Article

Performances Analysis of a Novel

Electromagnetic-Frictional Integrated Brake Based on
Multi-Physical Fields Coupling
Kuiyang Wang 1,2 , Ren He 1, *, Jinhua Tang 1,2 and Ruochen Liu 2
1 School of Automotive and Traffic Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, China;
wangkuiyang@jsut.edu.cn (K.W.); tjinh@jsut.edu.cn (J.T.)
2 School of Automotive and Traffic Engineering, Jiangsu University of Technology, Changzhou 213001, China;
liuruochen@jsut.edu.cn
* Correspondence: heren@ujs.edu.cn




Received: 25 December 2018; Accepted: 19 February 2019; Published: 21 February 2019


Abstract: In this article, a novel electromagnetic-frictional integrated brake is proposed, and its
structure and working principle are introduced. The geometric model and mathematical models of
integrated brake were established, and the multi-field coupling mechanism of integrated brake were
analyzed. With BYD Qin as a reference vehicle, the boundary conditions of thermal load and force
load of integrated brake were determined according to its structure and performance parameters.
Based on the COMSOL software, numerical coupling calculations of electric, magnetic, thermal, and
solid fields of integrated brake were carried out respectively in the emergency and downhill braking
at a constant speed. The axial, circumferential, and radial temperature distributions of integrated
brake disc were analyzed respectively, and they were compared with those of the traditional friction
brake disc. The analysis results show that the proposed integrated brake can effectively improve the
heat fading resistance of automotive brake during emergency and continuous braking. Under the two
braking conditions, the temperature rise of friction brake was faster than that of an electromagnetic
brake, and the effect of the electromagnetic brake on temperature rise of integrated brake was small.

Keywords: automotive engineering; electromagnetic braking; friction braking; integrated brake;

multi-physical fields; performance analysis

1. Introduction
As we all know, the brake is one of the main components of vehicle chassis, which has important
influence on driving safety and braking performances. At present, friction braking is still the main
form of vehicle braking, which changes the kinetic and potential energies of a vehicle into heat energy
by friction when braking. Braking energy dissipation will result in a significant increase in brake
temperature, which may lead to brake heat fading [1]. Eddy current brake, which is considered to be
a good complement to the traditional friction brake, has some potential advantages, i.e., contactless
braking, reduced sensitivity to fading, faster dynamic response, and easier integration with other control
systems. However, it alone cannot completely stop the vehicle, and it will consume some electrical energy
when it works [2]. Therefore, in recent years, the integrated brake with friction braking and eddy
current braking has been attracting increasing attention.
A novel integrated brake with friction braking and permanent magnet braking was proposed for
automotive application, and the basic theoretical analysis, numerical simulation, and experimental
verification on the integrated brake were carried out, which lay the foundation for subsequent research
on the electromagnetic-frictional integrated brake [3]. The calculation formulas of braking torque for
the electromagnetic-frictional integrated brake were obtained by an approximate theoretical model,

World Electric Vehicle Journal 2019, 10, 9; doi:10.3390/wevj10010009 www.mdpi.com/journal/wevj

World Electric Vehicle Journal 2019, 10, 9 2 of 16

and a sliding mode controller was designed for the integrated brake [4]. A three dimensional
finite element analysis method was applied to the eddy current brake, and the effects of design
parameters on the speed-torque characteristic curve of eddy current brake were analyzed [5]. A new
layout structure with friction braking on front wheels and eddy current braking on rear wheels was
proposed. Meanwhile, an anti-lock braking algorithm for eddy current brake was developed based
on a nonlinear sliding mode controller [6]. The optimal design method was adopted to improve the
braking torque of a vehicle, and the influence of structural parameters of integrated brake on braking
moment were analyzed [7]. Based on the theory of multi-objective optimization, the performance
indexes and geometric constraints, which must be met in the design process of integrated brake,
were analyzed. A multi-objective optimization mathematical model, with maximum braking moment
and minimum braking temperature rise as objective functions, was established [8]. According to
the working state of integrated braking systems, the thermal and mechanical coupling analysis of
the electro-mechanical brake was carried out. The thermal decay performance of integrated brake
was verified by simulation. However, the effect of electromagnetic and thermal coupling on the
composite brake was not considered [9]. The temperature distributions of integrated brake were
calculated, respectively, when the electromagnetic brake worked alone and the electromagnetic brake
was combined with the friction brake at the same time. However, the calculation method adopted has
big error [10]. Based on a novel frictional-magnetic compound brake, the influential law of magnetic
field on braking performance was investigated, and the influential mechanism of excitation voltage on
braking performance was analyzed using bench tests [11].
The electromagnetic-frictional integrated brake is affected by the multi-physical fields coupling
of electric field, magnetic field, structure, and thermal field, which have important influence on the
parameter design and performance analysis of integrated brake. However, it can be seen that research
on the integrated brake with friction braking and eddy current braking mainly focus on structural
design, mathematical models, control strategies, and experimental analysis, as detailed in the above
references. The study of physical fields of integrated brake is limited to the sequential coupling of two
physical fields. The simultaneous action and coupling of multiple physical fields are rarely considered.
This paper will be organized as follows. In the Section 2, the structure and working modes of
a novel electromagnetic-frictional integrated brake are introduced. In the Section 3, the multi-field
coupling mechanism of electric field, magnetic field, structure, and thermal field of integrated brake
is analyzed, and the mathematical models of integrated brake are established. In the Section 4,
the three-dimensional model and the finite element model of integrated brake are established.
In Section 5, the multi-field coupling simulation and analysis on the integrated brake are carried
out under emergency braking and downhill continuous braking based on COMSOL software, and
the effectiveness of integrated brake for thermal decay resistance is obtained. In the Section 6, some
conclusions and the future work are presented briefly.

2. Structure and Working Modes

The simplified structure of a novel electromagnetic-frictional integrated brake is shown in Figure 1,
which integrates friction brake and electromagnetic brake. The friction brake is similar to the traditional
friction brake, which is mainly composed of the integrated brake disc, brake pads and caliper body.
The electromagnetic brake is located inside the integrated brake disc, which is mainly composed of
the integrated brake disc, iron cores, and coils. The friction brake transforms the braking energy of a
vehicle into the heat energy of a brake to realize vehicle braking through friction between the brake
disc and brake pads. The electromagnetic brake is a non-contact brake. When the current is in the coils,
the magnetic field is generated around the coils. The rotating integrated brake disc cuts the magnetic
force lines of coils, thus the eddy currents occur on the electromagnetic surfaces of the integrated brake
disc. Under the action of eddy currents, the braking torque will be produced on the integrated brake
disc, which will hinder the rotation of integrated brake disc and realize vehicle braking [3].
World Electric Vehicle Journal 2019, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 16

produced
World Electric on theJournal
Vehicle integrated
2019, 10,brake
9 disc, which will hinder the rotation of integrated brake disc3 of
and16
realize vehicle braking [3].

Figure 1.1. Structural

Structural diagram
diagram ofof electromagnetic-frictional
electromagnetic-frictional integrated brake. 1, brake fluid; 2, brake
brake
piston; 3, brake pad; 4, caliper body; 5, integrated brake disc; 6, copper layer; 7, friction brake surface;
piston;
electromagnetic brake
8, electromagnetic brake surface;
surface; 9,
9, coil;
coil; and
and 10,
10, iron
iron core.
core.

The electromagnetic-frictional integrated brake has three kinds of braking braking modes:
modes: pure friction
braking,
braking, pure
pureelectromagnetic
electromagnetic braking, and and
braking, compound
compoundbraking with both
braking of them.
with both of Whenthem.the When
integrated
the
brake works,
integrated the driver’s
brake braking
works, the intention
driver’s is identified
braking intention by the controller
is identified according
by the controllerto the travel signals
according to the
from
travelthe brakefrom
signals pedal,the
vehicle
brakespeed
pedal,signal, wheel
vehicle speedspeed signal,
signal, etc.speed
wheel According to etc.
signal, the braking
According intention,
to the
different working modes
braking intention, willworking
different be adopted.
modesForwill
example, when the
be adopted. Forvehicle speed
example, is high
when and the speed
the vehicle brakingis
strength
high andisthe low, the pure
braking electromagnetic
strength is low, the braking mode will be braking
pure electromagnetic used to shorten
mode will thebebraking
used toresponse
shorten
time and reduce
the braking the brake
response padreduce
time and wear. When the pad
the brake vehicle
wear.speed
When is high and the
the vehicle braking
speed strength
is high is
and the
high, the compound braking mode will be adopted to reduce the braking time of
braking strength is high, the compound braking mode will be adopted to reduce the braking time of vehicle and improve
the heatand
vehicle recession
improveresistance
the heatof brake. When
recession the vehicle
resistance of brake.speed
Whenis low (generally
the vehicle speedlessisthan
low 20 km/h),
(generally
the
lessbraking torque generated
than 20km/h), the braking bytorque
electromagnetic
generatedbrake is very small, sobrake
by electromagnetic the pure friction
is very small,braking
so themode
pure
will be adopted.
friction braking mode will be adopted.

3.
3. Mathematical
Mathematical Models
Models of
of Multi-Field
Multi-Field Coupling
Coupling
3.1. Multi-Field Coupling Mechanism of the Integrated Brake
3.1. Multi-Field Coupling Mechanism of the Integrated Brake
When the electromagnetic-frictional integrated brake works, a high-intensity magnetic field
When the electromagnetic-frictional integrated brake works, a high-intensity magnetic field is
is generated by the coils with current, which generates eddy currents on the copper layers of
generated by the coils with current, which generates eddy currents on the copper layers of
electromagnetic brake surfaces. Therefore, there is coupling between the electric field and the magnetic
electromagnetic brake surfaces. Therefore, there is coupling between the electric field and the
field in the integrated brake. When the eddy current interacts with the magnetic field generated
magnetic field in the integrated brake. When the eddy current interacts with the magnetic field
by the coils, the braking moment hindering the rotation of integrated brake disc will be produced,
generated by the coils, the braking moment hindering the rotation of integrated brake disc will be
and there will be a coupling between the magnetic and stress fields. Eddy currents produce Joule
produced, and there will be a coupling between the magnetic and stress fields. Eddy currents
heat in the integrated brake disc, which increase the temperature of integrated brake disc, change the
produce Joule heat in the integrated brake disc, which increase the temperature of integrated brake
electromagnetic performance parameters of the brake pads’ materials, and affect the eddy current
disc, change the electromagnetic performance parameters of the brake pads’ materials, and affect the
field of the electromagnetic brake surface, thus leading to coupling between the electromagnetic field
eddy current field of the electromagnetic brake surface, thus leading to coupling between the
and the temperature field. In addition, the brake pads’ contact with the friction brake surfaces of
electromagnetic field and the temperature field. In addition, the brake pads’ contact with the friction
the integrated brake disc under braking pressure, cause the braking pressure to form stress fields on
brake surfaces of the integrated brake disc under braking pressure, cause the braking pressure to
the friction brake surfaces. The heat, which is generated by the friction between the rotating friction
form stress fields on the friction brake surfaces. The heat, which is generated by the friction between
brake surfaces and the brake pads, is applied on the friction brake surfaces, which causes thermal
the rotating friction brake surfaces and the brake pads, is applied on the friction brake surfaces,
deformation of the integrated brake disc. Therefore, there is a coupling between the temperature and
which causes thermal deformation of the integrated brake disc. Therefore, there is a coupling
stress fields. Briefly, the electromagnetic-frictional integrated brake is a complex device involving the
between the temperature and stress fields. Briefly, the electromagnetic-frictional integrated brake is
coupling of multiple physical fields.
a complex device involving the coupling of multiple physical fields.
World Electric Vehicle Journal 2019, 10, 9 4 of 16

3.2. Multi-Field Coupling Mathematical Models of the Integrated Brake

When the integrated brake works, temperature rise of the integrated brake disc mainly consists of
two parts: the friction heating part, and the electromagnetic heating part. The friction heating part
comes from friction between the friction brake surfaces and brake pads, which flows freely into the
integrated brake disc in the form of heat flow, and increases the integrated brake disc’s temperature.
The electromagnetic heating part is caused by eddy currents generated on the electromagnetic brake’s
surfaces. The Joule heat generated by the induced eddy currents is diffused to the integrated brake
disc, which makes the integrated brake disc’s temperature rise. According to the different generation
principles of friction heat and electromagnetic heat, using the energy conservation law and heat
transfer principle, the differential equations of transient temperature field variable T(x, y, z) in the
integrated brake disc are as follows in the rectangular coordinate system [12].
(
k x ∂T ∂T ∂T
∂x n x + k y ∂y ny + k z ∂z nz = q
(1)
k x ∂∂x2 T2 + k y ∂∂y2 T2 + k z ∂∂z2 T2 + qv = ρm c ∂T
∂t

where ρm is the density of materials (kg/m3 ); c is the specific heat capacity of materials (J/(kg·K)); t is
the time (s); kx , ky , and kz are the convective heat transfer coefficients of materials in the direction of x,
y, and z, respectively (W/(m·K)); nx , ny , and nz are the cosines of the corresponding boundaries in the
normal direction; q is the flux density of friction heat (W/m2 ); and qv is the intensity of internal heat
source (W/m3 ).

3.3. Multi-Field Coupling Boundary Conditions for the Integrated Brake

In this paper, BYD Qin was selected as the reference vehicle, and some vehicle parameters are
shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Partial vehicle parameters of BYD Qin.

Name Value
Total mass (m) 2095 kg
Wheelbase (L) 2670 mm
Front axle load (Ff ) 1119 kg
Rear axle load (Fr ) 976 kg
Wheel radius (Rb ) 318 mm

(1) Thermal Load Calculation for the Integrated Brake Disc

The heat generated by friction braking flows into the integrated brake disc as the integrated brake
disc rotates. The heat source moves relative to the integrated brake disc. The heat flux acting on the
radial position r of the integrated brake disc is as follows [13]:
 
t
q(r, t) = ηµpω0 1 − r (2)
ts

where q(r, t) is the heat flux produced by friction (W·m2 ), η is the efficiency of converting friction
power into heat energy, µ is the friction factor, p is the brake specific pressure (N·m2 ), ω 0 is the initial
angular velocity, ts is the braking time (s), and r is the friction radius (mm).
World Electric Vehicle Journal 2019, 10, 9 5 of 16

When the electromagnetic brake is applied, eddy currents are generated on the electromagnetic
brake surfaces. The governing equations can be expressed as follows [14]:
  *
* *
    
1 1 ∂A
∇ × µ ∇ × A − ∇ µ ∇ · A + σ ∂t + ∇ ϕ = 0





   *
 
∂A
∇ − ∂t + ∇ ϕ =0 (3)

  * 
 *
∂A

 J e = −σ ∂t + ∇ ϕ



*
where ∇ is the Hamilton operator, A is the vector magnetic potential, ϕ is the electric scalar potential,
σ is the conductance potential of medium (s/m), µ is the magnetic conductivity of medium (H/m),
*
and J e is the eddy density (W/m2 ).
The Joule heat generated by the eddy currents on the integrated brake disc is regarded as lots of
tiny internal heat source blocks, which are used as temperature field load for the integrated brake disc
during electromagnetic braking. After obtaining the eddy current density on the integrated brake disc,
the generation rate of internal heat is derived from Joule’s law as follows:
 2
* 
qv = ρ J e  (4)

where ρ is the resistivity of materials of electromagnetic brake surfaces (Ω·m).

(2) Heat Convection of Integrated Brake Disc
During the braking process of the electromagnetic-frictional integrated brake, the temperature of
integrated brake disc rises, and the convective heat exchange occurs between the integrated brake disc
and the surrounding environment. It can be expressed as follows [15]:

∂T
− = h( T1 − T2 ) (5)
∂n
In the above formula,
0.8  0.33
Cp µ

0.037 0.8 0.33 0.037 pDv
h= Re Pr = (6)
D D µ k

where h is the coefficient of convective heat, T1 and T2 are the surface temperature and ambient
temperature of integrated brake disc, respectively (◦ C), Re is the Reynolds number, Pr is the Prandtl
number, µ is the viscosity coefficient of air, D is the diameter of integrated brake disc, ρ is the air
density, Cp is the specific heat capacity of air, and k is the thermal conductivity of air.
(3) Heat Radiation of Integrated Brake Disc
During the working process of the integrated brake disc, it also exchanges heat with the
environment by means of thermal radiation. The heat exchanged can be calculated by the
Stephen–Boltzmann equation, which is shown below [15].

∂T  
− = εσA T14 − T24 (7)
∂n
where ε is the radiation rate of materials in the vacuum condition, A is the shape coefficient of the
radiation surface, which is not more than 1, and σ is the Stephen–Boltman constant which is generally
taken as 5.67 × 10−8 W/(m2 ·◦ C4 ).
World Electric Vehicle Journal 2019, 10, 9 6 of 16

(4) Determining the Braking Load

Assuming that the vehicle runs on the road with peak adhesion coefficient and brakes, the front
and rear wheels are locked, then the maximum normal acting force Fz2max of the rear axle is as follows:
mg
Fz2max = (a − ϕ p hg ) (8)
L
where ϕp is the peak value of the adhesion coefficient, which is taken as 0.8 in this paper.
Assuming that the wheel loads are equal on both sides, the maximum braking force Pmax of a
single rear wheel is as follows:
Pmax = ( Fz2max /2) ϕ p (9)

In order to ensure that the wheels don’t lock when braking, the maximum braking moment Mmax
of the integrated brake is limited to:
Mmax = Pmax Rb (10)

where Rb is the radius of tire.

The equation of braking moment may be obtained from reference [16]:

MR (t) = Mmax (1 − e− βt ) (11)

where MR (t) is the maximum friction moment (N·m), β is a parameter related to the structure of the
integrated brake, and t is the braking time (s).
There are two brake pads on both sides of the integrated brake. For a single brake pad, the braking
moment is as follows:
1
Z
MR (t) = µP(t)rdA (12)
2
A

In the above formula,

MR (t) M (t)
P(t) = R = R α2 R R r2 2 (13)
2µ rdA 2µ α da r r dr
1 1
A

where P(t) is the braking pressure generated by the brake piston (Pa), µ is the friction coefficient
between the integrated brake disc and the brake pads which is taken as 0.35, α is the wrap angle of the
brake pad (º), A is the area of brake pad (mm2 ), and r is the radius of brake pad (mm).

4. Establishing the Finite Element Model

4.1. Three-Dimensional Modeling of the Integrated Brake

The integrated brake is symmetrical left and right, thus only one half of the integrated brake is
required for the simplicity of analysis. In this paper, the modeling function of the COMSOL software
was directly used. The model does not need to be transformed. The information of the model is
accurately retained, which is convenient for revision and parametric design. The three-dimensional
model of the integrated brake is established, as shown in Figure 2.
World Electric Vehicle Journal 2019, 10, 9 7 of 16
World Electric Vehicle Journal 2019, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 16

Figure 2.
Figure Three-dimensional model
2. Three-dimensional model of
of the
the integrated
integrated brake.
brake.
4.2. Material Properties of Integrated Brake
4.2. Material Properties of Integrated Brake
Copper layers of the electromagnetic brake surfaces and the electromagnetic coils are made of
Copper layers of the electromagnetic brake surfaces and the electromagnetic coils are made of
copper, and the integrated brake disc is made of gray iron. The conductivity, relative dielectric constant
copper, and the integrated brake disc is made of gray iron. The conductivity, relative dielectric
and relative permeability of the related materials are shown in Table 2.
constant and relative permeability of the related materials are shown in Table 2.
Table 2. Attribute parameters of related materials.
Table 2. Attribute parameters of related materials.
Materials Relative Permeability µr Conductivity γ (s/m) Relative Dielectric Constant
Relative dielectric
Materials
Air Relative
1 permeability μr Conductivity
10 γ (s/m) 1
constant
Brake disc 200 106 1
Air 1 10
7 1
Copper layer 1 5.998 × 10 1
Brake disc 200 106 1
Iron core 4000 1.03 × 107 1
7
Copper layer 1 5.998×10 1
Iron core
4.3. Adding 4000
the Required Physical Fields 1.03×107 1
The required physical fields are added based on the COMSOL software. The magnetic and
4.3. Adding
electric thewere
fields Required Physical
selected Fields
in the AC/DC module, and the number of coil turns was set to 256, coil
7
conductivity was set to 6 × 10 s/m, the diameter of coil wire was set to 1.5 mm, and the coils’ excitation
The required physical fields are added based on the COMSOL software. The magnetic and
current was set to 15 A. The physical field of solid heat transfer was selected in the heat transfer module,
electric fields were selected in the AC/DC module, and the number of coil turns was set to 256, coil
where some parameters, such as the velocity of translation motion, the initial value of temperature,
conductivity was set to 6 × 107 s/m, the diameter of coil wire was set to 1.5 mm, and the coils’
the heat flux, the thermal contact, and the diffuse radiation coefficient, were set. The physical field
excitation current was set to 15 A. The physical field of solid heat transfer was selected in the heat
of solid mechanics was added in the structural mechanics module, where the parameters of linear
transfer module, where some parameters, such as the velocity of translation motion, the initial value
elastic material, freedom and initial value were set. In the mathematical module, the global ordinary
of temperature, the heat flux, the thermal contact, and the diffuse radiation coefficient, were set. The
differential equations and the differential-algebraic system of equations were selected, where the global
physical field of solid mechanics was added in the structural mechanics module, where the
equations for angular velocity were set. When calculating multi-physical fields, the four physical fields
parameters of linear elastic material, freedom and initial value were set. In the mathematical
were simultaneously used as coupling interfaces to calculate the corresponding variables.
module, the global ordinary differential equations and the differential-algebraic system of equations
were selected, where
4.4. Computational Domain theandglobal equations for angular velocity were set. When calculating
Mesh Generation
multi-physical fields, the four physical fields were simultaneously used as coupling interfaces to
The the
calculate air gaps of electromagnetic
corresponding variables.brake have an effect on the working performance of integrated
brake, and the integrated brake radiates heat to the surrounding air when it works, therefore,
the Computational
4.4. calculated airDomain
area wasandset as a
Mesh sphere enclosing the integrated brake model. The diameter
Generation
of the sphere was three times that of the outer diameter of the integrated brake disc, as shown in
The air gaps of electromagnetic brake have an effect on the working performance of integrated
Figure 3.
brake, and the integrated brake radiates heat to the surrounding air when it works, therefore, the
calculated air area was set as a sphere enclosing the integrated brake model. The diameter of the
sphere was three times that of the outer diameter of the integrated brake disc, as shown in Figure 3.
World Electric Vehicle Journal 2019, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 16
World Electric Vehicle Journal 2019, 10, 9 8 of 16
World Electric Vehicle Journal 2019, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 16

Figure 3. Computational domain of the integrated brake model.

Figure
Figure 3. Computational domain
3. Computational domain of
of the
the integrated
integrated brake
brake model.
model.
There are two types of mesh generation in the COMSOL software: free tetrahedral mesh
generation and two
There are free types
triangular
of meshmesh generation.
generation The COMSOL
in the structure of integrated
software: freebrake is relatively
tetrahedral mesh
There are two types of mesh generation in the COMSOL software: free tetrahedral mesh
complex,
generationtheandtetrahedral
free triangular mesh is relatively
mesh generation.good for its adaptability,
The structure of integratedmaking
brake is itrelatively
easy to complex,
capture
generation and free triangular mesh generation. The structure of integrated brake is relatively
geometric figures,
the tetrahedral mesh theis method
relativelyofgood
free for
tetrahedral mesh generation
its adaptability, was to
making it easy adopted
captureingeometric
this paper. The
figures,
complex, the tetrahedral mesh is relatively good for its adaptability, making it easy to capture
copper layersof of
the method electromagnetic
free tetrahedral mesh brake surfaces was
generation adopt the comparatively
adopted in this paper.refined grid, the
The copper other
layers of
geometric figures, the method of free tetrahedral mesh generation was adopted in this paper. The
surfaces of integrated brake adopt refined grid density, and conventional grid density
electromagnetic brake surfaces adopt the comparatively refined grid, the other surfaces of integrated was used in
copper layers of electromagnetic brake surfaces adopt the comparatively refined grid, the other
the
brakecomputational
adopt refined griddomain. The
density, anddivided mesh grid
conventional consists of was
density 87,049
useddomain elements and
in the computational 1,797
domain.
surfaces of integrated brake adopt refined grid density, and conventional grid density was used in
boundary
The divided elements. The calculation
mesh consists of 87,049 model
domainofelements
the integrated brake
and 1797 after meshing
boundary is shown
elements. in Figure
The calculation
the computational domain. The divided mesh consists of 87,049 domain elements and 1,797
4.
model of the integrated brake after meshing is shown in Figure 4.
boundary elements. The calculation model of the integrated brake after meshing is shown in Figure
4.

Figure 4. Calculation model of the integrated brake after meshing.

Figure 4. Calculation model of the integrated brake after meshing.
5. Numerical Simulation Figureand Analysis model of the integrated brake after meshing.
4. Calculation
5. Numerical Simulation and Analysis
5.1. Temperature Field Analysis for the Integrated Brake
5. Numerical Simulation and Analysis
5.1. Temperature Field Analysis for the Integrated Brake
5.1.1. Emergency Braking Condition
5.1. Temperature Field Analysis for the Integrated Brake
5.1.1. Emergency Braking Condition
The emergency braking condition analyzed refers to the vehicle speed from 100 km/h to 0 km/h,
the initial environmental temperature was 293.15 K,refers
and the braking deceleration was 7 m/s 2 . According
5.1.1. The emergency
Emergency braking
Braking condition
Condition analyzed to the vehicle speed from 100 km/h to 0 km/h,
to the
the integrated
initial brake’s working
environmental modes, in
temperature wasthe293.15
emergency braking
K, and the condition, the electromagnetic
braking deceleration was 7 brake
m/s2.
The emergency braking condition analyzed refers to the vehicle speed from 100 km/h to 0 km/h,
works independently
According at the initial
to the integrated stage
brake’s of braking,
working thenin
modes, thethe
electromagnetic brake and
emergency braking the friction
condition, the
the initial environmental temperature was 293.15 K, and the braking deceleration was 7 m/s2.
brake work simultaneously,
electromagnetic brake worksand finally the friction
independently at the brake
initial works
stage ofindependently.
braking, thenWhen the integrated
the electromagnetic
According to the integrated brake’s working modes, in the emergency braking condition, the
brake works,
brake and the a moving
frictionheat
brakesource is applied
work to the friction
simultaneously, andsurfaces
finally ofthe
thefriction
integratedbrakebrake disc,
works
electromagnetic brake works independently at the initial stage of braking, then the electromagnetic
and the current is applied to the coils of the electromagnetic brake. The cloud
independently. When the integrated brake works, a moving heat source is applied to the friction charts of temperature
brake and the friction brake work simultaneously, and finally the friction brake works
distribution
surfaces of the
of the integrated
integrated brakebrake disc
disc, at different
and the current times are shown
is applied in Figure
to the 5. the electromagnetic
coils of
independently. When the integrated brake works, a moving heat source is applied to the friction
surfaces of the integrated brake disc, and the current is applied to the coils of the electromagnetic
 World Electric Vehicle Journal 2019, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 16

brake.
World The
Electric cloud
Vehicle charts
Journal of10,
2019, temperature
9 distribution of the integrated brake disc at different times are
9 of 16
shown in Figure 5.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e) (f)

Figure
Figure 5. 5. Cloudcharts
Cloud chartsofoftemperature
temperaturedistribution
distribution ofof integrated
integratedbrake brakedisc.
disc.(a)(a)Electromagnetic
Electromagnetic brake
brake
surface at 0.7s; (b) Friction brake surface at 0.7s; (c) Electromagnetic brake surface at 2.8s;
surface at 0.7 s; (b) Friction brake surface at 0.7 s; (c) Electromagnetic brake surface at 2.8 s; (d) Friction (d) Friction
brake
brake surface
surface atat
2.82.8s; (e)Electromagnetic
s; (e) Electromagnetic brake
brake surface
surfaceatat4.0s;
4.0 s;(f)(f)Friction
Frictionbrake
brake surface
surfaceat 4.0s.
at 4.0 s.

AsAs shown
shown ininFigure
Figure5,5,the
theelectromagnetic
electromagnetic brake
brake worked
workedand andthe
thefriction
frictionbrake
brake did not
did during
not during
the first 0.7 s of braking time. The non-contact braking and short braking time,
the first 0.7 s of braking time. The non-contact braking and short braking time, led to a very led to a very small
small
temperature rise at the electromagnetic brake’s surface, and the maximum temperature
temperature rise at the electromagnetic brake’s surface, and the maximum temperature reached reached 315
K. The maximum temperature of the friction brake surface was close to the initial temperature, and
315 K. The maximum temperature of the friction brake surface was close to the initial temperature,
the temperature rise of the electromagnetic brake surface had little effect on the friction brake
and the temperature rise of the electromagnetic brake surface had little effect on the friction brake
surface. When the braking time was 2.8 s, the friction brake and the electromagnetic brake worked
surface. When the braking time was 2.8 s, the friction brake and the electromagnetic brake worked
synchronously, the temperature of the friction brake surface rose significantly, and the maximum
synchronously, the temperature of the friction brake surface rose significantly, and the maximum
temperature was 420 K. The temperature of the electromagnetic brake surface decreased slightly,
temperature was 420temperature
and its maximum K. The temperature
was 307 K.ofWhen
the electromagnetic
the braking timebrake surface
was 4.0 s, thedecreased slightly,
electromagnetic
and its maximum
brake did not work temperature was 307brake
and the friction K. When the braking
was coming to antime
end,was 4.0 s, the
therefore the electromagnetic
temperatures of brake
the
didtwo
notkinds
workofand the friction brake
brake surfaces decreased.was coming to an end, therefore the temperatures of the two kinds
of brakeAtsurfaces
differentdecreased.
braking moments, the friction brake’s surface reflected the influence of moving heat
source in the circumferential direction. In the early braking stage, due to the large heat flux, small
heat dissipation, and rapid temperature rise, the movement of heat source resulted in a high
temperature in the friction zone, while the temperature in the non-friction zone was relatively small,
World Electric Vehicle Journal 2019, 10, 9 10 of 16

At different braking moments, the friction brake’s surface reflected the influence of moving heat
source in the circumferential direction. In the early braking stage, due to the large heat flux, small heat
World Electric Vehicle Journal 2019, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 16
dissipation, and rapid temperature rise, the movement of heat source resulted in a high temperature
in
andthe
thefriction zone, while
circumferential the temperature
temperature gradientinwas
the relatively
non-friction zone
large. wasdecrease
With relativelyin small, anddisc
the brake the
circumferential temperature gradient was relatively large. With decrease in
speed, because the heat flux decreased, and the heat dissipation in the zone with higher temperaturethe brake disc speed,
because
was larger,the heat
the flux decreased, and
circumferential the heat dissipation
temperature difference inwas
the zone
smallwith
at thehigher
endtemperature
of braking.was In
larger, the circumferential temperature difference was small at the end of braking.
electromagnetic braking, the high temperature zone of electromagnetic brake surface is mainly the In electromagnetic
braking,
distributionthe area
high corresponding
temperature zone of electromagnetic
to the electromagnets. brake
This issurface is mainly
because the eddy thecurrent
distribution
densityarea
in
corresponding to the electromagnets. This is because the eddy current density in this
this area is relatively high, and the temperature rise of the brake disc is caused by eddy current loss area is relatively
high,
as heatand the temperature rise of the brake disc is caused by eddy current loss as heat source.
source.
During
During emergency
emergency braking,
braking, thethe calculated
calculated temperature curves on
temperature curves on the
the electromagnetic
electromagnetic brakebrake
surface and the friction brake surface are shown
surface and the friction brake surface are shown in Figure 6. in Figure 6.

Figure
Figure 6. Temperature
Temperature curves of integrated brake disc during emergency braking.

From Figure 6, it can be seen that the temperature

temperature of friction brake surface increased first and
then decreased, the temperature of electromagnetic brake surface increased first and then changed
gently.
gently. At
At first,
first, only
only the
theelectromagnetic
electromagneticbrake
brakeworked,
worked,and andthethefriction
frictionbrake
brakestarted
startedworking
workingatat1.21.2
s.
When
s. When the the
braking
brakingtimetime
exceeded 2.8 s, with
exceeded 2.8 s,the decrease
with of vehicle
the decrease ofspeed,
vehiclethespeed,
rate ofthe
heatrate
production
of heat
of friction brake was gradually lower than that of heat dissipation, and the temperature
production of friction brake was gradually lower than that of heat dissipation, and the temperature of friction
brake discbrake
of friction begandiscto drop.
beganFinally,
to drop.the temperature
Finally, of friction
the temperature ofbrake
friction surface
brake was 368was
surface K, and
368 that
K, and of
electromagnetic brake surface
that of electromagnetic was 306was
brake surface K. 306 K.
The temperature
temperature curves curves of
of four
four nodes
nodesatatthe
thefriction
frictionradius
radius(r(r= =105105 mm)
mm) andand phase
phase angles
angles (0
(0 degree,
degree, 9090 degree,
degree, 180
180 degree,and
degree, and270
270degree,
degree,respectively)
respectively)on onthethefriction
frictionbrake
brake surface
surface are shown
in Figure
Figure7.7.TheThetemperature
temperature change
change trend of each
trend node
of each was was
node similar. However,
similar. the temperature
However, peaks
the temperature
and troughs occured at different time points due to the alternating action of friction
peaks and troughs occured at different time points due to the alternating action of friction heat heat source and
convective
source and heat transfer.
convective heat transfer.
World Electric Vehicle Journal 2019, 10, 9 11 of 16
World Electric
World Electric Vehicle
Vehicle Journal
Journal 2019,
2019, 10,
10, xx FOR
FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 11 of
11 of 16
16

Figure 7. Circumferential
Figure 7. temperature distribution
Circumferential temperature distribution of
of friction
friction brake
brake surface.
surface.

temperature curves
The calculated temperature curves at different radial positions
positions of the friction brake surface are
shown in Figure 8. The temperature
temperature at the radius (r == 105 mm) was the highest, because this is the
friction radius.

Figure 8.
Figure distribution of
8. Radial temperature distribution of friction
friction brake
brake surface.
surface.

The
The radial
radial temperature
temperaturedistribution
distributionofofelectromagnetic
electromagnetic brake surface
brake surfaceis shown in Figure
is shown 9. In9.the
in Figure In
initial stage of braking, the temperature of the electromagnetic brake surface increased rapidly
the initial stage of braking, the temperature of the electromagnetic brake surface increased rapidly because
of electromagnetic
because braking operation
of electromagnetic and less convective
braking operation heat transfer,
and less convective heatfrom 293 Kfrom
transfer, to 312 K.KThereafter,
293 to 312 K.
the heat generated by electromagnetic braking decreased gradually, with the decrease
Thereafter, the heat generated by electromagnetic braking decreased gradually, with the decrease of vehicle speed.
of
At the later stage of braking, the convective heat transfer and the generated heat basically
vehicle speed. At the later stage of braking, the convective heat transfer and the generated heat reached
equilibrium, and the
basically reached temperature
equilibrium, andcurves tended to be
the temperature flat. tended to be flat.
curves
World Electric Vehicle Journal 2019, 10, 9 12 of 16
World Electric Vehicle Journal 2019, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 16

Figure 9. Radial temperature distribution of the electromagnetic

electromagnetic brake
brake surface.
surface.

Five
Five points
points ofof different
different thickness
thickness ofof the
the integrated
integrated brake
brake disc
disc were
were selected
selected at
at the
the friction
friction radius
radius
(r
(r = 105 mm). Among them, h = 0 was the electromagnetic brake surface, h = 38 mm was the
= 105 mm). Among them, h = 0 was the electromagnetic brake surface, h = 38 mm was the friction
friction
brake
brake surface,
surface,and
andthe theother
otherthree
threepoints
pointswere located
were between
located between the the
electromagnetic
electromagneticbrake surface
brake and
surface
the friction brake surface. Figure 10 shows that the trend of temperature change
and the friction brake surface. Figure 10 shows that the trend of temperature change at point h = 32 at point h = 32 mm
was
mm similar to that
was similar at the
to that at friction brake
the friction surface,
brake but but
surface, the the
temperature
temperature waswas
much
much lower
lowerthanthanthat at
that
the friction brake surface, indicating that the heat source at the point mainly
at the friction brake surface, indicating that the heat source at the point mainly comes from thermal comes from thermal
radiation
radiation of of the
the friction
friction brake
brake surface.
surface. The
The temperature
temperature curves
curves atat hh == 88 mm
mm and
and hh = 28 mm
= 28 mm showed
showed aa
gentle
gentle upward
upward trend,
trend, it it can
can be
be seen
seen that
that heat
heat sources
sources ofof the
the brake
brake surfaces
surfaces hadhad no
no obvious
obvious effect
effect on
on
them. At the end of braking, the temperature of each point tended to converge,
them. At the end of braking, the temperature of each point tended to converge, which showed that which showed that the
integrated
the integratedbrake discdisc
brake hadhadgood thermal
good conductivity.
thermal conductivity.

Figure 10. Temperature curves of different

different axial
axial points
points of
of the
the integrated
integrated brake
brake disc.
disc.

5.1.2. Downhill Braking

5.1.2. Downhill Braking at
at aa Constant
Constant Speed
Speed
During the downhill
During the downhill braking
brakingatataaconstant
constantspeed,
speed,thethevehicle
vehicle speed
speed waswassetset
to to
50 50 km/h
km/h andand
the
the continuous
continuous braking
braking time time wastoset
was set tothe
20 s, 20 initial
s, the environmental
initial environmental temperature
temperature wasK,293.15
was 293.15 K,
and the
and the slope of downhill was 7%. When braking for 20 s, the cloud charts of temperature
slope of downhill was 7%. When braking for 20 s, the cloud charts of temperature field of the field of the
integrated brake disc are shown in Figure 11, and the temperature curves of electromagnetic brake
surface, friction brake surface, and radiating rib are shown in Figure 12.
World Electric Vehicle Journal 2019, 10, 9 13 of 16

integrated brake disc are shown in Figure 11, and the temperature curves of electromagnetic brake
World Electric
surface,
World Vehiclebrake
friction
Electric Vehicle Journal 2019,
Journal 2019, 10,
10, xxand
surface, FOR radiating
FOR PEER REVIEW
PEER REVIEW
rib
are shown in Figure 12. 13 of
13 of 16
16

(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
Figure
Figure 11. Cloud
Figure 11.
11. Cloud charts
Cloud charts of
charts of temperature distribution
of temperature
temperature distribution of
distribution of the
of the integrated
the integrated brake
integrated brake disc.
brake disc. (a)
disc. (a) Electromagnetic
(a) Electromagnetic
Electromagnetic
brake surface;
brake surface;
brake (b)
surface; (b) Friction
(b) Friction brake
Friction brake surface.
brake surface.
surface.

Figure12.
Figure
Figure 12. Temperature curves
12. Temperature
Temperature curves of
curves of the
of the integrated
the integrated brake
integrated brake disc.
brake disc.
disc.

Figures 11
Figures 11andand1212 show
12 show thatthat
temperatures
temperatures of electromagnetic
of electromagnetic
electromagnetic brakebrakesurface, frictionfriction
surface, brake surface
brake
Figures 11 and show that temperatures of brake surface, friction brake
and
surfaceradiating
and rib showed
radiating rib upward
showed trends
upward during
trends the braking
during at
the a constant
braking atspeed.
a The
constant temperature
speed. The
surface and radiating rib showed upward trends during the braking at a constant speed. The
rise of radiating
temperature rise rise ofrib was
of radiating the
radiating rib lowest
rib was
was the in the
the lowest initial
lowest in in the braking
the initial stage,
initial braking because
braking stage, the
stage, because temperatures
because the the temperaturesof
temperatures the
temperature
electromagnetic
of the electromagnetic brake surface
electromagnetic brake and the friction
surface and the thebrake surface
friction were
brake lower, were
surface and the heat transmitted
lower, and thethe heat
heatto
of the brake surface and friction brake surface were lower, and
the radiating
transmitted to rib
to the was very
the radiating small.
radiating rib rib wasWith
was very the increase
very small.
small. With of
With thetime, the
the increasetemperatures
increase of of time,
time, the of the electromagnetic
the temperatures
temperatures of of the
the
transmitted
brake surface
electromagnetic brake and the friction
brake surface brake
surface and and thesurface
the frictionincreased
friction brake rapidly.
brake surface However,
surface increased the temperature
increased rapidly.
rapidly. However, rise
However, theof the
the
electromagnetic
friction brakerise
temperature surface thewas
of the muchbrake
friction largersurface
than that wasofmuch the electromagnetic
much larger than thatbrake
than that thesurface,
of the the heat source
electromagnetic brake
temperature rise of friction brake surface was larger of electromagnetic brake
of the
surface, radiating
the heat rib mainly
source of came
the from
radiating the
rib friction
mainly brake
came surface,
from the which
friction made
brake the temperature
surface, which of the
made
surface, the heat source of the radiating rib mainly came from the friction brake surface, which made
radiating
the rib between
temperature of the that
the of electromagnetic
radiating rib between
between brake
thatsurface and that of friction
of electromagnetic
electromagnetic brake brake
surface surface.
and that At the
that of
the temperature of radiating rib that of brake surface and of
end of
friction braking,
brake the
surface. temperature
At the end of
of the friction
braking, thebrake surface
temperature was
of the402 K, and
friction that
brake of electromagnetic
surface was 402 K,
friction brake surface. At the end of braking, the temperature of the friction brake surface was 402 K,
brakethat
and surface was 341 K, which
of electromagnetic
electromagnetic brakeshowed
surface thatwasthe341temperature
which rise
K, which showedof friction brake
that the
the surface had
temperature little
rise of
and that of brake surface was 341 K, showed that temperature rise of
effect onbrake
friction the electromagnetic
surface hadhad little brake
little effect surface.
on thethe The heat was transferred
electromagnetic brake surface.from aThe
surface. high-temperature
heat was
was transferredobject
transferred
friction brake surface effect on electromagnetic brake The heat
to a low-temperature
from objectobject
and the to aatemperature rising speed
objectof friction brake was faster than that ofof
from aa high-temperature
high-temperature object to low-temperature
low-temperature object and
and the temperature
the temperature rising
rising speed
speed of
electromagnetic
friction brake
brake was brake,
was faster thus
faster than the
than that influence
that of of electromagnetic
of electromagnetic
electromagnetic brake, brake
brake, thus on
thus the the temperature
the influence
influence of rise of friction
of electromagnetic
electromagnetic
friction
brake on
brake canthebe temperature
neglected. rise of friction brake can be neglected.
brake on the temperature rise of friction brake can be neglected.

5.2. Comparative
5.2. Comparative Analysis
Analysis of
of the
the Integrated
Integrated Brake
Brake and
and Traditional
Traditional Friction
Friction Brake
Brake

5.2.1. Emergency
5.2.1. Emergency Braking
Braking Condition
Condition
World Electric Vehicle Journal 2019, 10, 9 14 of 16

5.2. Comparative Analysis of the Integrated Brake and Traditional Friction Brake
World Electric Vehicle Journal 2019, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 16
World
5.2.1. Electric VehicleBraking
Emergency Journal 2019, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW
Condition 14 of 16
The model of traditional friction brake was established with the same structure parameters and
material
TheThesettings.
model
model Under
of of the same
traditional
traditional braking
friction brake
friction brake conditions,
was
was the analysis
established
established with on
thethe
with single
same
same emergency
structure braking
parameters
structure parameters of
and
and
traditional
material
material frictionUnder
settings.
settings. brake
Underthewas carried
thesame
same out. The
braking
braking calculated
conditions,
conditions, thecloud
the charts
analysis of temperature
on single emergency
emergency change ofof
braking
braking
traditional
of traditional
traditional friction
frictionbrake
friction brakediscwas
brake arecarried
shown out.
carried in Figure
out. The 13.
The calculated
calculatedcloud
cloudcharts
chartsofoftemperature
temperaturechange
changeof of
traditional
traditionalfriction
friction brake
brakedisc areare
disc shown
shown in in
Figure 13.13.
Figure

(a) 0.7 s (b) 2.6 s (c) 4.0 s

(a) 0.713.
Figure s Cloud charts of temperature (b) 2.6 s
distribution of traditional friction brake(c)disc.
4.0 s

Figure
Figure 13.13. Cloud
Cloud charts
charts of of temperature
temperature distribution
distribution of of traditional
traditional friction
friction brake
brake disc.
disc.
As shown in Figure 13, the high temperature area of traditional friction brake disc was the
contact
AsAsarea
shown between
shown in Figure the
in Figure13,brake
the
13,highpads
the and
temperature
high the brake
area ofdisc.
temperature With
traditional
area of the increase
friction
traditional brake ofdisc
friction braking
was disc
brake thetime,
wasthe
contact the
temperature
area between
contact of
areathe brake
between disc
brake pads increased
and the
the brake first
brake
pads and and
disc. then
theWith decreased,
thedisc.
brake increase which
Withofthe was
braking same
time,
increase as
of the that of
temperature
braking the
time, the
integrated
of brake disc
temperaturebrake. of When
increased braking
brake first
discand for
then2.6decreased,
increased s,first
the temperature
and which of the
was same
then decreased, brake
as discwas
that
which reached
of thesame a maximum
integrated of of
as thatbrake. the
500
When K,braking
and the
integrated forfinal
brake. s,braking
2.6When thebrakingtemperature
temperature
for 2.6ofs,thewas
the 460disc
brake K, both
temperature ofofthe
reached awhich
brakewere
maximum higher
disc of 500 K,than
reached aand those
the
maximum ofof
final
integrated
braking braking.
500 K,temperature
and the finalwasbraking
460 K, both of which was
temperature were460higher than those
K, both of integrated
of which were higherbraking.
than those of
The contrast
The contrast
integrated braking.curves of
curves of temperature
temperature rise rise for
for two
two different
different braking
braking forms
forms are
are shown
shown in in Figure
Figure 14.
14.
The temperature
The temperature of
of electromagnetic-frictional
electromagnetic-frictional integrated
integrated brake
brake was
was obviously
obviously lower
lower
The contrast curves of temperature rise for two different braking forms are shown in Figure 14. than
than that
that of
of the
the
traditional
traditional friction brake,
friction
The temperature brake, and its
and its maximum
maximum temperature
of electromagnetic-frictional temperature
integrateddecreased
decreased
brake was byobviously
by ~39%.
~39%. lower than that of the
traditional friction brake, and its maximum temperature decreased by ~39%.

Figure 14. Contrast curves of temperature rise for two different

different braking
braking forms.
forms.
Figure 14. Contrast curves of temperature rise for two different braking forms.
5.2.2. Downhill Braking at a Constant Speed
5.2.2.
At Downhill
the end ofBraking
downhillat abraking
Constantat aSpeed
constant speed, the calculated cloud charts of temperature
distribution for the traditional friction brake disc is speed,
At the end of downhill braking at a constant shownthe
in Figure 15. Its
calculated maximum
cloud temperature
charts of temperature
was 482 K, which
distribution for was higher thanfriction
the traditional that ofbrake
compound
disc isbraking.
shown in Figure 15. Its maximum temperature
was 482 K, which was higher than that of compound braking.
 World Electric Vehicle Journal 2019, 10, 9 15 of 16

5.2.2. Downhill Braking at a Constant Speed

At the end of downhill braking at a constant speed, the calculated cloud charts of temperature
distribution for the traditional friction brake disc is shown in Figure 15. Its maximum temperature was
World Electric Vehicle Journal 2019, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 16
482
WorldK, which
Electric wasJournal
Vehicle higher than
2019, 10, xthat
FORof compound
PEER REVIEW braking. 15 of 16

Figure 15. Cloud charts of temperature distribution for traditional friction brake disc.
Figure 15. Cloud charts of temperature distribution for traditional friction brake disc.

The
Thecontrast
The contrastcurves
contrast curvesofof
curves oftemperature
temperaturerise
temperature risefor
rise fortwo
for twodifferent
two differentbraking
different brakingforms
braking formsare
forms areshown
are showninin
shown inFigure
Figure16.
Figure 16.
16.
InInthe process
the process
In the of
process of downhill
of downhill braking
downhillbraking at a constant
brakingatataaconstant speed,
constantspeed, the
speed,the difference
the between
difference
difference between
between the temperature
thethe temperature
temperature of
of
traditional
of friction
traditional brake
friction and
brake that
and of
that integrated
of integrated brake
brakewas
wasincreasing.
increasing. The
Thefinal
traditional friction brake and that of integrated brake was increasing. The final temperature of finaltemperature
temperature of
of
traditional
traditionalfriction
traditional frictionbrake
friction brakewas
brake was482
was 482KK
482 Kand
andthat
and thatofof
that ofintegrated
integratedbrake
integrated brakewas
brake was402K.
was 402K.Compared
402K. Comparedwith
Compared withthe
with the
the
traditional
traditionalfriction
friction brake,
brake,the
the temperature
temperature rise
rise of
ofintegrated
integrated brake
brake was
was reduced
reduced
traditional friction brake, the temperature rise of integrated brake was reduced by about 42%. byby about
about 42%.
42%.

Figure
Figure16.
16.Contrast
Contrastcurves
curvesofof
oftemperature
temperaturerise
risefor
fortwo
twodifferent
differentbraking
brakingforms.
Figure 16. Contrast curves temperature rise for two different braking forms.
forms.

6.6. Conclusions
6.Conclusion
Conclusion
InIn this paper,
Inthis
paper, a new electromagnetic-frictional
this paper,a anewnewelectromagnetic-frictional
integrated brakebrake
electromagnetic-frictionalintegrated
is proposed. The structural
integrated brakeisisproposed.
proposed.The
principle
Thestructural
structural
and working
principle modes of the proposed integrated brake are introduced, and its three-dimensional model
principle and and working
working modesmodes ofof the the proposed
proposed integrated
integrated brake
brake are are introduced,
introduced, and and itsits
and mathematical models
three-dimensional are established. Based on the multi-field coupling theoryon of electro-magnetic-
three-dimensional model model and and mathematical
mathematical models
models areare established.
established. Based
Based on the the multi-field
multi-field
thermal-solid
coupling and the COMSOL software, the numerical simulation and analysis on the proposed
coupling theory
theory ofof electro-magnetic-thermal-solid
electro-magnetic-thermal-solid and and thethe COMSOL
COMSOL software,
software, thethe numerical
numerical
integrated and
simulation brake are carried out respectively in the emergency braking and the downhill braking at a
simulation andanalysis
analysison onthe
theproposed
proposedintegrated
integratedbrake
brakearearecarried
carriedout outrespectively
respectivelyininthe the
constant speed.
emergency brakingThe temperature
and the downhillrisebraking
of integrated
at a brake isspeed.
constant compared
The with that of traditional
temperature rise of friction
integrated
emergency braking and the downhill braking at a constant speed. The temperature rise of integrated
brake
brakeisiscompared
comparedwith withthat
thatofoftraditional
traditionalfriction
frictionbrake.
brake.Compared
Comparedwith withthethetraditional
traditionalfriction
friction
braking,
braking, the results show that the proposed integrated brake can effectively improvethe
the results show that the proposed integrated brake can effectively improve theheat
heatfading
fading
resistance
resistance under the two selected braking conditions. These lay a theoretical foundation for
under the two selected braking conditions. These lay a theoretical foundation for
subsequent
subsequentprototype
prototypefabrication
fabricationand andperformance
performancetests.
tests.
World Electric Vehicle Journal 2019, 10, 9 16 of 16

brake. Compared with the traditional friction braking, the results show that the proposed integrated
brake can effectively improve the heat fading resistance under the two selected braking conditions.
These lay a theoretical foundation for subsequent prototype fabrication and performance tests.

Author Contributions: R.H.; methodology, R.H. and K.W.; software, K.W. and J.T.; validation, R.L. and J.T.; formal
analysis, J.T.; investigation, K.W.; resources, K.W.; data curation, R.L.; writing—original draft preparation, K.W.;
writing—review and editing, R.H.; visualization, J.T.; supervision, R.H.; project administration, R.H. and R.L.;
funding acquisition, R.H. and R.L.
Funding: This work was jointly supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (grants 51705221),
the National Natural Science Foundation of China (grants 51875258), Research & Innovation Foundation of
General University Graduate of Jiangsu Province (grants CXZZ13_0659), and the Overseas Training Foundation
for Universities of Jiangsu Province.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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