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Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:
Permafrost Research in Carpathians with focuses on: i) Permafrost - climate interactions; ii) Low-altitude permafrost View project
Exploring permafrost occurrence in the Rila and Pirin Mountains (Bulgaria) View project
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R. Popescu (&)
Research Institute of the University of Bucharest,
M. Kogălniceanu Bd. 36-46, 050107 Bucharest, 5th District, Romania
e-mail: razvan.popescu@geo.unibuc.ro
A. Onaca ! P. Urdea
West University of Timișoara, V. Pârvan 4, 300223 Timișoara, Timiș, Romania
A. Vespremeanu-Stroe
Faculty of Geography, University of Bucharest, N. Bălcescu 1,
010041 Bucharest, Sector 1, Romania
Introduction
Mountain permafrost has been intensely studied during the last decades across the
European mountain ranges with climatic conditions varying from very cold like,
e.g., Scandinavian Mountains (Humlum 1996; Etzelmüller et al. 2003; Juliussen
and Humlum 2007) to marginal periglacial environments like, e.g., Sierra Nevada
(Tanarro et al. 2001; Gómez-Ortiz et al. 2014) and the Pyrenees (Lugon et al. 2004;
Serrano et al. 1999; Julián and Chueca 2007). Numerous investigations were per-
formed especially in the Alps where transport infrastructure is well developed in the
high altitude permafrost zone (Bommer et al. 2010). The recent documented climate
change in the alpine areas (Harris et al. 2009) which determined major glaciers
retreat during the last 150 years and accelerating trends in the last three decades
(Paul et al. 2007), was shown to exert a considerable influence on alpine permafrost
as well (Isaksen et al. 2007; Gądek 2014).
Permafrost distribution in the alpine environments is characterized by high
fragmentation because of the extreme variability of thermal conditions across short
distances (Gubler et al. 2011). These are caused by highly variable topography
which causes the uneven repartition of the solar radiation (Gruber and Haeberli
2009) and debris deposits. The local microclimatic effects are of great importance
especially at the lower boundary of the discontinuous permafrost where frozen
ground develops only in the most favorable conditions. The typical permafrost
hosting landforms are rock glaciers, talus slopes and rockwalls, the former (rock
glaciers and talus slopes) allowing for permafrost presence at much lower elevation
because of the cooling effect of the coarse debris acting as a “thermal diode” (Harris
and Pedersen 1998; Gruber and Hoelzle 2008). Also, permafrost preservation at
very low elevations located in much warmer conditions could be determined by
atypical thermal processes like ground air circulation known as “chimney effect”
(Kneisel et al. 2000; Delaloye et al. 2003; Morard et al. 2008; Stiegler et al. 2014).
In mapping alpine permafrost distribution, rock glaciers and their typology play
a central role because, according to most scientific opinions, they represent
ice/debris deposits deformed by downslope creep movement under permafrost
conditions (Haeberli et al. 2006; Berthling 2011). When climate warms, the active
rock glaciers experience partial permafrost thawing and the increase of active layer
depth up to 10 m (Ikeda and Matsuoka 2002) whilst creep cessation turns the state
of the rock glacier into inactive. If located on steep slopes, the warming active rock
glaciers experience accelerated movement (destabilization) for a relatively shorter
period of time until complete inactivation (Delaloye et al. 2013; Sorg et al. 2015).
When permafrost thaws completely, the rock glaciers become relict. The altitudinal
transition from active to inactive rock glaciers marks the limit between discontin-
uous and sporadic permafrost zone (Barsch 1996).
6 Spatial Distribution and Main Characteristics … 119
Regional Settings
Two major areas from the Southern Carpathians are of great importance for per-
mafrost study because of the widespread occurrence of rock glaciers and intensive
geomorphological investigations performed so far: (i) the granitic areas of Retezat
and Parâng Massifs and (ii) the crystalline schist area of Făgăraș and Iezer—Păpușa
Mountains which are found in the western and eastern parts of the Southern
Carpathians (Fig. 6.1).
These two units comprise massifs that are characterized by high altitudes (their
maximum values range between 2469 and 2544 m above sea level—a.s.l.), a well
developed glacial relief and a relatively widespread occurrence of debris deposits,
both of glacial and periglacial origin, and rockwalls. The 0 °C mean annual air
temperature (MAAT) is located at around 2050 m a.s.l. and the natural upper level
of timberline is at around 1800 m a.s.l. The lowest MAAT is around −2.3 °C
(2504 m a.s.l., Vârful Omu meteorological station, Bucegi Mountains). The total
amount of annual precipitation is around 1000 mm on the highest crests above
120 R. Popescu et al.
Fig. 6.1 Location of the permafrost susceptible massifs from the Romanian Carpathians
2500 m altitude while on northern glacial cirques above 2000 m a.s.l. they reach c.
1200 mm (Sandu et al. 2008). About half of the annual precipitation falls as rain.
Both the MAAT and altitude of timberline are currently in a slightly increasing
trend. Above the forest limit the land cover is represented by alpine meadows,
debris deposits and rockwalls. The debris deposits including rock glaciers are more
or less covered with alpine shrubs, especially Pinus mugo, up to 2100 m in altitude.
Above this limit the debris deposits are covered only sparsely by herbaceous
vegetation. Debris flow processes are quite active even in the alpine areas as wit-
nessed by the erosional channels from steep talus slopes and fine sediments gath-
ered in small elongated fans on the slope foot and sometimes on rock glaciers root
(upper) zones.
A visible topographic asymmetry exists between north and south tectonic slopes
which is pronounced especially in the Parâng and Făgăraș Massifs. The northern
slopes are steeper and shorter and present a greater cover of debris surfaces and
rockwalls in opposition to the southern ones. In the Southern Carpathians, the
glacial cirque floors rise eastward while cirque aspect tends east-north-east con-
firming the importance of winds from westerly directions in the period of their
formation (Mîndrescu et al. 2010). The lowest preserved moraines from Retezat
Massif are located to elevations slightly below 1100 m and were deposited in the
Last Glacial Maximum (Ruszkiczay-Rüdiger et al. 2015).
6 Spatial Distribution and Main Characteristics … 121
General Presentation
majority of the permafrost ice from rock glaciers accommodated in more conti-
nental regions is of periglacial origin which could explain the colder inferior limits
of active rock glaciers. From another point of view, a major influence of precipi-
tation upon permafrost is played by the summer rainfall which is one of the few and
most aggressive heat sources that reaches directly to the permafrost table by
infiltration through the permeable active layer. Even though it’s local scale vari-
ability imposed by slope, aspect and topography was proved (Buytaert et al. 2006),
the effects on alpine permafrost distribution are still poorly understood.
Snow cover is another factor with major influence on the ground thermal con-
ditions and permafrost development through its control upon heat fluxes at the
ground-atmosphere interface during the cold season. Alpine snow cover is char-
acterized by extreme heterogeneity because of the preferential snowfalls deposition
but mostly because of the wind redistribution (Mott et al. 2010). In similar topo-
graphic and climatic conditions, permafrost presence or absence can be dictated by
snow cover timing and thickness in the mid-latitude high mountain regions
(Ishikawa 2003). The snow thickness was shown to exert a great influence upon
annual depth of the cold wave, which can be twice as deep in winters with a snow
height below 0.8 m in comparison to winters with snow thickness greater than
0.8 m (Rödder and Kneisel 2012). The same authors found that interannual vari-
ability of the snow cover persistence through the summer does not determine any
changes on the active layer thickness. Besides, especially autumn thin snow cover
plays a major role in ground cooling mechanisms, i.e., it allows an efficient warm
air evacuation from rock glaciers through snow funnels (Bernhard et al. 1998) and
also contributes substantially to heat conduction out of the ground by strong tem-
perature gradients between snow and ground caused by long wave emissivity
increase and short wave absorption decrease (Keller and Tamás 2003).
The strength of the relation between solar radiation and potential permafrost
distribution assessed by BTS measurements (bottom temperature of late winter
snow cover) (Haeberli 1973) is variable across different mountainous areas. Some
statistical analyses indicate a rather weak relation for example in the Scandinavian
Mountains (Isaksen et al. 2002) or Swiss Alps (Gruber and Hoelzle 2001) while in
other studies from Central Pyrenees (Julián and Chueca 2007) a good relation was
found.
The topographic effects on alpine permafrost distribution are mostly reflected in
the local distribution of the solar radiation income and air temperature altitudinal
variation (vertical lapse rate) whilst the interplay between these two factors should
mainly be taken into account when trying to determine the local limits of discon-
tinuous permafrost. For example, on the south exposed slopes where solar radiation
is much higher, the permafrost limits are also higher with 200 m for Upper Engadin
area (Ikeda and Matsuoka 2002). The aspect effect on permafrost limits is much
more pronounced for the rockwalls conditions where, in the absence of long-lasting
snow cover, the thermal differences between north and south aspects reach up to
1000 m (Gruber 2005). In the sporadic and discontinuous permafrost zone,
the microclimate created by topography is of great importance for permafrost
development as well. For example, glacial cirques with very high rockwalls
6 Spatial Distribution and Main Characteristics … 123
At MAATs above −1 or 0 °C, the permafrost areas are restricted only to the most
favorable sites which are usually imposed by the land cover type. The cooling effect
of the coarse blocky surfaces upon underground thermal state has been recently
evidenced (Harris and Pedersen 1998) in comparison to other surface types like
alpine meadows, fine sediments and rocky slopes. Ikeda and Matsuoka (2006)
showed that bouldery rock glaciers characterized by openwork active layer made
out of large boulders have the potential to extend at lower altitudes and in warmer
MAAT conditions compared to the pebbly rock glaciers made of small clasts
(usually below 20 cm).
In the highest massifs of Southern Carpathians, the predominantly vegetation
free debris deposits (rock glaciers and talus slopes) are located between c. 1900 and
2300 m altitude roughly corresponding to MAATs between +1 and −1 °C. These
climatic conditions are specific only to marginal permafrost conditions (see above)
in which debris grain size is expected to play a major role for permafrost distri-
bution patterns. The question of the role played by debris grain size was raised by
the major differences of the ground thermal conditions encountered between
crystalline schist rock glaciers from Făgăraș Massif and the granitic rock glaciers
from Retezat and Parâng Massifs. The cold microclimatic conditions corresponding
to the Văiuga rock glacier (Făgăraș) did not trigger nowadays the permafrost
development in comparison to the slightly warmer microclimate from Retezat
glacial cirques of, e.g., Judele and Berbecilor, where rock glaciers contain per-
mafrost on almost their entire surfaces (Table 6.1).
Table 6.1 The main characteristics of two contrasting rock glaciers from Făgăraș and Retezat,
evidencing the role of grain size and porosity in determining permafrost presence
RG Rock type Altitude Aspect MAAT PISR RG Mean clast
(m) (°C) (kWh/m2) type volume
(m3)
Văiuga Schists 2230 N −0.8 607 Relict 0.01
Berbecilor Granodiorites 2145 N −0.3 716 Intact 0.1
The bold is used to evidence the unexpected difference in rock glacier status, intact and relict
RG rock glacier; MAAT estimated mean annual air temperature at the rock glacier front; PISR
potential incoming solar radiation
124 R. Popescu et al.
Fig. 6.2 The grain size contrast between Văiuga crystalline rock glacier and Berbecilor
granodiorite rock glacier. a Cumulative relative frequency distribution of rock glacier gelifracts
on volume classes measured in 4 " 4 m sample plots; b Vertical photographs from 2 m height
used to measure the clasts size
6 Spatial Distribution and Main Characteristics … 125
Several studies performed during the last two decades revealed different mecha-
nisms often acting complementary, that contribute to negative ground thermal
anomalies and permafrost development in mountain environments. They can be
summarized as follows:
– Underground air circulation in active rock glaciers (Bernhard et al. 1998), low
altitude talus slopes (Wakonigg 1996; Delaloye et al. 2003; Gude et al. 2003;
Sawada et al. 2003; Morard et al. 2008; Stiegler et al. 2014) and high altitude
talus slopes (Delaloye and Lambiel 2005; Lambiel and Pieracci 2008) is proved
to be one of the main reasons for ground overcooling and permafrost devel-
opment in coarse debris deposits. This mechanism called “chimney effect” is
determined by the density differences between warm and cold air and consists in
warm air exit and cold air absorption into the debris through a dense network of
snow funnels, especially at the beginning of the winter for rock glaciers, and
during almost the entire winter for talus slopes where snow melt “windows”
form in their upper parts. Warm air replacement with colder air occurring on flat
debris deposits (mainly vertical air movement) is known as “Balch-effect”
(Balch 1900). Besides air ventilation, the seasonal production of ice is another
factor for permafrost occurrence in high alpine regions (Schneider et al. 2012);
– The inhibition of underground warming effect caused by snow cover onset
(Gruber and Hoelzle 2008). This is a purely conductive mechanism and it is
based on the low conductivity of the coarse blocks under the snow layer;
– The shading effect imposed by the surface roughness which reduces the solar
radiation up to 40 % in a coarse debris deposit from the sporadic permafrost
alpine zone in comparison to fine sediments areas (Otto et al. 2012).
Ground surface thermal regimes were found to vary significantly on different
temporal and spatial scales in the Southern Carpathians. The former is evidenced by
the great oscillations of mean BTS values from one year to another in the same sites
of the same rock glacier (Fig. 6.3a). This applies on both crystalline and granitic
rock glaciers (Fig. 6.3b). The mean BTS is a relevant indicator of the thermal
balance because it responds only to significant variability in climatic and ground
conditions that have the potential to modify the underground thermal state down to
greater depths. “Normal” mean BTS values were recorded in 2009–2011 and 2013–
2014 winters in comparison to 2012 when a significantly lower value was
encountered in all of the investigated rock glaciers. Mean BTS values in the typical
years varied between −2 and −4.5 °C in the granitic rock glaciers (Pietrele and
Berbecilor) indicating possible and probable permafrost occurrence, while crys-
talline rock glaciers (Văiuga) displayed near 0 °C average BTS specific only to
seasonally frozen ground. In contrast, in the exceptionally cold year of 2011–2012,
the mean BTS values reached −2.6 °C in Văiuga rock glacier and −5.6 and −7.8 °C
in Pietrele and Berbecilor rock glaciers (Fig. 6.3b).
126 R. Popescu et al.
Fig. 6.3 Intersite and interannual variability of the rock glaciers thermal regimes explained by the
ground overcooling intensity during autumn and early winter. a Six-years ground surface thermal
regime of Pietrele rock glacier with the cold snow free interval (CSFI) evidenced with light grey
(2008–2014); b The contrasting intersite variability of thermal regime reflected in mean BTS
values. Note the possible and probable permafrost related BTS values of granitic Pietrele and
Berbecilor rock glaciers in opposition with the non permafrost BTS values specific to crystalline
Văiuga rock glacier. c Interannual variability of ground overcooling intensity quantified by CSFI
index. Note the (i) unusual overcooling during 2011 and the (ii) higher potential of granitic rock
glaciers to lose heat during CSFI
The primary factor which determines ground cooling with different intensities
from year to year is of course climate, through the interplay between cold atmo-
spheric temperatures and the timing of snow cover onset. When surpassing 60, 80
or 100 cm according to different authors (Hanson and Hoelzle 2004; Ikeda and
Matsuoka 2002; Brenning et al. 2005), the snow mantle is in power to isolate the
ground from short-term atmospheric oscillations. Thus, the air temperature during
the cold snow free interval (CSFI) and its duration dictates the amount of heat lost
by the ground. This cooling degree was quantified through the CSFI index by
summing up all the negative Celsius degrees hours (h °C) during autumn and early
6 Spatial Distribution and Main Characteristics … 127
winter until snow cover onset. For the calculus, in situ ground surface temperature
data were used. Usually, in Văiuga rock glacier the SFI index is below 1200
negative h °C while in Pietrele and Berbecilor it oscillates between 1300 and 4400
negative h °C (Fig. 6.3c). In the exceptional cold and relatively dry autumn of
2011, the SFI index raised strongly in all of the studied rock glaciers, to almost
5000 negative h °C in Văiuga and around 6000 negative h °C in Pietrele and
Berbecilor rock glaciers, thus explaining the great disturbance in mean BTS reg-
istered in March 2012. These results indicate that granitic rock glaciers are sub-
jected to much more intense ground overcooling in comparison to the crystalline
rock glaciers. This fact can be related to the larger grain size and associated voids of
the granites that allows for a better cold air penetration and a longer period of CSFI
caused by the later snow induced insulation. In opposition, the small clasts and the
matrix developed in the crystalline rock glaciers usually inhibit the ground
overcooling.
Other factors than climate can influence mean BTS values as well. These can be
related to the internal structure and especially to the volume of permafrost and its
ice percentage. For example, Berbecilor rock glacier suffers greater oscillation of
mean BTS in nearly the same CSFI index conditions (Fig. 6.3) probably because of
the smaller permafrost surface (c. 2000 m2) in comparison to Pietrele rock glacier,
which has a more than double probable permafrost area (c. 5000 m2). This
mechanism which implies that seasonally frozen ground loses heat much faster than
permafrost could also explain the greater sensitivity of relict rock glaciers like
Văiuga to SFI index.
Air movement inside rock glaciers was proved to take place in Retezat and
Parâng Massifs. Besides efficient cold air penetration replacing warmer inside air in
rock glaciers during the early winter when thin snow cover occurs
(Vespremeanu-Stroe et al. 2012; Popescu et al. 2015), a continuous air exchange
between ground and atmosphere (Ishikawa 2003) was also proved to exist (Onaca
et al. 2015). In situ thermal measurements indicate that during the cold air fronts,
the thermistors located in relatively higher positions of rock glaciers, usually ridges,
registered minor warming trends (Fig. 6.4a). This usually happens until the end of
the winter, when melt water penetration at the snow bottom takes place (initiation of
the 0 curtain period). Other studies in the Alps (e.g. Delaloye and Lambiel 2005)
indicated that cold air can be absorbed directly through a thick and porous snow
layer in rock glaciers while warm air (with slightly positive temperatures) could be
expelled in the upper parts of the talus slopes. Given the position (inside rock
glaciers surface) and temperatures (negative values) found in “warm” locations
from Retezat rock glaciers, we do not exclude the idea of air stratification under an
insulating snow cover. We assume that this mechanism of air movement and
stratification inside debris deposits is restricted only to openwork and porous debris
deposits.
Similar results were found in the steep talus slopes from Retezat Massif
(Fig. 6.4b) where “warm” (same negative temperatures) air evacuation was regis-
tered at the beginning of the winter in the upper part of Știrbu talus slope. Here, the
air stratification hypothesis determined by air density contrast is supported by the
128 R. Popescu et al.
Fig. 6.4 Ground thermal regime from Pietrele rock glacier (a) and Știrbu talus slope (b) along air
temperature revealing internal air movement inside coarse debris deposits. In plot a it is shown the
efficient ground overcooling (a events) at a cold location and warm air ascent (b events) inside
rock glaciers at the warm location. Warm air ascent is enhanced during intense frost episodes as
revealed by reversed thermal relationship between air and ground surface (Onaca et al. 2015). Plot
b shows the warm air evacuation during November (marked by black arrow) and air stratification
below thick and insulating snow cover during January–April time interval in a talus slope, by
comparing the thermal regimes from lower and upper talus slopes
configuration of the mentioned rock glaciers is almost identical to the Murtèl rock
glacier, where the ‘chimney effect’ is not present (Hanson and Hoelzle 2004).
The other two mechanisms of ground overcooling in coarse blocks, i.e., snow
cover warming inhibition and the shading effect of large boulders are possible in the
granitic massifs of Southern Carpathians but they cannot be easily detected through
temperature monitoring.
Background
Perennially frozen rockwalls develop usually where mean annual rock surface
temperature (MARST) is below 0 °C (Noetzli et al. 2007), a few hundred meters
above the rock glaciers permafrost (Gruber 2005). However, local thermal offsets
must be taken into account when dealing with rockwall permafrost distribution
(Hasler et al. 2011). In general, MARST vary greatly with aspect and interannual
variations are larger in comparison to rock glaciers MAGST (Gruber 2005). Rock
jointing degree has a major influence on thermal regime of the top 3–4 m of the
rockwalls allowing air ventilation and overcooling during the cold season (Magnin
et al. 2015).
Rock glaciers are widely distributed across the highest sectors of Retezat, Parâng,
and Făgăraș Massifs (Urdea 1992). In lower altitude Massifs like Țarcu (2190 m),
Godeanu (2291 m) and Iezer—Păpușa (2469 m) rock glaciers have a sporadic
presence while in even lower altitude massifs they do not appear at all. A notable
exception is represented by the Bucegi Massif which despite its high altitude
(2504 m) and glacial sculpted valleys, it presents no rock glaciers. A major dis-
crepancy in rock glaciers distribution and characteristics exists between granitic
(Retezat and Parâng) and crystalline (Făgăraș) mountains. The former present a
higher rock glaciers density (Urdea 1998) and an openwork structure of the active
layer. Moreover, expressive morphologies, steep terminal fronts with sparse veg-
etation distribution indicate that rock glaciers above 2050–2100 m altitude could be
at least inactive in Retezat and Parâng mountain ranges. In opposition, the rock
glaciers from Făgăraș Massif, extending even at higher altitudes, are characterized
by less inclined fronts, a surface debris mantle filled with fine sediments and a
relatively uniform vegetation distribution across their surfaces which indicates their
contemporary relict state (Fig. 6.5).
BTS (bottom temperature of winter snow cover) measurements were applied
experimentally on Pietrele rock glacier from the Retezat Massif in the early 1990s
(Urdea 1993) and intensely in several sites from the highest massifs of Southern
Carpathians beginning with the year of 2008 (Vespremeanu-Stroe et al. 2012). This
method relies on the late winter (March) thermal stability at the snow-ground
interface, which reflects the thermal conditions from the underground. Usually, a
temperature colder than −2 and −3 °C is associated with possible and probable
permafrost occurrence in the Alps (Haeberli 1973). BTS methods is often used in
mapping the potential permafrost distributions in various mountain ranges (Ikeda
and Matsuoka 2002; Lewkowicz and Ednie 2004; Julián and Chueca 2007).
BTS measurements applied on rock glaciers from the Southern Carpathians
show usually mixed thermal conditions across their surfaces with both areas of
maximum overcooling and relatively warm state. In Retezat and Parâng Massifs,
sporadic patches of probable permafrost can be encountered in the rock glaciers
from the 2000–2100 m altitudinal floor as revealed by BTS maps. Between 2100
6 Spatial Distribution and Main Characteristics … 131
Fig. 6.5 The main typologies of rock glaciers from the Southern Carpathians: Berbecilor lobate
rock glacier probably active (a), Pietrele tongue shape inactive rock glacier (b) from Retezat
Massif; inactive tongue shape rock glaciers Roșiile 2 (c) and Gemănarea (d) from Parâng Massif;
relict rock glaciers Capra (e) and Lăițel (f) from Făgăraș Massif
and 2200 m a.s.l. the permafrost coverage enlarges significantly especially for the
most sheltered rock glaciers like Judele (Retezat), and Roșiile 1 (Parâng) (Fig. 6.6).
No great difference was found between lobate and tongue shape rock glaciers in
what concerns permafrost favorability. Below 2000 m a.s.l., only a few thermal
anomalies can be found on blocky surfaces. The BTS values were always close to
0 °C on alpine meadows confirming the absence of permafrost on this land cover
type no matter the altitude.
132 R. Popescu et al.
Fig. 6.6 BTS maps of granitic rock glaciers from Retezat and Parâng Massifs. Pietrele rock
glacier (a) and Gemănarea (c) reveal isolated areas with permafrost related BTS values in
comparison to Judele (b) and Roșiile 1 (d) rock glaciers where negative thermal anomalies
(T < −3 °C), characteristic to probable permafrost, cover almost their entire surface
GSTs are usually 1–1.5 °C warmer than BTS because the data loggers are located
deeper in the ground while BTS probes reach only the exposed and overcooled
surface of gelifracts.
Interannual amplitudes of temperatures during the thermal stability periods are
similar in all of the investigated rock glaciers. Very low temperatures were regis-
tered in March 2012 and relatively warm temperatures during March 2009, but
these differences do not usually surpass 5 °C.
In the granitic rock glaciers, the GST curves indicate the lack of permafrost
below 2000 m in Upper Ana (Retezat) and Roșiile 3 rock glacier (Parâng), and
possible and probable permafrost above these altitudes. The lowest GST during the
late winter are registered at 2100–2200 m a.s.l., in rock glaciers located in shaded
cirques like Judele, Galeșu, and Știrbu (Retezat) and Roșiile 1 (Parâng), indicating a
high probability of permafrost presence.
In the crystalline rock glaciers, the results show near 0 °C GST at the end of the
winter not only in rock glaciers below 2050 m (Capra and Bâlea) but also at
2300 m a.s.l. (Văiuga rock glacier). An exception is represented by Doamnei rock
glacier, where GST measurements confirm probable permafrost in its upper part in
accordance with the BTS survey. Moreover, the GST indicates possible permafrost
also in its lower sector, into an isolated area of the rock glacier, which should be put
in relation with the site-specific enormous unconsolidated blocks, quite unusual for
the Făgăraș Massif. In Iezer—Păpușa, the GST curves from 2012 to 2014 period
indicate boundary conditions for possible permafrost presence in the blocky surface
under the Tambura peak.
A synthetic thermal indicator is represented by the mean annual ground surface
temperature (MAGST) (Fig. 6.7). Usually, the GST is measured at 0–20 cm in the
ground and the sensors are covered by small fragments of rock (e.g., Ribolini and
Fabre 2006). However, in the Southern Carpathians we measured GST in two
manners: iButtons were hung at 40–80 cm between the gelifracts (near surface GST
Fig. 6.7 Homogenized MAGST values for Southern Carpathians rock glaciers (averaged from
multiple years and multiple sites in the same rock glacier where available) (Popescu et al. submited)
134 R. Popescu et al.
Fig. 6.8 Itinerant measurements of spring water temperature from Retezat, Parâng, Făgăraș, and
Iezer—Păpușa Mountains. Asterisk other sources imply talus cones, alpine meadows and
rockwalls. The acronyms stand for: J—Judele, Pi—Pietricele, B—Berbecilor, P2—Pietrele 2, P—
Pietrele and VR—Valea Rea (Retezat); C—Cârja and Ge-Gemănarea (Parâng); D—Doamnei and
Ca—Capra (Făgăraș) (Popescu et al. submited)
6 Spatial Distribution and Main Characteristics … 135
values are below 2 °C. In contrast, the springs with other sources than rock glaciers
revealed values above 2 °C which decrease with altitude (Vespremeanu-Stroe et al.
2012). The continuous monitoring of several rock glacier springs during summer
revealed the typical pattern related to intact and relict rock glaciers. The former are
characterized by cold (0.7–1.8 °C) and isothermal regime while the latter are warm
(above 5 °C) and oscillating in accordance with the monthly air temperatures. By
measuring the temperature of Gemănarea and Judele rock glacier creeks several
hundred meters downstream from the spring point, we found a rapid increase rate of
0.1 °C at 17 and 10 m, respectively, on horizontal distance (Popescu et al. 2015).
This increasing rate could explain the temperatures between 1 and 2 °C associated
with intact rock glaciers springs, if we take into consideration that most of them
were intercepted at distances of 60–200 m from the frozen source.
The BTS measurements on talus slopes from Retezat Massif were performed in
2011 (within average climatic conditions; Fig. 6.9). All the investigated talus slopes
are connected downwards to lobate rock glaciers (Pietrele 2 and Pietricele) or
tongue shape rock glaciers (Pietrele and Lower Ana) and present very cold values
only in the lower half. An exception is represented by Pietricele talus slopes where
the Northeastern BTS profile indicated cold values up to the rockwall base. In the
case of Pietrele 2 and Lower Ana, the BTS values from their lower parts are even
lower in comparison to those from rock glaciers indicating that permafrost may be
present even in the talus slopes located next to relict rock glaciers like Lower Ana.
The BTS measurements performed in Parâng Massif indicated similar results
with those obtained in the Retezat Massif (Popescu et al. 2015). Low temperatures
in the basal part (1/2–2/3) of the talus slopes were obtained in the Roșiile 1 cirque.
Shorter BTS profiles in Făgăraș and Iezer—Păpușa Mountains indicated a predis-
position for colder temperatures at the lower parts of the talus slopes close to
Doamnei rock glacier and Tambura talus slope.
The continuous thermal monitoring of talus slopes from Retezat Massif con-
firmed the temperature contrast between the lower and the upper parts. In Știrbu
lower talus slope the temperature is colder than in the upper part during almost the
entire winter (to see Fig. 6.4b). Increasing temperatures in the upper part con-
comitantly with temperature decreases in the lower parts during several days in
November suggests the warm air evacuation at the beginning of the cold season,
and the efficiency of the chimney effect acting into these well-inclined (>20°)
features, respectively. Under a thick snow cover, the smooth thermal regime and the
mean temperature offset of 2 °C, increasing to 5 °C in late winter, indicate rather
snow isolated conditions and an underground stratification of warm air in the upper
parts and the cold air in the lower parts of the cavernous system of openwork debris.
The GST measurements in Văiuga talus slope (Făgăraș) revealed a different,
mostly conductive thermal regime. During the first part of the winter the upper and
136 R. Popescu et al.
Fig. 6.9 BTS measurements on talus slopes from Retezat Massif indicating negative thermal
anomalies in their lower sectors (Popescu et al. submitted)
lower parts present a relatively similar thermal regime, while between December
and February the temperature is lower in the upper part. Towards the 0 curtain
period, the temperature distribution becomes “normal”, with colder regimes in the
lower parts and warmer in the upper parts. However, the differences are much
smaller (1–1.5 °C) in comparison to those obtained in the Retezat Massif. The data
suggest that here the underground air circulation in the almost consolidated fine
debris is rather absent. The low temperatures from the lower talus composed by
coarser grain size could be related to the purely conductive cooling mechanism
proposed by Gruber and Hoelzle (2008).
6 Spatial Distribution and Main Characteristics … 137
Fig. 6.10 Mean annual rock surface temperature (MARST) variations with altitude on rockwalls
with different aspects from Făgăraș, Bucegi, Parâng, and Retezat Mountains (Popescu et al.
submitted)
138 R. Popescu et al.
Fig. 6.11 ERT profiles from Roșiile 1 rock glacier (Parâng) (a), a talus slope feeding Pietricele
rock glacier (Retezat) (b), Doamnei rock glacier (Făgăraș) (c), and Văiuga rock glacier (Făgăraș)
(d) (data compiled from Onaca et al. (2013, 2015) (profiles b, c and d) and Popescu et al. (2015)
(profile a)
High resistivity pockets of more than 100 kXm were encountered in Berbecilor
and Judele rock glaciers but the high resistivity of the dry and extremely coarse active
layer (consisting of metric boulders) did not allow identifying the active layer—
permafrost limit (Popescu 2015). However, several transversal GPR profiles on
Judele rock glacier (Onaca et al. 2015) revealed a widespread distribution of the
dense reflection pattern with electromagnetic propagation velocities of more
140 R. Popescu et al.
Fig. 6.12 Transversal GPR profile from the upper part of Judele rock glacier revealing dense
reflection pattern characteristic to permafrost on almost the entire length of the profile
0.13 m/ns along almost the entire length of the profiles (Fig. 6.12). This suggests a
wider permafrost presence in this rock glacier at least in its upper part.
In Parâng Massif, the ERT profiles performed on Roșiile 1 rock glacier revealed
a high resistivity layer of 20–175 kXm that can be interpreted as permafrost
(Fig. 6.11a). The thickness of this layer is about 15–20 m and develops under an
active layer of 6–12 m (Popescu et al. 2015). At lower altitudes, the Roșiile 2 (Ieșu)
rock glacier displays a high resistivity layer of 30–85 kXm at a depth increasing
from 3 m in the upper part to 8 m towards the middle sector of the rock glacier
(Onaca et al. 2013). Also, its thickness decreases from 15 to 5 m.
In Făgăraș Massif, the ERT investigations revealed probable permafrost only in
Doamnei (Pietroasa) rock glacier (Onaca et al. 2013) (Fig. 6.11c). In its upper part,
two ERT profiles indicated a high resistivity layer of 7–10 m thickness and resis-
tivity values of 25–140 kXm under an active layer of 3–5 m. However, the active
layer did not reach its maximum thickness at the date of measurements, the end on
July. In Văiuga rock glacier, even at higher altitude (2280 m) the resistivity values
were lower, ranging between 5 and 20 kXm (Fig. 6.11d) indicating the presence of
either low resistivity permafrost or porous sediments layer. Even lower resistivity
values (<10 kXm) confirm the relict state of Capra and Bâlea rock glaciers.
According to all presented geophysical results, we assume that thin (<10 m) and
undersaturated permafrost prevails in the Southern Carpathians (mostly in the
granitic massifs) located under a thick (8–10 m) active layer. The latter also suggests
a probable disequilibrium relation of permafrost with the present climate. In colder
conditions, at altitudes between 2100 and 2200 m in the granitic massifs, especially
in Retezat, permafrost seems to be thicker (>10–20 m) and supersaturated in ice at
least on certain sectors of the rock glaciers and in the lower part of the talus slopes.
Conclusions
the large surfaces of coarse blocks and of the high altitudes, Retezat and Parâng
Massifs present the largest areas of permafrost from the Southern Carpathians.
The main mechanism responsible for the ground overcooling of coarse blocks,
i.e. the internal warm air evacuation and cold air infiltration at the beginning of the
cold season, was proved to exist in the Southern Carpathians. Grain size and
(related) porosity of the debris deposits were found to be the driving factors for the
efficiency of such thermal processes.
The permafrost creep related landforms, i.e., rock glaciers and protalus ramparts
are mostly relict and therefore a component of a rather inherited periglacial land-
scape. Nevertheless, the present-day climatic conditions of Southern Carpathians
are cold enough to allow patches of permafrost to maintain in inactive rock glaciers
within the 1950–2100 m altitudinal level, located on shaded northern slopes of
Retezat and Parâng Massifs. This permafrost is rather thin, it is undersaturated in ice
and it has a well developed active layer. At higher altitudes, between 2100 and
2200 m a.s.l., the coldest microclimatic conditions determine a more widespread
permafrost distribution in some rock glaciers. This situation is characterized by
greater thicknesses, higher ice content and smaller active layer depth of per-
mafrost that could be subjected to creep related movement. Also, the lower sectors
of northern talus slopes above 2050–2100 m are as well underlain with permafrost
in granitic massifs. Air circulation and stratification in their interior also develop
and are enhanced by their steep topography.
The MAGST registered in permafrost containing debris deposits (both rock
glaciers and talus slopes) are usually positive in the Southern Carpathians indicating
permafrost degradation conditions. However, a few sites with 0 °C or slightly
negative MAGST indicate local conditions for permafrost equilibrium with the
present climate.
In crystalline schists massifs, the scree deposits are usually fossilized at all
altitudinal levels. Both rock glaciers and talus slopes are mostly consolidated by
interstitial matrix and covered by vegetation. Permafrost is absent at most inves-
tigated sites. The matrix provenience was related to the less resistant rock, which
disintegrates in situ. Moreover, the grain size was proved to be statistically much
smaller than for granites and the lower pore space volume is much easier to be filled
up with fine sediments. Atypical areas of coarse blocks deposits like Doamnei rock
glacier still have some chances for permafrost preservation in the present, but such
situations are scarce in crystalline massifs like Făgăraș and Iezer—Păpușa.
Rockwall permafrost probability was inferred based on negative MART occurring
at the top of the northern rockwalls at 2500 m a.s.l. Thus, theoretically, perennially
frozen rockwalls could occurr even above 2350–2400 m in the most shaded sites with
negative MARST. Besides the highest massifs cited so far (Făgăraș, Parâng, Retezat,
and Iezer Păpușa) we assume that Bucegi Massif could also host some patches of
rockwall permafrost because of its high altitudes and rockwalls.
For the vast number of remaining massifs from the Southern Carpathians, espe-
cially the calcareous ones, we assume the potential to be subjected only to atypical and
azonal low altitude permafrost conditions in porous debris deposits down to MAAT
isotherms of 2–5 °C, corresponding roughly to altitudes of 1600–1250 m.
142 R. Popescu et al.
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