ROAD DAMAGE MONITORING AND CONTROL

ABSTRACT

In india, road transportation dominates all other means of transportation mechanisms.

Well maintained roadways make the travel smooth and comfortable for the passengers. Most of
the time road irregularities such as potholes and humps create disturbances to cozy travel and
cause major damages to vehicles. Detecting road potholes and road roughness levels is a key to
road condition monitoring, which impacts on transport safety and driving comfort.This paper
proposes a method that aims to monitor road surfaces, detect road potholes and humps and
predict their severity by analyzing the vertical vibration signals produced by the vehicle while it
moves. The proposed sytem uses smartphone accelerometer to capture the vehicle vibrations in
which Z-axis reading corresponds to the vehicle vertical vibrations. Gaussian model based mining
algorithm is proposed for the abnormal event detection, X-Z ratio filtering is applied for event
classification as pothole or hump. Severity estimation algorithm is proposed, which makes use of
the relation between vertical acceleration and relative vertical displacement of the vehicle

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 CHAPTER – I

INTRODUCTION

In this ever fast moving world everyone looks to reach their destinations as early as
possible. The major limitation to this dream is the improper, irregular roads. The drivers are
unable to drive the vehicle with a regular speed due to the sudden existence of hazardous pothole
and humps on the road. This also causes severe damage to the vehicle. Current road surface
monitoring uses human effort to check the condition and quality of the road which makes the
process more time consuming and less efficient. An automatic system which is capable of
detecting road anomalies without any human effort may completely transform the current road
transportation system efficiency. Identification of pavement distress such as potholes and humps
not only helps drivers to avoid accidents calculate the needed amounts of filler materials. Stereo
Vision exploits the images from two different cameras to obtain the existence of pothole.

Kinect based approach also uses the images of the road to detect the irregularity event. The
latter is cost effective compared to the former . An ultasonic Sensor based Pothole and Hump
detection was proposed by Rajeswari et al. where the depth and height of such irregularities were
estimated by measuring and processing the reflected sound wave from the road surface. Even
though these approaches try to identify the presence of pothole and hump, these techniques are
very expensive in nature and it cannot be applied to middle class level vehicles. Another issue
with the above techniques is the real time processing, this also leads to some very complex
algorithms which needs high computational capability devices. With this as our major objective
we try to propose a road surface monitoring technique which detects and estimates the severity of
the irregularity event based on vehicle vibration analysis using smartphone tri-axial
accelerometer.technique that employs reflected laser pulses to create accurate digital models of
existing objects. Severity and coverage of distress such as potholes can be accurately

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 CHAPTER – II

PROPOSED SYSTEM OVERVIEW

The proposed road surface monitoring system in Fig. 1 uses a smartphone tri-axial accelerometer
for the data collection. Segmentation and pre-processing operations are performed on the
extracted vibration data before it is given to various algorithms that performs operations to
monitor the road surface. The proposed road surface monitoring system The proposed road
surface monitoring system consist of

1) Data collection and Pre-processing.

2) Abnormal event detection from the processed data samples.
3) Classification of the event into different categories.
4) Estimation of severity of the detected abnormal event

BLOCK DIAGRAM

Power supply

DC
Crash motor
sensor
Arduino

(micro controller)
buzzer

The collected acceleration vibration data is segmented into groups of n samples

and all the further processing operations are performed on each of these segments. This approach
allows the system to identify the occurance of multiple abnormal events. This is achieved with an
assumption that vehicle will not pass through more than one pothole or hump within a second of

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time. The proposed algorithms are applied at every one second on the segmented set of data so
that none of the potholes and humps will be missed. Second stage of pre-processing is the
application of a newly designed filtering technique on the segmented data. Max-Abs filter retains
the data samples corresponding to an abnormal event (Pothole or Hump), and minimizes all other
small acceleration spikes that correspond to normal road conditions. Max-Abs filter extracts two
parameters from the segmented vibration signal to perform the filtering operation.

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 CHAPTER – III

HARDWARE DESCRIPTION

ARDUINO

Arduino interface boards provide the engineers,artists,designers,hobbyists and anyone who

tinker with technology with a low-cost,easy-to-use technology to create their creative,interactive
objects,useful projects etc.,A whole new breed of projects can now be built that can be controlled
from a computer.

WHAT IS ARDUINO?

Figure 1.1 ARDUINO UNO

Arduino is a open source electronics prototyping platform based on flexible,easy-to-use

hardware and software.It’s intended for artists,designers,hobbyists,and anyone interested in
creating interactive objects or environments.It’s an open-source physical computing platform
based on a microcontroller board,and a development environment for writing software for the
board.

In simple words,Arduino is a small microcontroller board with a USB plug to connect to your
computer and a number of connection sockets that can be wired up to external electronics,such as
motors,relays,light sensors,laser diodes,loudspeakers,microphones,etc.,They can either be
powered through the USB connection from the computer or from a 9V battery. They can be
controlled from the computer or programmed by the computer and then disconnected and allowed
to work independently.

Anyone can buy this device through online auction site or search engine.Since the Arduino is
an open-source hardware designs and ccreate their own clones of the Arduino and sell them, so the

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market for the boards is competitive. An official Arduino costs about $30,and a clone often less
than $20.

The name “Arduino” is reserved by the original makers. However, clone Arduino designs often
have the letters “duino” on the end of their name, for example, Freeduino or DFRduino. The
software for programming your Arduino is easy to use and also freely available for Windows,
Mac, and LINUX computers at no cost.

Microcontroller

Microcontroller can be described as a computer embedded on a rather small circuit board.

To describe the function of a microcontroller more precisely, it is a single chip that can perform
various calculations and tasks, and send/receive signals from other devices via the available pins.
Precisely what tasks and Communication with the world it does, is what is governed by what
instructions we give to the Microcontroller. It is this job of telling the chip what to do, is what we
refer to as programming on it.

However, the uC by itself cannot accomplish much; it needs several external inputs:
power, for one; a steady clock signal, for another. Also, the job of programming it has to be
accomplished by an external circuit. So typically, a uC is used along with a circuit which
provides these things to it; this combination is called a microcontroller board. The Arduino Uno
that you have recieved, is one such microcontroller board. The actual microcontroller at its heart
is the chip called Atmega328. The advantages that Arduino offers over other microcontroller
boards are largely in terms of reliability of the circuit hardware as well as the ease of
programming and using it.

Open-source hardware

Open-source hardware shares much of the principles and approach of free and open-
source software.The founders of Arduino wanted people to study their hardware,to understand
how it works,make changes to it,and share those changes with the world.To facilitate this,they
release all of the original design files(Eagle CAD)for the Arduino hardware.These files are
licensed under a Creative Common Attribution Share-Alike license,which allows for both
personal and commercial derivative works,as long as they(people) credit Arduino and release
their designs under the same license.

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 The Arduino software is also oen-source.The source code for the Java environment is
released under the GPL and the C/C++ microcontroller libraries are under the LGPL

HISTORY OF ARDUINO

While teaching a physical computing class at the Interaction Design Institute Ivrea in 2005,
Massimo Banzi’s students were unwilling to spend the 76 euros for the BASIC Stamp
microcontrollers commonly used in such applications. Banzi and his colleagues looked for
alternatives, finally settling on the wiring platform developed by one of Banzi’s students. In his
own words:

“…we started to figure out how could we make the whole platform even simpler, even cheaper,
and even easier to use. And then we started to essentially reimplement the whole thing as an open
source project.”

Once they had a prototype, a student wrote the software that would allow wiring programs to run
on the new platform. Upon seeing the project, visiting professor Casey Reas suggested that there
might be wider applications than just design schools for the new product. The prototype was
redesigned for mass production and a test run of 200 boards was made. Orders began coming in
from other design schools and the students looking for Arduinos, and the Arduino project was
born and  Massimo Banzi and David Cuartielles became its founders.”ARDUINO” is an Italian
word, meaning “STRONG FRIEND”. The English version of the name is “Hardwin”. As of May
2011, more than 300,000 Arduino units are “in the wild”.

Design Goals

 Work with a Mac (as most design students use one)

 USB connectivity (MacBooks don’t have serial ports
 Look nice
 Cheap (about 20 euros, the cost of going out for pizza in Europe)
 More powerful than a BASIC stamp
 Something you could build/fix yourself
Simple and easy to use by someone without formal electronics training

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Business Models

Since the entire project is open source, anyone can build and sell Arduino-compatible
devices. So in this sense, the Arduino project relies heavily on its branding for it’s financial
success . Other projects manufacture compatible and cheaper boards, however people are loyal to
the Arduino branded boards because they associate quality and a certain image to the

final product .

By the Numbers

Year Units Sold

2005 200

2006 10 000

2010 120 000

2011 300 000

Competitors

Before Arduino, the largest players in the design/hobbyist market segment were the PIC
microcontroller family (made by Microchip) and the BASIC Stamp (made by Parallax). Since the
introduction of the Arduino, other large companies have tried to enter the hobbyist market,
including Texas Instruments , and even Microsoft . However, the open-sourced tools

of the Arduino and the size of its community are large barriers for new platforms to overcome.

Figure 2 GOOGLE trends comparing ARDUINO with its biggest competitors

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Community

As the project is aimed at students and hobbyists who may not have any formal electronics
background, there are many excellent guides online covering everything from making a light
blink to creating a laser harp. The official forum has almost 60 000 registered users, and along
with helping users with their projects, is extremely active in developing new libraries to extend
the functionality of the Arduino . The open-source share and share alike sentiment is very strong,
and the vast majority of users freely publish the code to their projects.

PHYSICAL COMPUTING

Physical Computing is an approach to learn how humans communicate through computers

that starts by considering how humans express themselves physically.

PLATFORM

HARDWARE

ARDUINO Board Layout

Figure 3 ARDUINO board layout

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ARDUINO pin diagram

Figure 4 ARDUINO pin diagram

ATmega8(Microcontroller)

 16 MHz
 8 Kbyte Flash RAM(1K taken by the boot loader)
 1 Kbyte RAM(eg.for auto/local variables and stack)
 14 digital Input/Output Ports

Figure 5 ATmega8

Single chip USB to async. Serial data transfer interface

 USB 2.0 compatible

 Transmit and receive LED frive signals
 256 Byte receive,128 Byte transmit buffer
 Data transfer rate from 300bits/sec to 2 Mb/sec

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The OFF-the shelf adapter

 must be a DC adapter (i.e. it has to put out DC, not AC)

 should be between 9V and 12V DC 
 must be rated for a minimum of 250mA current output, although you will likely want
something more like 500mA or 1A output, as it gives you the current necessary to power a
servo or twenty LEDs if you want to.
 must have a 2.1mm power plug on the Arduino end, and
 the plug must be "centre positive", that is, the middle pin of the plug has to be the +
connection.
Current rating: Since you'll probably be connecting other things to the Arduino (LEDs, LCDs,
servos) you should get an adapter that can supply at least 500mA, or even 1000 mA (1 ampère).
That way you can be sure you have enough juice to make each component of the circuit function
reliably.

The Arduino's on-board regulator can actually handle

up to 20V or more, so you can actually use an adapter
that puts out 20V DC. The reasons you don't want to do
that are twofold: you'll lose most of that voltage in
heat, which is terribly inefficient. Secondly, the nice
9V pin on the Arduino board will actually be putting
out 20V or so, which could lead to potential disaster
when you connect something expensive to what you
thought was the 9V pin. Our advice is to stick with the
9V or 12V DC adapter.

ARDUINO flavors!!

There have been many revisions of the USB Arduino.some of them are

1. Arduino UNO:
This is the latest revision of the basic Arduino USB board. It connects to the computer with a
standard USB cable and contains everything else you need to program and use the board. It can
be extended with a variety of shields: custom daughter-boards with specific features. It is similar
to the Duemilanove, but has a different USB-to-serial chip the ATMega8U2, and newly designed
labeling to make inputs and outputs easier to identify.

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 2. Arduino Mega 2560:
A larger, more powerful Arduino board. Has extra
digital pins, PWM pins, analog inputs, serial ports,
etc. The version of the Mega released with the Uno,
this version features the Atmega2560, which has
twice the memory, and uses the ATMega 8U2 for
USB-to-serial communication. 

3. Arduino Duemilanove:
The Duemilanove automatically selects the
appropriate power supply (USB or external power), eliminating the need for the power
selection jumper found on previous boards. It also adds an easiest to cut trace for
disabling the auto-reset, along with a solder jumper for re-enabling it.
Note: around March 1st, 2009, the Duemilanove started to ship with
the ATmega328p instead of theATmega168.

4. Arduino Fio:
An Arduino intended for use as a wireless node. Has a header for an XBee radio, a connector
for a LiPobattery, and a battery chargingcircuit.

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 5. LilyPad Arduino:

A stripped-down, circular Arduino board

designed for stitching into clothing and other
fabric/flexible applications. Needs an
additional adapter to communicate with a
computer.

6. Arduino Diecimila:

The main change in the Arduino Diecimila is

that it can be reset from the computer, without
the need to physically press the reset button on
the board. The Diecimila uses a low dropout
voltage regulator which lowers the board's
power consumption when powered by an
external supply (AC/DC adapter or battery). A
resettable polyfuse protects your computer's
USB ports from shorts and surges. It also
provides pin headers for the reset line and for
3.3V. There is a built-in LED on pin 13. Some
blue Diecimila boards say "Prototype - Limited
Edition" but are in fact fully-tested production
boards (the actual prototypes are red).

7. Lilypad Arduino 03

This revision has a 6-pin programming header

that's compatible with FTDI USB cables and the
Sparkfun FTDI Basic Breakout. It adds support
for automatic reset, allowing sketches to be

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uploaded without pressing the reset button on the board. The header is surface mounted,
meaning that the board has no pokey bits sticking out the back.

Revision C of the Arduino NG does not have a built-in LED on pin 13 - instead you'll see two
small unused solder pads near the labels "GND" and "13". There is, however, about 1000
ohms of resistance on pin 13, so you can connect an LED without external resistor. 

8. Arduino Extreme

The Arduino Extreme uses many more surface mount components than previous USB
Arduino boards and comes with female pin headers. It also has RX and TX LEDs that
indicate when data is being sent to or from the board.

9. Arduino Mini 04

On this version of the Arduino Mini, two of the

pins changed. The third pin became reset (instead
of ground) and fourth pin became ground (instead

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 Still there are ,Arduino Serial,Arduino Serial v2.0,Arduino Nano 3.0,Arduino Nano
2.x,Serverino(S3V3),Arduino Stamp 02,Mini USB adapter 03,Mini USB Adapter,Arduino
Bluetooth.

Figure 6 Different Flavours Of ARDUINO with their Configuration

Basic Terminologies in ARDUINO:

1.Analog to digital converter(ADC)

The process of Analog to digital conversion is shown in figure.

The Arduino has 10 bits of Resolution when reading analog signals.

2 power 10=1024 increments

Influence also by how fast you sample

2.Pulse width modulation (PWM)

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 The Arduino has 8bit of resolution,when outputting a signal using PWM.The range of output
voltage is from 0 to 5 Volts

2power 8=255 Increments

Average of on/off(digital signals to make an average voltage),Duty cycle in 100% of 5Volts.

LANGUAGE REFERENCES:

The Microcontroller on the board is programmed using the Arduino programming

language(based on wiring) and the arduino development environment(based on processing).

Arduino Programming Language(APL)(based on wiring)

The Arduino programming language is an implementation of Wiring, a similar physical

computing platform, which is based on the Processing multimedia programming environment.

Wiring

Wiring is an open-source programming framework for microcontrollers. Wiring allows

writing cross-platform software to control devices attached to a wide range of microcontroller
boards to create all kinds of creative coding, interactive objects, spaces or physical experiences.
The framework is thoughtfully created with designers and artists in mind to encourage a
community where beginners through experts from around the world share ideas, knowledge and
their collective experience. There are thousands of students, artists, designers, researchers, and
hobbyists who use Wiring for learning, prototyping, and finished professional work production.

Arduino development environment(based on processing)

Processing

Processing is an open source programming language and environment for people who
want to create images, animations, and interactions. Initially developed to serve as a software
sketchbook and to teach fundamentals of computer programming within a visual context,
Processing also has evolved into a tool for generating finished professional work. Today, there
are tens of thousands of students, artists, designers, researchers, and hobbyists who use
Processing for learning, prototyping, and production.

Software

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 The software used by the arduino is Arduino IDE.

he Arduino IDE is a cross-platform application written in Java, and is derived from the IDE for
the Processing programming language and the Wiringproject. It is designed to introduce
programming to artists and other newcomers unfamiliar with software development. It includes a
code editor with features such as syntax highlighting, brace matching, and automatic indentation,
and is also capable of compiling and uploading programs to the board with a single click. There is
typically no need to edit makefiles or run programs on acommand-line interface. Although
building on command-line is possible if required with some third-party tools such as Ino.

The Arduino IDE comes with a C/C++ library called "Wiring" (from the project of the same
name), which makes many common input/output operations much easier. Arduino programs are
written in C/C++, although users only need define two functions to make a runnable program:

 setup() – a function run once at the start of a program that can initialize settings
 loop() – a function called repeatedly until the board powers off

4.2 ATMEGA 328P

Fig 3.2 ATmega328p

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The ATmega328p is a single chip micro-controller created by Atmel and belongs to the
megaAVR series. In ATmega328p ‘p’ stands for “Pico Power”. The Atmel 8-bit AVR RISC-
based microcontroller combines 32 KB ISP flash memory with read-while-write capabilities, 1
KB EEPROM, 2 KB SRAM, 23 general purpose I/O lines, 32 general purpose working registers,
three flexible timer/counters with compare modes, internal and external interrupts, serial
programmable USART, a byte-oriented 2-wire serial interface, SPI serial port, 6-channel 10-bit
A/D converter, programmable watchdog timer with internal oscillator, and five software
selectable power saving modes. The device operates between 1.8-5.5 volts. The device achieves
throughputs approaching 1 MIPS.

Table 3.1 Key features of ATmega328p

4.3CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR

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 It is often required to produce a signal whose frequency or pulse rate is very stable and
exactly known. This is important in any application where anything to do with time or exact
measurement is crucial. It is relatively simple to make an oscillator that produces some sort of a
signal, but another matter to produce one of relatively precise frequency and stability. An
ordinary quartz watch must have an oscillator accurate to better than a few parts per million. One
part per million will result in an error of slightly less than one half second a day, which would be
about 3 minutes a year. This might not sound like much, but an error of 10 parts per million
would result in an error of about a half an hour per year. A clock such as this would need
resetting about once a month, and more often if you are the punctual type.

Fig 3.4Crystal oscillator

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A crystal oscillator is an electronic circuit that uses the mechanical resonance of a vibrating
crystal of piezoelectric material to create an electrical signal with a very precise frequency. This
frequency is commonly used to keep track of time (as in quartz wristwatches), to provide a
stable clock signal for digital integrated circuits, and to stabilize frequencies for radio
transmitters.

Quartz crystal oscillators were developed for high-stability frequency references during the
1920s and 1930s. Prior to crystals, radio stations controlled their frequency with tuned circuits,
which could easily drift off frequency by 3–4 kHz.

Since broadcast stations were assigned frequencies only 10 kHz apart, interference between
adjacent stations due to frequency drift was a common problem. In 1925 Westinghouse installed
a crystal oscillator in its flagship station KDKA, and by 1926 quartz crystals were used to
control the frequency of many broadcasting stations and were popular with amateur radio
operators.

 In 1928, Warren Marrison of Bell Telephone Laboratories developed the first quartz-crystal
clock. With accuracies of up to 1 second in 30 years (30 ms/y, or  quartz clocks replaced
precision pendulum clocks as the world's most accurate timekeepers until atomic clocks were
developed in the 1950s. Using the early work at Bell Labs, AT&T eventually established their
Frequency

4.4 POWER SUPPLY:

Power supply block consists of following units:

 Step down transformer.

 Bridge rectifier circuit.
 Input filter.
 Voltage regulators.

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  Output filter.
 Indicator unit
Let’s get into detail of rating of the devices :

Voltage regulator :

As we require a 5V we need LM7805 Voltage Regulator IC.

7805 IC Rating :

 Input voltage range 7V- 35V

 Current rating Ic = 1A
 Output voltage range   VMax=5.2V ,VMin=4.8V 

Transformer :

Selecting a suitable transformer is of great importance. The current rating and the secondary
voltage of the transformer is a crucial factor.

 The current rating of the transformer depends upon the current required for the load to be
driven.

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  The input voltage to the 7805 IC should be at least 2V greater than the required 2V
output, therefore it requires an input voltage at least close to 7V.
 So I chose a 6-0-6 transformer with current rating 500mA (Since 6*√2 = 8.4V).

NOTE : Any transformer which supplies secondary peak voltage up to 35V can be used but as
the voltage increases size of the transformer and power dissipation across regulator increases.

Rectifying circuit :

The best is using a full wave rectifier

 Its advantage is DC saturation is less as in both cycle diodes conduct.

 Higher Transformer Utilization Factor (TUF).
 1N4007 diodes are used as its is capable of withstanding a higher reverse voltage of
1000v whereas 1N4001 is 50V

Capacitors :

Knowledge of Ripple factor is essential while designing the values of capacitors

It is given by

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  Y=1/(4√3fRC)  (as the capacitor filter is used)

1. f= frequency of AC ( 50 Hz)

2. R=resistance calculated

R= V/Ic   

V= secondary voltage of transformer

      V=6√2=8. 4
      R=8.45/500mA=16.9Ω standard 18Ω chosen

3. C= filtering capacitance

We have to determine this capacitance for filtering

Y=Vac-rms/Vdc

Vac-rms = Vr/2√3

Vdc= VMax-(Vr/2)

Vr= VMax- VMin

   Vr = 5.2-4.8 =0. 4V

    Vac-rms = .3464V
    Vdc = 5V
     Y=0 .06928

Hence the capacitor value is found out by substituting the ripple factor in Y=1/(4√3fRC)

Thus, C= 2314 µF and  standard 2200µF is chosen

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Datasheet of 7805 prescribes to use a 0.01μF capacitor at the output side to
avoid transient changes in the voltages due to changes in load and a 0.33μF at the input side of
regulator to avoid ripples if the filtering is far away from regulator.

4.5 Ultrasonic Sensor

Introduction
The main purpose of this project is to measure the distance to unreachable
objects, obstacles or places using a portable device.

Figure 2.1: The hand-held ultrasonic range meter device.

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2.2 Motivation
The motivation of using this device is when construction engineers at any sites need to measure
distances to unreachable places in a quick and easy way using this device with high efficiency
and accuracy.

2.3 Characteristics
This device detects the distance to an object and shows the result in centimeters. This device is
activated by a trigger mechanism, pressing the trigger for one time will give us the distance to an
object if there was no error like poor aiming. The distance to an object is displayed using a
digital display with a high intensity in order to be seen in any lighting conditions.

It is a simple and portable device similar to a gun as shown in Figure 2.2 that uses a laser pointer
to aim at a specific area to get the reflection at the receiver side.

Figure 2.2: Description of each part of the device.

3.3 Target range

The target range is the distance range between the person who is using the hand-held ultrasonic
range meter device and the targeted object. The target range consists of two boundaries, one is
the minimum distance limit and the other is the maximum distance limit. If the operator of the

25
hand-held ultrasonic range meter device exceeds these two boundaries, the hand-held ultrasonic
range meter device may not detect the distance or may display a false detection.

Frequency, wavelength and attenuation:

The frequency of the ultrasonic sensing system is determined by the resonant frequency of the
ultrasonic transducer. The selection of this transducer is made considering number of factors
such as transducer size, measurement resolution, measurement range, background noise and
attenuation. The wavelength of the ultrasonic wave can be found out with the following formula,

λ = C/f (6.1)

Where λ is the wavelength, C is the velocity of sound equal to 340 m/s at 20º C and f is the
frequency equal to 40 KHz.

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C, velocity of sound varies with variation in temperature, pressure, medium type, humidity, air
turbulence, conventional currents. So before calculating the wavelength, the speed of sound is
required to be calculated.

4.6 TRANSISTOR BC547

BC547 is an NPN bi-polar junction transistor. A transistor, stands for transfer of resistance, is
commonly used to amplify current. A small current at its base controls a larger current at
collector & emitter terminals.

BC547 is mainly used for amplification and switching purposes. It has a maximum current gain
of 800. Its equivalent transistors are BC548 and BC549.

Fig3.8 Pin Diagram of BC 547

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4.9 BUZZER

GENERAL DESCRIPTION

A buzzer or beeper is an audio signaling device, which may be mechanical, electromechanical,

or piezoelectric. Typical uses of buzzers and beepers include alarm devices, timers and
confirmation of user input such as a mouse click or key stroke. Buzzer is an integrated structure
of electronic transducers, DC power supply, widely used in computers, printers, copiers, alarms,
electronic toys, automotive electronic equipment, telephones, timers and other electronic
products for sound devices. Active buzzer 5V Rated power can be directly connected to a
continuous sound, this section dedicated sensor expansion module and the board in combination,
can complete a simple circuit design, to "plug and play."

DESCRIPTION

A buzzer or beeper is an audio signaling device, which may be mechanical, electromechanical,

or piezoelectric. Typical uses of buzzers and beepers include alarm devices, timers, and
confirmation of user input such as a mouse click or keystroke. It generates consistent single tone
sound just by applying D.C voltage. Using a suitably designed resonant system, this type can be
used where large sound volumes are needed. At Future Electronics we stock many of the most
common types categorized by Type, Sound Level, Frequency, Rated Voltage, Dimension and
Packaging Type.

FEATURES

 Input supply: 5 VDC

 Current consumption: 9.0 mA max.

 Oscillating frequency: 3.0 ±0.5 KHz

 Sound Pressure Level: 85dB min.

APPLICATIONS

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 Confirmation of user input (ex: mouse click or keystroke)

 Electronic metronomes

 Sporting events

 Judging Panels

 Annunciation panels

4.10 DC motor

Dc motor is an electric motor converts electrical energy into mechanical motion. The
reverse task that of converting mechanical motion into electrical energy, is accomplished by a
generator or dynamo. In many cases the two devices are identical except for their application
and minor construction details. DC motors are used when there is positioning requirement and
also changes in load and torque. DC motors can be conveniently interfaced to Bipolar DAC, or
MPUs can generate PWMs to control them.

The classic DC motor has a rotating legature in the form of an electromagnet. A rotary
switch called a commutator reverses the direction of the electric current twice every Cycle, to
flow through the armature so that the poles of the electromagnet push and against the
permanent magnets on the outside of the motor. As the poles of the armature electromagnet pass
the poles of the permanent magnets, the commutator reverses the polarity of the armature
electromagnet. During that instant of switching polarity, inertia keeps the classical motor going
in the proper direction. (See the diagrams below.)

29
Speed control

Generally speaking the rotational speed of a DC motor is proportional to the voltage applied to it,
and the torque is proportional to the current. Speed control can be achieved by variable voltage
source, resistors or electronic controls. The direction of a wound field DC motor can be changed
by reversing either the field or armature connections but not both, this is commonly done with a
special set of contactors (direction contactors). Effective voltage can be varied by inserting a
series resistor or by an electronically- controlled switching device made of thyristors, transistors,
or, historically, mercury arc rectifiers. In a circuit known as a chopper, the average voltage
applied to the motor is varied by switching the supply voltage very rapidly. As the "on" to
"off" ratio is varied to alter the average applied voltage, the speed of the motor varies.
The rapid switching wastes less energy than series resistors. Output filters
smooth the average voltage applied to the motor and reduce motor noise. Since the series-wound
DC motor develops its highest torque at low speed, it is often used in traction applications such
as electric locomotives, and trams. Another application is starter motors for petrol and small
diesel engines.

30
4.11 LED

A Light Emitting Diode (LED) is a two-lead semiconductor light source that

resembles a basic PN -junction diode, except that an LED also emits light. When an LED's
anode lead has a voltage that is more positive than its cathode lead by at least the LED's
forward voltage drop, current flows. Electrons are able to recombine with holes within the
device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence,
and the color of the light (corresponding to the energy of the photon) is determined by the
energy band gap of the semiconductor.

FEATURES

 High reliability

 High radiant intensity

 Peak wavelength λp=940nm

 2.54mm Lead spacing.

APPLICATIONS

 Visual signals where light goes more or less directly from the source to the human
eye, to convey a message or meaning.
 Illumination where light is reflected from objects to give visual response of these
objects.

31
Measuring and interacting with processes involving no human VISION

Light-emitting diode

Three LEDs of different colors.

A light -emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor device that emits incoherent narrow-
spectrum light when electrically biased in the forward direction. This effect is a form of
electroluminescence . The color of the emitted light depends on the chemical composition
of the semiconducting material used, and can be near-ultraviolet , visible or infrared . Nick
Holonyak Jr. (born 1928) of the General Electric Company developed the first practical
visible-spectrum LED in 1962.[1]

LED technology

Physical function

A LED is a special type of semiconductor diode . Like a normal diode, it consists of a chip
of semiconducting material impregnated, or doped, with impurities to create a structure
called a p-n junction . As in other diodes, current flows easily from the p-side, or anode to
the n-side, or cathode , but not in the reverse direction. Charge-carriers - electrons and holes
flow into the junction from electrodes with different voltages . When an electron meets a

32
hole, it falls into a lower energy level , and releases energy in the form of a photon as it
does so.

The wavelength of the light emitted, and therefore its color, depends on the bandgap energy
of the materials forming the p-n junction. In silicon or germanium diodes, the electrons and
holes recombine by a non-radiative transition which produces no optical emission, because
these are indirect bandgap materials. The materials used for an LED have a direct bandgap
with energies corresponding to near-infrared, visible or near-ultraviolet light.

LED development began with infrared and red devices made with gallium arsenide .
Advances in materials science have made possible the production of devices with ever
shorter wavelengths , producing light in a variety of colors.

Conventional LEDs are made from a variety of inorganic semiconductor materials ,

producing the following colors:

 aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs) - red and infrared

 aluminium gallium phosphide (AlGaP) - green

 aluminium gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP) - high-brightness orange-red,

orange, yellow, and green

 gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP) - red, orange-red, orange, and yellow

 gallium phosphide (GaP) - red, yellow and green

 gallium nitride (GaN) - green, pure green (or emerald green), and blue

 indium gallium nitride (InGaN) - near ultraviolet, bluish-green and blue

 silicon carbide (SiC) as substrate - blue

 silicon (Si) as substrate - blue (under development)

 sapphire (Al 2O3) as substrate - blue

33
  zinc selenide (ZnSe) - blue

 diamond (C) - ultraviolet

 aluminium nitride (AlN), aluminium gallium nitride (AlGaN) - near to far

ultraviolet

Blue and white LEDs

An ultraviolet GaN LED.

Commercially viable blue LEDs based on the wide bandgap semiconductor gallium nitride
and indium gallium nitride were invented by Shuji Nakamura while working in Japan at
Nichia Corporation in 1993 and became widely available in the late 1990s . They can be
added to existing red and green LEDs to produce white light, though white LEDs today
rarely use this principle.

Most "white" LEDs in production today use a 450 nm – 470 nm blue GaN (gallium nitride)
LED covered by a yellowish phosphor coating usually made of cerium -doped yttrium
aluminium garnet (Ce 3+:YAG) crystals which have been powdered and bound in a type of
viscous adhesive. The LED chip emits blue light, part of which is efficiently converted to a
broad spectrum centered at about 580 nm (yellow) by the Ce 3+:YAG. The single crystal
form of Ce 3+:YAG is actually considered a scintillator rather than a phosphor. Since yellow
light stimulates the red and green receptors of the eye, the resulting mix of blue and yellow
light gives the appearance of white, the resulting shade often called "lunar white". This

34
approach was developed by Nichia and was used by them from 1996 for manufacturing of
white LEDs.

The pale yellow emission of the Ce 3+:YAG can be tuned by substituting the cerium with
other rare earth elements such as terbium and gadolinium and can even be further adjusted
by substituting some or all of the aluminium in the YAG with gallium. Due to the spectral
characteristics of the diode, the red and green colors of objects in its blue+yellow light are
not as vivid as in broad-spectrum light. Manufacturing variations make the LEDs produce
light with different color temperatures , from warm yellowish to cold bluish; the LEDs have
to be sorted during manufacture by their actual characteristics.

White LEDs can also be made by coating near ultraviolet (NUV) emitting LEDs with a
mixture of high efficiency europium based red and blue emitting phosphors plus green
emitting copper and aluminium doped zinc sulfide (ZnS:Cu,Al). This is a method
analogous to the way fluorescent lamps work. However the ultraviolet light causes
photodegradation to the epoxy resin and many other materials used in LED packaging,
causing manufacturing challenges and shorter lifetimes. This method is less efficient than
the blue LED with YAG:Ce phosphor, as the Stokes shift is larger and more energy is
therefore converted to heat, but yields light with better spectral characteristics, which
renders colors better. Due to the higher radiative output of the ultraviolet LEDs than of the
blue ones, both approaches offer comparable brightness.

The newest method used to produce white light LEDs uses no phosphors at all and is based
on homoepitaxially grown zinc selenide (ZnSe) on a ZnSe substrate which simultaneously
emits blue light from its active region and yellow light from the substrate.

A new technique just developed by Michael Bowers, a graduate student at Vanderbilt

University in Nashville, involves coating a blue LED with quantum dots that glow white in
response to the blue light from the LED. This technique produces a warm, yellowish-white
light similar to that produced by incandescent bulbs.

35
Other colors

Recent color developments include pink and purple . They consist of one or two phosphor
layers over a blue LED chip. The first phosphor layer of a pink LED is a yellow glowing
one, and the second phosphor layer is either red or orange glowing. Purple LEDs are blue
LEDs with an orange glowing phosphor over the chip. Some pink LEDs have run into
issues. For example, some are blue LEDs painted with fluorescent paint or fingernail polish
that can wear off, and some are white LEDs with a pink phosphor or dye that unfortunately
fades after a short time.

Ultraviolet, blue, pure green, white, pink and purple LEDs are relatively expensive
compared to the more common reds, oranges, greens, yellows and infrareds and are thus
less commonly used in commercial applications.

The semiconducting chip is encased in a solid plastic lens , which is much tougher than the
glass envelope of a traditional light bulb or tube. The plastic may be colored, but this is
only for cosmetic reasons or to improve the contrast ratio ; the color of the packaging does
not substantially affect the color of the light emitted.

VIBRATIONSENSOR

Description

The sensor for vibration detection is a vibration detector (or shock sensor), the detector
must have a mechanical displacement to generate the alarm signal; vibration detection equipment
is not only best suitable for file cabinets, vaults, strongrooms, safes and Automated Teller
Machines (ATM), confidential protection special objects, but also suitable for other systems in
combination, to prevent intruders break in from wall. How to use the vibration detector in correct
application is very important. It is often used to provide protection in a special object where
protected area that with staff's activities.
There are two major detection methods for vibration detector; the one is mechanical
detection, it works as a ON/OFF switch using the mechanical movement of metal contact, the

36
other is acoustic sound detection. Compare to acoustic sound detection, adopts mechanical
detection vibration detector only detect the true physic vibration with low false alarm. The
vibration detector that is based on  acoustic sound detection (with microphone), it may trigger
false alarm by high noise from car,  thunder in summer.
Specifications:

The Vibration Sensor Detector is designed for the security practice When Vibration Sensor
Alarm recognizes movement or vibration, it sends a signal to either control panel Developed a
new type of omni-directional high sensitivity Security Vibration Detector with omni-directional
detection 

  Sensitivity: Height adjustable

 Consistency and Interchangeability: Good
 Reliability and Interference: Accurate triggering strong anti-interference
 Automatic Reset: Automatic reset is strong
 Signal Post-processing: Simple
 Output Signal: Switch signal
 No External Vibration Analysis of Plates: Product design vibration analysis of the
internal amplifier circuit
 Detection Direction: Omni-directional
 Signal Output: Switch signals
 Output Pulse Width: The vibration signal amplitude is proportional to
 Operating Voltage: 12VDC (red V + shield V-)
 Sensitivity: Greater than or equal 0.2g
 Frequency Range: 0.5HZ ~ 20HZ
 Operating Temperature Range: -10 ? ~ 50

Connections details - How to test Vibration sensor ? 

 Wiring colour ---------

  RED - + 5 - 12 volts

37
 BLACK - GND
 OUTPUT - connect common Red - Blue Output

CHAPTER - IV

PCB FABRICATION

` The PCB manufacturing process involves use of expensive equipments, but homebrew
PCB fabrication is less expensive .It requires Intel Pentium PC,600-1200dpi laser printer with
premium-quality paper or butter-paper and miscellaneous items like single side copper laminated
board, Lacquer thinner, sand paper and others. The various steps involves in PCB fabrication are

PC BASED ARTWORK

The PC based artwork consists of drawing the conductor pattern. For putting artwork on
the component side of the board, flip the whole image before or while taking the print. When the
pattern has been drawn, take the print out in 600 to 1200 dpi on a translucent or butter paper.
Keep the paper side on which the toner is deposited facing down over the copper laminated
boards copper side and then when the board is turned component side up, the pattern on the
conductor will be found properly aligned with the components. Finally we take the printout of
the PCB.

TAKING THE PCB LAYOUT PRINT USING A LASER PRINTER

38
 Take the printout of the circuit layout from a laser printer. The idea is to use a coated
paper so that the toner comes loose when heated which would transfer a sharp black print on to
copper laminate. Print for each of the required layers should be taken on separate paper.

TRANSFER OF THE CONDUCTOR PATTERN

Scrub The Copper Side Of The Copper Clad Laminated Used For The PCB Board
With A Sponge. The Scrubbing Involves Removes Oxidation, Stains, Etc. And It Also Makes
The Copper Surface Some-What Rough Which Helps The Toner To Adhere To The Copper
Surface. The Next Step Is To Degrease The Board Thoroughly Using A Paper Towel Soaked
With Acetone Solvent. Keep Doing It Until No More Discoloration Is Seen On The Paper
Towel. Rub Hard And Keep Switching To Clean Parts Of Towel. Place And Align The Paper On
The Copper Side, Using An Iron Box To Maximum Setting On The Back Of The Paper For At
Least Half A Minute. If You Don't Apply Enough Heat, The Film Or Toner May No Stick Or Be
Dark Enough. The Removal Of Paper From PCB Is Done By Putting It Into Hot Water For 10 Or
More Minutes. Check Whether It Has Transferred Properly Onto Copper Plate.

Dig The Bristles On The Tip Of A Smooth Tooth Brush Into The Holes, Remove The Paper Part
From The Tight Areas Like Drill-Holes. Now Cut The PCB To Required Size By Using A
Hacksaw.

ETCHING

Etch the unwanted copper from the board using the ferric chloride solution for 20 or
more minutes. One pint can etch at least 3.6 sq. meters of the 28gm board. Heating the etchant
will speeds up the etching process. The PCB is attached to a wooden piece and dip in to the
solution. Lift the PCB up and Check whether all the unwanted copper is removed. Then it is
immersed in to cold water to clean. When etching is complete, board is removed from the
solution and rinse it under running tap water .Acetone or lacquer thinner is used to remove the
toner .Lacquer thinner is used as a solvent in painting industry. Wash the board in lacquer thinner
solvent, rubbing with a paper towel, to remove the toner instantly.

DRILLING AND CLEANING

39
 In this we had used a PCB hand drill .Use 0.8mm PCB drill bit to drill out all of the
component holes. After drilling the holes scrub sponge is used to clean before soldering .After
drilling and cleaning, wash the board in cold water and then dry it.

CAUTION

Lacquer thinner is extremely volatile, inflammable and explosive. Acetone can irritate
eyes and respiratory system .Ferric chloride is corrosive, so avoid skin and eye contact.

40
 PIC16F877A PCB DESIGN

SOLDERING

Soldering is the process of joining metals by using lower melting point metal to wet or
alloy with the joined surfaces. Solder is the joining material. It melts below 427’C. Soldered
joints in electronic circuits will establish strong electrical connections between component leads.
The popularly used solders are alloys of tin and lead that melt below the melting point of tin.

41
 In order to make the surfaces accept the solder readily, the component terminals should
be cleaned chemically or by abrasion using blades or knives. Small amount of lead coating can
be done on the cleaned portion of the leads using soldering iron. This process is called tinning.
Zinc chloride or ammonium chloride separately or in combination are the most commonly used
fluxes. These are available in petroleum jelly as paste flux. A solder joint can at first glance to be
okay, but under close examination it could be a ‘Dry Joint’. A dry joint is when either the circuit
board or the leg of the component has not been properly heated to allow the solder to flow
between the surfaces freely. This creates an intermittent or no electrical connection. This can also
be caused by a lack of flux or if you reuse old solder.

Quite often, reheating a bad join will cure the problem but in a lot of cases, the old solder
will need to be removed and some new solder applied. The residues, which remain after the
soldering, may be washed out with more water, accompanied by brushing.

Soldering iron is the tool used to melt the solder and apply at the joints in the circuit. It operates
in 230V mains supply. The iron bit at the tip of it gets heated up within a few minutes. 50W and
25W soldering irons are commonly used for soldering purposes.

PROCEDURE

Make a layout of the circuit.

Straighten and clean the component leads using blade or knife. Apply a little flux on
the leads. Take a little solder on soldering iron and apply the molten solder on the leads.

Mount the components on the PCB by bending the leads of the components using
nose-pliers.

Apply flux on the joints and solder the joints. Soldering must be done in minimum
time to avoid dry soldering and heating up of components. Wash the residue using water and
brush.

42
ADVANTAGES

 Reduce the manual power

 Low cost and Reliable

BUZZER

GENERAL DESCRIPTION

43
A buzzer or beeper is an audio signaling device, which may be mechanical, electromechanical,
or piezoelectric. Typical uses of buzzers and beepers include alarm devices, timers and
confirmation of user input such as a mouse click or key stroke. Buzzer is an integrated structure
of electronic transducers, DC power supply, widely used in computers, printers, copiers, alarms,
electronic toys, automotive electronic equipment, telephones, timers and other electronic
products for sound devices. Active buzzer 5V Rated power can be directly connected to a
continuous sound, this section dedicated sensor expansion module and the board in combination,
can complete a simple circuit design, to "plug and play."

DESCRIPTION

A buzzer or beeper is an audio signaling device, which may be mechanical, electromechanical,

or piezoelectric. Typical uses of buzzers and beepers include alarm devices, timers, and
confirmation of user input such as a mouse click or keystroke. It generates consistent single tone
sound just by applying D.C voltage. Using a suitably designed resonant system, this type can be
used where large sound volumes are needed. At Future Electronics we stock many of the most
common types categorized by Type, Sound Level, Frequency, Rated Voltage, Dimension and
Packaging Type.

FEATURES

 Input supply: 5 VDC

 Current consumption: 9.0 mA max.

 Oscillating frequency: 3.0 ±0.5 KHz

 Sound Pressure Level: 85dB min.

APPLICATIONS

 Confirmation of user input (ex: mouse click or keystroke)

 Electronic metronomes

 Sporting events

44
 Judging Panels

 Annunciation panels

CODEING

// digital pin 2 has a pushbutton attached to it. Give it a name:

int pushButton = 2;

// the setup routine runs once when you press reset:

void setup() {

// initialize serial communication at 9600 bits per second:

Serial.begin(9600);

// make the pushbutton's pin an input:

pinMode(pushButton, INPUT);

// the loop routine runs over and over again forever:

void loop() {

// read the input pin:

int buttonState = digitalRead(pushButton);

// print out the state of the button:

Serial.println(buttonState);

delay(1); // delay in between reads for stability

45
}

void setup() {

Serial.begin(9600);

pinMode(2, INPUT);

pinMode(3, INPUT);

pinMode(4, OUTPUT);

pinMode(5, OUTPUT);

void loop() {

int ir=digitalRead(2);

int v=digitalRead(3);

if((ir == LOW) || (v == LOW))

digitalWrite(4, HIGH);

digitalWrite(5, HIGH);

Serial.println("HIGH");

else

digitalWrite(4, LOW);

46
 digitalWrite(5, LOW);

Serial.println("LOW");

CHAPTER - V

47
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK

In this paper, we propose the design and implementation of a vehicle vibration signal processing
system for road surface monitoring. A smartphone in-built accelerometer data is used in which
the proposed algorithms are applied. The experimental results show that the proposed system can
detect and classify the abnormal events such as pothole and hump from the collected data at any
vehicle driving speed. It can also estimate the severity of the identified event when the test
driving speed falls in the range of 15 to 20km/h. Our system focuses on monitoring of road
abnormalities such as pothole and hump. The future work may include the detection of other
irregularities like Expansion joints, Manhole and Pipeline holes etc. In future the researchers can
also investigate methods to estimate the event severity at any vehicle driving speed.

CHAPTER - VI

48
REFERENCES
[1] Seung ki Ry and Taehyeong Kim, Review and analysis of pothole detection methods,
Journal of emerging trends in computing and information science, Vol. 5, No. 8 August
2014.
[2] Xiao Ai, Zhen Zhang and C.K Chan, An efficient algorithm for pothole detection
using stereo vision, IEEE international Conference on Acousitc, Speech ans signal
Processing, Pages: 564 - 568, 2003.
[3] Santhosh Hebbar, Rajeshwari Madli, Varaprasad Golla and Praveenraj Pattar,
Automatic Detection and Notification of Potholes and Humps on Roads to Aid Drivers,
IEEE Sensors Journal, Volume. 15, No. 8, August 2015.
[4] Yong Yang , Jinwoo Jang, Andrew W. Smyth and Dave Cavalcanti, Road Surface
Condition Monitoring via Multiple Sensor-Equipped Vehicles, IEEE Infocom Poster
Presentation, Pages: 43 - 44, 2015.
[5] Hamshan Khan and Vinay Rishiwal, Automatic pothole and speed breaker detection
using android system, MIPRO 2016, Pages: 1270 - 1273, June 3,2015
[6] Mingming Lu, Guang Tan, Kongyang Chen and Jie Wu, CRSM: Crowdsourcing
based Road Surface Monitoring, IEEE International Conference on High Performance
Computing and Communications, Pages: 2151 - 2158, 2013.
[7] Lewis Girod, Bret Hull and Jakob Eriksson, The Pothole Patrol: Using a Mobile
Sensor Network for Road Surface Monitoring, The Sixth Annual International conference
on Mobile Systems, Applications and Services (MobiSys 2008), Breckenridge, U.S.A.,
June 2008.
[8] Chenglong Liu, Difei Wu,Yuchuan Du and Siyu Li, Application of Vehicle Mounted
Accelerometers to Measure Pavement Roughness, International Journal of Distributed
Sensor Networks, Volume 2016, Article ID 8413146, pages: 234-241, June 2016.
[9] Akira Kawamura and Kazuya Tomiyama, Application of lifting wavelet transform for
pavement surface monitoring by use of a mobile profilometer, International Journal of
Pavement Research and Technology, Volume 9, Issue 5, Pages: 345–353, September
2016.

49
[10] Brandon Gozick, Ram Dantu,Mohamed Fazeen,Marta C. Gonzle and Moiz
Bhukhiya, Safe Driving Using Mobile Phones, IEEE Transactions on Intelligent
Transportation Systems, Volume. 13, Issue. 3, 2012

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