processes in it are observed and
measured in a very careful manner
S.O takes several different forms:
– Naturalistic Observation
– Case studies
– Surveys
 Correlation
Correlational Method
– A research method in which researchers
attempt to determine whether, and to
what extent different variables are
related to each other.
– The stronger a correlation, based on
statistical analyses, the more accurate
the prediction that has been made.
– + correlation i.e as 1 variable increases
so does the other. Eg. studying
– - correlation i.e as 1 variable increases,
the other decreases. Eg. Job satisfaction
 Experimentation
Experimentation- A research method in
which researchers systematically alter one
or more variables in order to determine
whether such changes influence some
aspect of behaviour.
Changes in one variable DO indeed cause
changes in the other, unlike in the
Correlational method.
Key steps:
– Systematic alteration of a variable
involved
– Careful measurement of the effects of
 Experimentation
Independent Variable
– The variable that is systematically
changed in an experiment .
Dependent Variable
– The variable that is measured in an
experiment (the behaviour).
Experiments must meet 2 key
requirements:
– Random assignment of participants to
groups
– No Confounding (of variables) i.e
experimenter effects
Ethical Issues in Psych. Research
Deception
– The temporary withholding of
information about a study from
participants. Under 2 conditions it is
permissible.
Debriefing
– Providing research participants with full
information about all aspects of a study
after their participation.
Informed Consent
– Providing participants with as much
information as possible about events
and procedures involved in a study
 Ethical Issues in Psychological
Research
Animal research
– Why use animals?
– Animal rights
Current trends in Psychology
Diversity
– Differences in the behaviour or
characteristics of individuals from
different cultures or ethnic groups.
– It is widely accepted that differences are
important and that findings are NOT
applicable to everyone.
– Multicultural Perspective now
dominates, in which cultural and ethnic
differences play a critical role.
Current trends in Psychology
Evolutionary Psychology
– This branch of psychology suggests that
as a result of evolution human beings
possess many evolved psychological
mechanisms that help (or once helped)
us to deal with important problems
relating to survival.
It suggests that human beings have
always faced basic problems relating to
survival and over time natural selection
ensured that what we needed for survival
evolved.
Current trends in Psychology
This constitutes our Human Nature- a
set of qualities or behaviours that define
us as a unique species- which plays an
important role in shaping our behaviour.
Today many psychologists believe that
genetic factors do indeed play a role in
many aspects of our behaviour.
Current trends in Psychology
The Exportation of psychology
– Application of psychology’s knowledge about
human behaviour in other fields.
http://psych.hanover.edu/Krantz/tut
or.html