SPE 9984
SPE
Downhole Corrosion - Prevention and Treatment
by Robert F. Weeter, * Mobil Exploration and Production Services Inc.
*Member SPE-AIME
Copyright 1982, Society of Petroleum Engineers
This paper was presented at the International Petroleum Exhibition and Technical Symposium of the Society of Petroleum Engineers held in
Bejing, China, 18·26 March, 1982. The material is subject to correction by the author. Permission to copy is restricted to an abstract of not
more than 300 words. Write SPE, 6200 North Central Expressway, Dallas, Texas, 75206 USA. Telex 730989
Abstract
Corrosion control planning should begin before
any well is drilled. The means of controlling
corrosion in oil and gas wells are outlined in some
detail in this paper. Primary cause of corrosion
of metals is contact of metal with corrosive gases
in well fluids in the presence of liquid water.
Corrosion can be controlled by removing the contact,
the corrosive gases or the water. Means for doing
this are metallurgy, control of the well environ-
ment, separation of the metal of the pipe from the
we 11 envi ronment, and cathodi c protect i on. Each
should be evaluated for use separately or in com-
bination to obtain the most cost-effective control.
Corrosion rates can be monitored by one or several
devices which are commonly used for that purpose.
The monitoring is especially effective in eva-
luating the results of corrosion control measures.
Introduction
Whi 1e corrosion control programs can be expensive,
the costs are usually low compared to the costs of
uncontrolled corrosion: replacement of equipment,
loss of production due to downtime for repair, con-
tamination of subsurface formations, blowouts and
well abandonment due to casing leaks, etc.
The methods of corrosion control consist of
such things as special metals, coatings, chemical
inhibitors, cathodic protection and removal of cor-
rosive gases from water. Most of all, corrosion
control requires the dedicated time and effort of a
corrosion engineer.
Corrosion is generally described as the oxida-
tion of a metal. This does not necessarily mean
that oxygen is involved, but means that the metal
loses electrons and gains a positive charge: Metal
minus electrons produces metallic ions, or specifi-
cally Fe - 2e = Fe++. When this occurs the
metal loses an atom to the electrolyte (water or
moist soil) and a void in the metal occurs.
Sometimes it ;s not apparent that downhole
corrosion is occurring until the damage is done.
References and illustrations at end of paper.
Society of Petroleum Engineers
This is especially true with casing corrosion, which
is a most serious problem in view of the fact that
the casing is the last line of defense in the well
system.
To meet these problems, a corrosion specialist
deals with a wide range of factors which can be
listed under the categories of:
Causes of Corrosion
Prevention of Corrosion
Well Types
Program Monitoring
Causes of Corrosion
Th .1 ve agents normally encountered in
produced petroleum products are hydrogen sulfide,
carbon dioxide and organic or inorganic acids.
Another agent, dissolved oxygen, is seldom found in
produc; ng reservo; rs, but is somet imes introduced
in injected water, injected gas, fire flood, or by
infiltration into the annuli of oil wells producing
little natural gas. Acids, other than carbon
dioxide and hydrogen sulfide, are seldom the pri-
mary cause of corros ion in produci ng well s except
during and after well stimulation.
Effect of Corrosive Gases
It is generally conceded that when oxygen in
water is approximately five percent of saturation,
it becomes corrosive.
Carbon dioxide becomes corrosive when it redu-
ces the pH of water below 7.0. The pH must be
measured at system conditions because carbon
dioxide may escape when pressure is lowered or tem-
perature is raised.
Hydrogen sulfide corrosion is difficult to pre-
dict because the iron sulfide produced by corrosion
is insoluble at normal pHis and can form a film
which protects metal. When carbon dioxide is pre-
sent, it lowers pH and makes iron sulfide more
soluble; thus keeping the film from forming. Oxygen
in the presence of hydrogen sulfide and carbon
dioxide accelerates corrosion by one of several
mechanisms. It may form differential aeration
2 DOWNHOLE CORROSION - PREVENTION AND TREATMENT
cells, in which an oxygen-free environment is
formed under scale and becomes a small anode in the
presence of a large cathode. The result is pitting
type corrosion. Carbon dioxide may lower the pH
sufficiently to make ferric hydroxide somewhat more
soluble and keep fresh metal available for corro-
sion. Hydrogen sulfide may react with dissolved
oxygen to form free sulfur, which is also corrosive.
Hydrogen sulfide in trace concentrations may
cause stress corrosion cracking of steels that are
too hard. In carbon steels and most common alloys
the threshold for stress corrosion cracking ;s a
Rockwell "C" (Rc) hardness of 22. Some special
steels have been designed to resist such cracking
at higher hardness levels.
Prevention and Treatment Methods
Once a corrosion problem is detected and iden-
tified as to cause, an effective treatment method
can be initiated.
But it is even better to anticipate potential
corrosion problems before they start so that equip-
ment can be designed at the outset for corrosion
prevention.
Plans for corrosion control in a well should
begin before the well is drilled. Design of the
downhole equipment without regard for potential
corrosion problems can make corrosion control more
costly, or even virtually impossible.
Obviously, forethought given to prevention ;s a
better approach than simply taking corrective action
against corrosion problems after they occur.
Corrosion control is accomplished by removing
the corrosive agent, rendering it inactive, remov-
ing liquid water, or isolating the agent or liquid
water from the metal surfaces. All of these means
are used by the ; ndustr yin a wi de range of pro-
cesses and procedures.
The corrosion specialist has a number of well-
known methods with which to prevent and control
corrosion:
1. Proeer fluid mechanics in the well completion
deslgn:
Special precautions must be taken in wells
handling high-velocity corrosive gas, to pre-
vent the turbulent effect created by sudden
changes in flow direction or diameter. Tubing
joi nts must be flush, with no stand-off area,
as must wellhead connections.
It has been shown that a 1arger tub; ng stri ng
with a resulting lower flow velocity may have
less corrosion than a smaller size tubing
handling the same wellstream fluid. This may
be a deciding factor in the completion design
when balanced against factors that are other-
wise in favor of small tubing.
Another factor in completion design is the well-
head and fittings: they should be selected to
SPE 9984
minimize flow turbulence in high rate gas wells.
This can be done by avoiding constrictions and
sharp changes in direction. Proper cementing
of casing may delay the need for and will
simplify the design of cathodic protection of
these casings.
2. Proper selection of materials for tubular qoods
and fittings Treferences 1-3):
The most obvious answer to the corrosion
problem is to use materials that won't corrode.
This isn't always practical because corrosion
resistant metals may cost too much, and along
with other materials such as plastics may lack
the required structural strength or physical
characteristics. Many stainless steels, for
example, although corrosion resistant, are sub-
ject to stress corrosion cracking and chloride
cracking, as well as lacking physical strength
or malleability.
However, alloys such as high chromium and nickel
steels and certain plastics have found wide-
spread use under suitable conditions.
3. Coatings:
If it is not practical to use a non-corrodible
material, then the material may be coated to
protect it. The coating can be an app 1i cat ion
of cement or various kinds of plastic to coat
the inside diameter of the pipe.
The problem with coat i ngs is not so much in
finding a good material, (although there have
been many material failures), as in applying
the coating so that it goes on uniformly with-
out pin holes and is not damaged during transit
or installation. This is difficult to accom-
plish. And a coating is hard to maintain if it
will be necessary to run wireline tools inside
the tubing during the life of the well.
4. Fluid additives to inhibit corrosion:
A more common approach ; s to protect the bare
metal by using inhibitors, which are usually
oil-soluble organic chemicals. They are de-
signed to cover the metal with an oil-wet film
which prevents both water and the corrosive
agent from reaching the metal surface.
Methods of applying inhibitors downhole will be
discussed under Well Types.
5. Removal of corrosive gases (references 4-7):
It is not pr act i ca 1 to remove the corros i ve
gases (carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, and
oxygen) from the produc i ng we 11 bore. However,
this becomes an important step in the control
of corros ion in i nj ect; on we 11 bores. Th is; s
discussed more fully under Well Types.
6. Cathodic Protection (references 8 & 9):
One of the means of controlling corrosion ;s to
electrically prevent the oxidation of iron.
This can be done by forcing electrons into
(draining DC current from) the pipe to the ex-
tent that electrons are leaving the metal at
 SPE 9984 DOWNHOLE CORROSION - PREVENTION AND TREATMENT
all points in contact with the electrolyte.
The external surfaces of well casings can be
protected in this manner, which is called
cathodic protect; on. For the purpose of this
paper, it is sufficient to say that internal
surfaces of casing or tubing cannot be so pro-
tected.
The current is provi ded from a direct current
source such as a transformer rectifier. The
well casing (cathode) is attached to the nega-
t; ve side, a met a1 (anode) is connected to the
positive side, and the circuit is completed by
grounding through the earth. (Fig 1)
Sufficient electrons are impressed on the
casing so that electrons are being supplied to
the metal as rapidly as they are being removed.
This prevents the metal from ionizing and being
lost in solution to the electrolyte (in 'this
instance, earth). It is possible to use graph-
ite or platinum anodes which do not readily
corrode and thus may last for 10 to 20 years in
service if operated properly.
Well Types
The above discussion of corrosion detection,
causes and treatment methods needs to be understood
as it applies to the following different well
types:
Producing oil wells
Producing gas wells
Gas injection wells
Water injection wells
Water supply wells
Probab ly the most common type of i nterna 1 protec-
tion of producing oil and gas wells is provided by
Inhibitors. It is difficult to make clear-cut
rules for the best method in which to apply inhibi-
tor in a given well, but some guidel ines are as
foll ows:
Wells without a packer, either flowing or
pumping, are usually treated by dumping the chemi-
cal inhibitor, dissolved or suspended in a carrier,
down the annulus, where it drops to the bottom and
enters the tub; ng with the product ion. Thus it
protects the entire system: tubing, wellhead and
flowline.
In an oil well without a packer, the annular
liquid will usually be oil (Fig 2). Therefore the
inhibitor is usually a hydrocarbon derivative
which is oil-soluble. The chemical is either mixed
with or flushed down with produced oil.
Occasionally for convenience, water may be used
as the carrier for the inhibitor. In such cases
the inhibitor must be stable in water, or it will
be stripped out at the top of the oil column.
Another disadvantage is the possibility of intro-
ducing dissolved oxygen with the injected water.
The frequency of such treatments may range from
once a month to 5 or 10 times a month, depending
3
on the volume of fluids produced, and the degree of
abras i on and eros i on that tend to remove the film
from the pipe.
We 11 s with the annul us packed off present a
different problem, because inhibitor then cannot be
injected into the casing annulus without modifica-
t; on of the downho 1e equ i pment. Sever a1 methods
are used to get a protective inhibitor film inside
the tubing in such wells:
1. Formation squeeze treatment:
Inhibitor is pumped at as high a rate as prac-
t i ca 1 down the tubi ng and squeezed into the
formation, so that it can be produced gradually
with the well fluids when the well ;s returned
to production. The inhibitor and its carrier
must be compatible with the formation fluids,
and usually contain a demulsifier to prevent
formation plugging.
This type of inhibitor squeeze is performed on
a 11 types of packed-off oi 1 we 11 s whether
pumping, flowing, or gas-lift. The treatment
may be effective for a period of from one week
to six months.
Gas we 11 s with packers are also treated with
the inhibitor formation squeeze technique if
liquid hydrocarbons are being produced from the
format ion.
2. Tubing displacement treatment:
If no liquid hydrocarbons are being produced
from the formation in a gas well, then it is
not desirable to squeeze inhibitor into the
formation ... This is because the carrier may
evaporate in the dry environment, leaving the
heavier viscous inhibitor to plug the pores of
the formation.
In such wells the inhibitor is simply displaced
to the bottom of the tubi ng wi thout be; ng i n-
j ected into the format; on. Because gas well s
produce,less liquids, inhibitor treatments may
be effective for as long as a year unless high
gas velocities cause erosion of the film.
3. Injection Valve: (Fig 3)
Packed wells can be equipped with a check valve
on the tubi ng just above the packer so that
inhibited fluid in the annulus can be injected
by pressuring the casing. When the casinghead
pressure is released, the injection valve will
close until the next treatment.
4. Injection String: (Fig 4)
Packed wells are also continuously inhibited by
pumping through a special small string of pipe
installed parallel to the tubing in the annulus.
5. Packer Completion Fluid:
It should be noted that standard pract i ce for
corrosion control in the annuli of packed wells
is to complete the well by filling the annulus
above the packer with an inhibited liquid.
Since in many wells this fluid above the packer
 4 DOWNHOLE CORROSION - PREVENTION AND TREATMENT
will remain undisturbed for a number of years,
the inhibitor solution should be carefully
engineered.
For example, the inhibitor must be completely
soluble in the carrier, which may be fresh
water, brine, crude oil, refined oil, or spe-
cial mud. If oil containing a trace of water
inadvertently is inhibited with an oil-soluble,
water-dispersible inhibitor, the water will
eventually settle out above the packer and may
create a corrosive environment.
6. Stimulation treatments:
When wells are given acid stimulation treat-
ments, inhibitors are included to provide pro-
tection from the injected acid which travels
through the tubi ng str; ng and we 11 head. How-
ever, care must be taken to insure that the
entire system is compatible (reference 10).
The inhibitor in the acid must remain stable
until the acid is either dissipated in the for-
mation or returned to the surface. This should
include unexpected downtime during injection or
reproduction of the acid.
Internal Protection of Water Supply and Injection
We 11 s:
--Water supply and injection systems have several
unique problems not found in oil or gas wells.
Since water is the only phase in these systems,
inhibitors are generally less effective than in oil
systems.
The main cause of corrosion in water systems is
usua lly the presence of the corros i ve gases: car-
bon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide and oxygen. Therefore
an effective control measure is either to remove
these gases from the water; or, in the case of
oxygen, to prevent it from cont act i ng the water
during the handling process at the surface.
A number of methods for removing oxygen from
injection water are in common use (references 4-6).
Methods are also available to remove hydrogen
sulfide and carbon dioxide from water. but they are
seldom justified (reference 7).
To prevent oxygen from being introduced in
water-handling facilities, it is good practice to
keep air out of the system by using air-free gas
blankets. Fi g 5 shows a method of keep; ng a gas
blanket on the annul us and the tubi ng of a water
supply well. If this is not done, air may enter
the tubing when the downhole pump is shut down and
the water level falls in the tubing. Again, air
may be drawn into the annulus when the pump starts
and causes a drawdown in the casing.
Even though subsurface check valves are used to
hold the water level constant, such valves often
leak. Therefore, by using the gas-blanket system
in Fig. 5, natural gas rather than air will enter
the system--thus preventing oxygen contamination.
A method of using gas blankets to protect
storage and surge tanks is shown in Fig. 6. Care
SPE 9984
must be taken to prevent mi gr at i on of gas from
tanks containing oxygen, such as the scavenger tank
in this instance, to oxygen-free tanks.
Another method of controlling corrosion in
water well tubing is by coatings. Several pro-
ducing companies use cement-lined tubing almost
exclusively, while others use various plastic
coatings. Here again, quality control is essential
to insure uniformity of the coating. Moreover,
some of the coatings have short 1ife in the pre-
sence of corrosive gases.
Special alloys are seldom used in the tubing of
water wells, but may be useful in the downhole pump
and the wellhead fittings (reference 3).
Gas Injection Wells
Corros; on in gas i nj ect i on we 11 sis normally
controlled by dehydrating the gas. This obviates
any other internal corrosion control. The gas will
sometimes be sweetened (have carbon dioxide and
hydrogen sulfide removed), but this is usually done
for some reason other than corrosion control.
Testing for Corrosion
There are a number of test i ng dev; ces used to
determine whether corrosion is under control. In a
system suspected of being corrosive, as many of
these devices as practical should be employed. In
a gas system where the gas contains 50 psi partial
pressure of carbon dioxide at 212 0 F (100 0 C) or
less, virtually all iron products will be soluble
in water; and the iron lost by the pi pe can often
be measured in the water. There is some possibi-
1ity that the iron is in the water leaving the
formation, but this can be deducted by sampling a
few hours after inhibiting the wells.
Corrosion coupons, made of metal as similar
as possible to that in the wells, are used.
Unfortunately, it is not convenient to place
coupons downho 1e, and surf ace measurements do not
always reflect the nature or extent of corrosion at
the bottom or part way up the well. Also, coupons
are often misleading in gas streams unless placed
where water co 11 ects. Resu lts from coupons are
somewhat delayed, and do not reflect changes in
corrosion rate with time -- giving only an overall
rate for the period tested.
Probes such as corrator probes and pair probes
are effectively used to monitor a continuous
electro lyte. Moreover they can be attached to a
recorder and give a continuous corrosion rate,
indicating both general and pitting type corrosion.
However, as with coupons, they measure corros ion
rates only at the spot where they are installed.
Hydrogen probes build up hydrogen pressure, and
are a good monitor of corrosion, since most corro-
sion which occurs in wells results from the repla-
cement of hydrogen in water with iron: 2H20 + Fe =
Fe (OH)2 + H2. This probe appears to be particularly
effective in gas systems, but is somewhat limited
to low corrosion rates, since pressure builds too
rapidly at high corrosion rates.
SPE 9984 R. F. WEETER 5

Galvanic (bimetallic) probes are effective in moni- 5, R. F. Weeter - "Desorption of Oxygen from Water
toring for the presence of dissolved oxygen in Using Natural Gas for Countercurrent
hydrogen sulfide-free systems. Stripping", Journal of Petroleum Technology
(May 1966) pgs 125-128. 2
Interna 1 tubi ng corros i on can be moni tored by
calipers without pulling the tubing, and casing can 6. James McGill "How to Deaerate Injection
also be calipered if the tubing is pulled. A single Water"" Oil & Gas Journal (Oct 1, 1973) pgs
string of casing can be monitored by both a caliper 81-84."
and a sonic thickness log, and external corrosion
can be determined by subtracting internal corrosion 7. R. F. Weeter - "Conditioning of Water by
from total corrosion. Corrosive wells should be Removal of Corrosive Gases", Journa 1 of
inhibited inmediate1y after running calipers and Petroleum Technology (February 1972) pgs
after any other wire line work in the well, to pre- 181-184. 2
vent accelerated corrosion where bright metal has
been exposed by the rubbing action of the wire line 8. M. T. Chapman - "Cathodic Protection, Control
or tools. of External Casing Corrosion", Materials
Protection and Performance, (September 1973)
Ultimate 1y, fail ures become the most accurate pgs 5-12. 1
monitors of corrosion, and reduced failures the
most accurate monitors of corrosion control. 9. W. D. Greathouse, et al - "Field Evaluation of
Cathod; c Protect i on of Cas i ng, AIME Petroleum
No matter how carefully a corrosion control Transactions No. T.P. 8099, Vol 216, 1979. 2
program is designed inti ally, it usually must be
adjusted for best results in actual operation. 10. NACE Standard RP-02-73 "Handling p,nd Proper
Such things as chemical type and concentration, Usage of Inhibited Oil Field Acidsll,l
frequency of treatment, proper app 1i cat i on of
cathodic protection, etc., must be reviewed to see
that they are effective. And this applies not only
for the initial installation, but also to changing
well conditions as time goes on. The most con-
sistant cause of corrosion control failure is lack
of maintenance of the corrosion control measures.
Conclusions
To sum up, an effective downhole corrosion
control program for oil, water and gas wells will
be based on the following steps:
1. Determine how corrosive a particular well
situation is, before serious damage can occur.
The best time to begin making these plans is
before the well is drilled.
2. Identify the extent of corrosion, potential or
actual, in a given well; and design a suitable
treatment method.
3. Monitor the effectiveness of the treatment so
that changes can be made to reach the optimum
benefit.
References
1. NACE Standard MR-01-75, "Materi al Requirement
-Sulfide Stress Cracking Resisttnt Metallic
Material for Oil Field Equipment".
2. NACE Standard MR-01-76, "Materials Requirements
- Metallic Materials for Sucker Rod Pumps for
Hydrogen Sulfi de Environments".!
3. NACE Standard MR-04-75 "Selection of Metallic
Materials to be Used in All Phases of Water
Handling for Injection into Oil Bearing
Format ions" .1
4. E. S. Snavely - "Chemical Removal of Oxygen
from Natural Waters" Journal of Petroleum
Technology (Apr 1971) pgs. 443-446.2
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FIGURE 1 ELECTRON FLOW CATHODICALLY PROTECTED WELL CASING

CHEMICAL
STORAGE

PUMP

CHEMICAL
........ CASING
INJECTION
LINE TUBING
ANNULUS FILLED
WITH INHIBITOR
IN WATER OR OIL

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CHEMICAL STORAGE
PUMP
~ TOP OF INHIBITOR
~DEPENDS UPON BOTTOM
HOLE PRESSURE
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PACKER TUBING

FIGURE 3

BOTTOM HOLE CHEMICAL INJECTION

THROUGH ANNULAR LINE

RETRIEVABLE
CHECK VALVE

FIGURE 4

DOWN HOLE CONTINUOUS CORROSION INHIBITOR

INJECTION· BALANCED HYDRAULIC SYSTEM
BLANKET GAS
REGULATOR
1100 cu. ft. min,

CHECK VALVE

WATER SUPPLY
WELL

FIGURE 5

WATER SUPPLY WELL GAS BLANKET

AERATED
SUPPLY WATER SCAVENGER
PRODUCED
REACTION
BRINE
TANK

MIXED BLANKET GAS PRESSURE

SODIUM /f' REGULATOR
WATER
SULFITE STORAGE TO INJECTION PUMPS
TANK
(OPTIONAL)

FIGURE 6

GAS BLANKET ON TANKS TO EXCLUDE OXYGEN