Construction and Building Materials xxx (2015) xxx–xxx

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Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Properties of pervious concrete made with air-cooling electric arc

furnace slag as aggregates
Weichung Yeih, Tun Chi Fu, Jiang Jhy Chang ⇑, Ran Huang
Department of Harbor and River Engineering, National Taiwan Ocean University, Keelung 202, Taiwan

h i g h l i g h t s

 Pervious concrete made with EAFS aggregates had a better mechanical strength and a greater permeability coefficient than that made with gravels.
 The expansion characteristic of EAFS becomes not so significant for pervious concrete due to the voids inside the system.
 The pervious concrete made with EAFS provides a greater anti-skid capability than that made with gravels.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In this paper, properties of pervious concrete made with air-cooling electric arc furnace slag (EAFS) as
Received 17 October 2014 aggregates are investigated. Test results showed that under the same condition, pervious concrete made
Received in revised form 30 April 2015 with EAFS aggregates had a better mechanical strength and a greater permeability coefficient than that
Accepted 4 May 2015
made with natural river gravels. In addition, pervious concrete made with EAFS aggregates had a lower
Available online xxxx
weight loss than that made with natural river gravels for the soundness tests. The dimension stability test
showed that the possible expansion characteristic of EAFS became not so significant for pervious concrete
Keywords:
due to the voids inside the system. It is concluded that pervious concrete made with EAFS aggregates is a
Pervious concrete
Electric arc furnace slag
good alternative in many ways.
Dimension stability Ó 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Pervious concrete reduces storm water pollution at the source,
controls storm water runoff, and consequently eliminates or
reduces the size of storm sewers [1]. In addition, pervious concrete
reduces the ‘heat-island effect’, which makes the temperature in
urban area higher than suburban area. When it is used as pave-
ment, it provides a better anti-skid performance for vehicles in
rainy days and a better sound absorption characteristic. In many
ways, pervious concrete is an environmentally friendly material.
The design concept of pervious concrete is to pack coarse aggre-
gates (usually a narrow grade) and then to use the cement paste to
wrap aggregates and leave voids unfilled. These remaining voids
allow water permeation. In such a manner, it is expected that per-
vious concrete may have a lower compressive strength than nor-
mal concrete due to the voids. Therefore, most pervious
concretes have 28-day compressive strength lower than 21 MPa,
which is the minimum required compressive strength for struc-
tural use. Most applications for pervious concrete are parking lot
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: jjc@ntou.edu.tw (J.J. Chang).
pavement, pedestrian walkway, bike route and places where con-
crete compressive strength is not important. It is quite controver-
sial for requiring the high permeability and high compressive
strength at the same time.
Marolf et al. [2] studied the effect of aggregate size and grada-
tion on the acoustic absorption for pervious concrete. They
reported that pervious concrete mixtures with single-sized aggre-
gates provide substantial improvement to sound absorption as
compared with conventional concrete. Park et al. [3] studied the
sound absorption properties of pervious concrete using recycled
aggregate and various target void ratios. They reported the sound
absorption characteristics of the porous concrete using recycled
waste concrete aggregate showed that the Noise Reduction
Coefficient (NRC) was optimum at the void ratio of 25% but the per-
cent content of the recycled aggregate had very little influence on
the NRC. Therefore, they concluded that the optimum void ratio is
25% and the recycled aggregate is 50%.
Lian et al. [4] studied the optimal mix design for pervious con-
crete. Putman and Neptune [5] evaluated different pervious con-
crete test specimen preparation techniques in an effort to
produce specimens having properties similar to in-place pervious
concrete pavement. Safiuddin and Hearn [6] compared the

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2015.05.104
0950-0618/Ó 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article in press as: Yeih W et al. Properties of pervious concrete made with air-cooling electric arc furnace slag as aggregates. Constr Build
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2 W. Yeih et al. / Construction and Building Materials xxx (2015) xxx–xxx
permeable porosity obtained from three different ASTM saturation
techniques, namely cold-water saturation (CWS), boiling-water
saturation (BWS) and vacuum saturation (VAS). They concluded
that vacuum saturation technique is more efficient than
cold-water or boiling-water saturation and therefore this tech-
nique should be recommended for measuring the permeable
porosity of concrete. Fujiwara et al. [7] reported that a high
strength pervious concrete could be made by coating the coarse
aggregates with a high-strength mortar, then applying vibration
to fuse them. Kim and Lee [8] studied the influence of cement flow
and aggregate type on mechanical and acoustic properties of pervi-
ous concrete. Tho-in et al. [9] have tried to use alkali-activated
high-calcium fly ash to make pervious concrete. They found that
the high-calcium fly ash geopolymer cement paste could be used
to produce pervious concrete with satisfactory mechanical
properties.
Haselbach et al. [10] developed a theoretical model between
the effective permeability of a sand-clogged pervious concrete
block, the permeability of sand, and the porosity of the unclogged
block. Neithalath et al. [11] used the values of porosity and the
morphologically determined pore sizes, along with the pore
phase connectivity represented using an electrical conductivity
ratio, in a Katz–Thompson type relationship to predict the perme-
ability of pervious concretes. Lian et al. [12] developed a new
model, which was based on the Griffth theory, to predict the
compressive strength of pervious concrete using its porosity.
Bentz [13] used computer to simulate various virtual pervious
concrete microstructural models and compares their percolation
characteristics and computed transport properties to those of real
world pervious concretes.
Park et al. [3] studied water purification effect of pervious
concrete. They found that a porous concrete with a smaller size
of aggregate and a higher void content was found to have supe-
rior ability of the removal of the total phosphorus and total nitro-
gen in the test water. They concluded this effect is due to the
large specific surface area of the porous concrete. Huang et al.
[14] reported the properties of polymer-modified pervious con-
crete and they concluded that it was possible to produce pervious
concrete mixture with acceptable permeability and strength
through the combination of latex and sand. Crouch et al. [15]
studied the aggregate effect on the static elastic moduli of pervi-
ous concrete and they reported that an increased aggregate
amount resulted in a statistically significant decrease in both
compressive strength and static elastic moduli due to the subse-
quent decrease in paste amount. Chindaprasirt et al. [16] studied
the effects of aggregate size and cement paste strength on the
compressive strength and void ratio of pervious concrete.
Chindaprasirt et al. [17] also reported that good porous concretes
with void ratio of 15–25% and strength of 22–39 MPa are pro-
duced using paste with flow of 150–230 mm and top surface
vibration of 10 s with vibrating energy of 90 kN m/m2. Wu et al.
[18] added latex and fiber in the Portland cement pervious con-
crete and checked whether latex or fiber increased the abrasion
resistance. They reported that latex improved the abrasion resis-
tance of Portland cement pervious concrete while the addition of
fiber did not show significant effect. Shu et al. [19] compared the
performance of pervious concrete made in the laboratory and
field. They found that the mixtures made with limestone and
latex had lower porosity and permeability, as well as higher
strength and abrasion resistance than other mixtures. Even for
pervious concrete, the addition of air-entraining admixture could
still help to improve the freeze–thaw resistance. They concluded
that a properly designed and laboratory verified pervious con-
crete mixture could meet the requirements of permeability,
strength, and durability performance in the field. Dong et al.
[20] compared three potential test methods for evaluating the
Please cite this article in press as: Yeih W et al. Properties of pervious concrete made with air-cooling electric arc furnace slag as aggregates. Constr Build
Mater (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2015.05.104
abrasion resistance of Portland cement pervious concrete:
Cantabro test, the loaded wheel abrasion test, and the surface
abrasion test. They reported that with studded wheels and
increased wheel load, the loaded wheel abrasion test exhibited
best sensitivity and sufficient repeatability while the other two
methods did not exhibit a good performance.
Gesoğlu et al. [21] studied the effect of adding three types of
rubber to replace aggregates for pervious concrete. They found that
the use of rubber significantly aggravated the pervious concrete
mechanical properties and its permeability but in different degrees
according to the rate and type of rubber used. However, replace-
ment of natural aggregate with rubber particles resulted in a sig-
nificant increase of toughness and ductility of concrete as well as
better damping capacity. Gesoğlu et al. [22] further investigated
the effects of particle size and volume content of waste tire rubber
on the flexural strength, abrasion and freezing thawing resistances
of pervious concretes. They reported that use of rubber signifi-
cantly enhanced the abrasion and freezing–thawing resistance
while it decreased the flexural strength of the pervious concretes.
Kuo et al. [23] used washed municipal solid waste incinerator bot-
tom asj as a substitute for natural aggregate in pervious concrete.
They reported that the split tensile and bending strengths were
approximately 1/9 and 1/4 of the compressive strength, respec-
tively. Cheng et al. [24] used recycled aggregate in pervious con-
crete, they reported that in order to achieve optimal strength and
permeability in pervious concrete using recycled coarse aggregate
is: w/b = 0.35, nominal diameter of 11.1 mm for the recycled
aggregate; the volume fraction of 0.5 for the binder; and aggregate
to cement ratio of 3.9.
According to [25], the strength of pervious concrete can be
improved using the following strategies:
(1) Enhancing the characteristics of cement paste by decreasing
the water–cement (w/c) ratio and adding pozzolanic materi-
als such as silica fume.
(2) Adopting different cementitious materials such as epoxy.
(3) Applying slight pressure and increasing the temperature
during the curing stage.
In this study, another alternative for making pervious concrete
is first proposed. The EAFS is used as aggregate to make pervious
concrete. The EAFS has been proposed for a possible construction
material [26], the authors have concluded that the nature of EAFS
has a very high crystallinity; total absence of pozzolanic activity
and the presence of expansive compounds in slags (Cl, SO3, free
CaO and free MgO) were very low, if not null concentration.
Maslehuddin et al. [27] compared properties of concretes made
by steel slag and crushed limestone aggregate and they found
that the durability characteristics of steel slag cement concrete
was better than those of crushed limestone aggregate concrete.
Manso et al. [28] studied the durability of concrete made with
EAFS as aggregate and they concluded that the durability of slag
concrete is acceptable, though slightly lower than that of conven-
tional concrete. They also used the leaching test to confirm that
the cloistering effect of the cementitious matrix on contaminant
elements.
There are multiple goals for doing so: (1) increasing the initial
porosity after packing aggregates due to the porous nature of
EAFS; (2) increasing the contact friction between aggregates due
to the roughness of EAFS; (3) increasing the interlocking force
due to the penetration of cement paste inside EAFS; (4) increasing
the compressive strength of pervious concrete; (5) having higher
permeability for the same size aggregates; and (6) absorbing pos-
sible expansion of EAFS; (6) eliminating the leaching of heavy
metal ions inside EAFS by surrounding cement paste; and (7) recy-
cling the by-products of steelmaking industry.
 W. Yeih et al. / Construction and Building Materials xxx (2015) xxx–xxx 3

2. Experimental Table 2
Chemical compositions of EAFS.
2.1. Materials
Chemical composition Range (%) Average (%)
Type I Portland cement was used as the cement paste. Two types of coarse EAFS
aggregates, the air-cooling electric arc furnace slag (oxidation slag) and the gravel, SiO2 14.91–42.2 21.38
were used. Two sizes of EAFS were used and only one size of the gravel was used. Al2O3 1.78–12.27 6.09
The physical properties of aggregates are tabulated in Table 1, and the chemical CaO 5.55–39.58 23.4
compositions of EAFS are listed in Table 2. It should be noticed that the free CaO MgO 1.89–17.63 8.32
and MgO in EAFS may induce volumetric expansion for concrete and such possibil- SO3 0.01–0.08 0.03
ity should be examined. When the w/c ratio of the cement paste is high, then the S 0.003–0.222 0.07
paste may not be uniformly distributed and sags due to its weight. In such case, FeO 0.92–48.28 18.87
the viscosity modifier then is required. In addition, EAFS is a porous material and Others 21.84
such characteristic allow cement paste to penetrate into EAFS and resulting in a bet-
ter bound, in comparison with gravels, between aggregates and cement paste due to
the interlocking effect. (7) Soundness test (ASTM C88-13 [35]): aggregate soundness tests using mag-
nesium sulfate were employed.
(8) Dimension stability test (ASTM C490/C490M-11e1 [36]): the length changes
2.2. Mix design and variables considered for pervious concrete specimens of w/c = 0.35 were monitored. Since EAFS may
induce expansion, it is vitally important for engineer to know this information.
The idea of making pervious concrete is described in the followings. First, one After demolding, the initial lengths of specimens were measured. Then, the speci-
can pack aggregates into a unit volume to check the initial porosity after packing. mens were stored in the air. The length changes for specimens at 4-day, 7-day,
The values of initial porosities using different aggregates are shown in Table 1. 14-day, 28-day and 60-day were measured.
These values represent the initial volume of voids after packing aggregates. (9) British pendulum test (ASTM E303-93 [37]): the British pendulum test was
Theoretically, this volume of voids then should be filled by cement paste for con- used to understand the anti-skid performance of the pervious concrete. The results
ventional concrete design. However, for pervious concrete this volume is only par- are illustrated by the British pendulum number (BPN) where a higher BPN indicates
tially filled by cement paste such that a significant amount of void volume exists to a better anti-skid performance, i.e., the friction force provided by the concrete sur-
allow water penetration. In this study, different filled percentages of voids by face is greater. For this experiment, only the group with w/c = 0.35 was considered.
cement paste were selected as variables. Therefore, the variables considered here (10) Water quality: this experiment was used to check the quality of water
include the aggregate types and sizes, the w/c ratio, the filled percentages of voids passing through the pervious concrete. Since EAFS is a by-product of steel making
by cement paste and addition of viscosity modifier and the variables considered are industry, the possible leaching of heavy metal ions requires investigation. In this
tabulated in Table 3. In Table 3, all specimens having labels with ‘+’ have the viscos- study, pervious concrete specimens were immersed in water for six months.
ity modifier (0.1% by the weight of cement). The details of mix designs are also Then, water quality was checked. The testing methods followed the standard test
listed in Table 3. methods for water quality from the environmental protection bureau, Taiwan
[38]. Among all properties, the test method for turbidity is in section W219.52C,
2.3. Experiments the test method for total dissolved solids is in section W210.58A, the test method
for determining free chlorine is in section W406.52C, and the test methods for
(1) Porosity test [29]: the total porosity in pervious concrete includes discon- determining metal ions are in section W306.54A.
nected porosity and connected porosity, and the connected porosity is the primary (11) Crushing value (BS 821-110 [39]): this experiment was used to investigate
influencer of water permeability. A caliper was used to measure and calculate spec- the mechanical property of aggregates.
imen volume V1; the specimen was immersed in water until it was filled with water
before its weight in water W1 was measured. Subsequently, the specimen was taken
out of water and dried, and then its weight in air W2 when its weight became stable 3. Results and discussions
was measured. The equation for connected porosity P1 is as follows:

P1 ¼ ½1  ðW 2  W 1 Þ=V 1   100% ð1Þ 3.1. Porosity

The porosity in Eq. (1)represents the connected porosity, which is directly

The initial porosities after packing for three aggregates are
related to the permeability. The above mentioned method can be found in [29].
(2) Unit weight: (ASTM C138 [30]). shown in Table 1. It can be found that for EAFS, the smaller aggre-
(3) Compressive strength [31]: the 28-day compressive strength was deter- gate size has a higher initial porosity. When the aggregate size is
mined based on the ASTM C39 for cylindrical concrete specimens. smaller, theoretically the remaining voids after packing is smaller.
(4) Flexural strength (ASTM D790-10 [32]): the 28-day flexural strength was
While comparing EAFS and gravels, it can be found that the initial
determined based on the three-point bending test.
(5) Splitting tensile strength (ASTM C496/C496M-11 [33]): this test was per-
porosity for EAFS is higher than that for gravels under the same
formed for determining the 28-day splitting tensile strength of cylindrical concrete condition (i.e., the same aggregate size). Theoretically speaking,
specimens. the remaining voids after packing for both materials should be
(6) Water permeability coefficient [34]: the water permeability coefficient was similar provided that both aggregates are not permeable. The
calculated using the constant-head permeability test, which is based on the
results here indicate that the porous nature of EAFS greatly influ-
Pavement Test Manual established by the Japan Road Association. The permeability
instrument measured the permeability coefficient of U10*20 cm cylindrical speci- ences the total initial porosity.
mens. The equation for water permeability coefficient K is expressed as follows: The connected porosity for pervious concretes for all mixes can
QL
be found in Table 4. First, compare with aggregate A and C to see
K¼ ð2Þ the difference of EAFS and gravels. It can be found that under the
AHDt
same condition (the same void filled percentage by cement paste)
where K = water permeability coefficient (cm/s); Q = flow volume (mL); L = specimen
thickness (cm); A = the pervious surface area of specimens (cm2); H = water head
pervious concrete made with aggregate A has a higher porosity
height (cm); Dt ¼ t 1  t 0 represents time duration of measurement (s). than that with aggregate C. Since the initial porosity for aggregate
A is higher than that for aggregate C, it is then expected that after
filling voids under the same void filled percentage by cement paste
Table 1 the resulting connected porosity of pervious concrete made with
Physical properties of aggregates.
aggregate should be higher than that with aggregate C.
Aggregate types EAFS Gravel In addition, for EAFS aggregates it is found that the connected
Label A B C porosity for pervious concrete made with larger size EAFS aggre-
Maximum aggregate size 0.48 cm 0.95 cm 0.48 cm
gates is higher than that with smaller size EAFS aggregates. This
Range of aggregate size 0.48–0.24 cm 0.95–0.48 cm 0.48–0. 24 cm result is expected since the initial porosity of aggregate B (larger
Specific weight 3.44 3.44 2.69 size EAFS) is larger than that of aggregate A (smaller size EAFS).
Initial porosity (%) 40.75 42.96 37.5 If we examine the effect of viscosity modifier (for specimens
Water absorption (%) 3 3 –
with w/c = 0.35), the results reveal that the viscosity modifier

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4 W. Yeih et al. / Construction and Building Materials xxx (2015) xxx–xxx

Table 3
Variables and mix designs in the experiments.

Aggregate w/c Filled percentage of voids by cement Coarse aggregate (kg/ Cement (kg/ Water (kg/ Viscosity modifier (kg/ Specimen
label paste (%) m3) m3) m3) m3) label
A 0.35 70 1960 451 158 0 35A70
80 1960 515 180 0 35A80
90 1960 579 203 0 35A90
0.35+ 70 1960 451 158 0.451 35A70+
80 1960 515 180 0.515 35A80+
90 1960 579 203 0.579 35A90+
0.45+ 70 1960 392 176 0.392 45A70+
80 1960 448 202 0.448 45A80+
90 1960 504 227 0.504 45A90+
B 0.35 70 1850 427 150 0 35B70
80 1850 488 171 0 35B80
90 1850 549 192 0 35B90
0.35+ 70 1850 427 150 0.427 35B70+
80 1850 488 171 0.488 35B80+
90 1850 549 192 0.549 35B90+
0.45+ 70 1850 372 167 0.372 45B70+
80 1850 425 191 0.425 45B80+
90 1850 478 215 0.478 45B90+
C 0.35 70 1684 393 138 0 35C70
80 1684 449 157 0 35C80
90 1684 505 177 0 35C90
0.35+ 70 1684 393 138 0.393 35C70+
80 1684 449 157 0.449 35C80+
90 1684 505 177 0.505 35C90+
0.45+ 70 1684 342 154 0.342 45C70+
80 1684 391 176 0.391 45C80+
90 1684 440 198 0.440 45C90+

Table 4
Connected porosities for all mixes.
could increase the viscosity of the cement paste and consequently
let the paste distributing more uniformly around the aggregates Label Connected Label Connected Label Connected
such that the sagging phenomenon was reduced. porosity (%) porosity (%) porosity (%)
Also, one can find out that for the same condition the connected 35A70 9.1 35A70+ 10.7 45A70+ 5.2
porosity for pervious concrete with a higher w/c ratio (w/c = 0.45) 35A80 8.2 35A80+ 9.7 45A80+ 4.5
35A90 6.9 35A90+ 7.1 45A90+ 3.4
seems to be smaller. It is known that if the w/c ratio is higher the
35B70 11.6 35B70+ 12.3 45B70+ 11.0
microstructure becomes looser and the connected porosity is then 35B80 11.1 35B80+ 11.5 45B80+ 9.4
expected to be higher provided that the micro-voids inside the 35B90 6.7 35B90+ 7.4 45B90+ 6.4
paste do contributes to the connected porosity. However, the result 35C70 6.7 35C70+ 8.5 45C70+ 5.8
seemed to violate our guess. Our guess is true only when the paste 35C80 4.6 35C80+ 6.2 45C80+ 3.2
35C90 3.5 35C90+ 4.4 45C90+ 2.9
wraps the aggregates uniformly and does not sag at all. When the
paste sags, it may accumulate owing to its weight and conse-
quently the paste may block the water path and reduces the con-
nected porosity as well as the permeability coefficient. Therefore, since the specific weight of water is lower than that of cement.
we can say that for w/c = 0.45 the paste still sags even though Furthermore, when the viscosity modifier was used it slightly
we already add 0.1% viscosity modifier in our mix. This result increased the unit weight of pervious concrete.
was confirmed by cutting the specimen after experiments and sag-
ging phenomenon did really happen by visual inspection (although 3.3. Compressive strength and crushing value of aggregates
no significant sagging phenomenon on the surface was observed
after demolding). It is concluded that for w/c = 0.45, 0.1% viscosity The 28-day compressive strength is taken as the most impor-
modifier may be not enough. tant index for mechanical performances of concrete. Since there
existed numerous connected porosity inside pervious concrete,
the compressive strength of pervious concrete was expected to
3.2. Unit weight be lower than that of normal concrete. We first examine the influ-
ence of aggregate types (aggregate A, B and C) on the compressive
The results of unit weights for all mixes are tabulated in Table 5. strength as shown in Fig. 1. The compressive strengths for pervious
Since the EAFS has a greater specific weight than gravel, it is concrete made with EAFS were higher than those for pervious con-
expected that the unit weight of pervious concrete made with crete made with gravels. From the results of the connected poros-
EAFS should be greater than that made with gravel under the same ity, we know that the porosity for pervious concrete made with
condition. In addition, one can find out that as the aggregate size EAFS was greater than that for pervious concrete made with grav-
increased the unit weight of pervious concrete decreased under els and we concluded that the porous nature of EAFS resulted in
the same condition. When the aggregate size is larger, the volume such a phenomenon. While the connected porosity is higher, one
of aggregate used becomes less such that the unit weight decreases may expect a lower compressive strength. However, the results
consequently. Also, the unit weight for pervious concrete using a did not match our expectation. In addition, the crushing value of
higher w/c ratio was lower than that using a lower w/c ratio. The EAFS was 0.311 while the crushing value of the natural aggregate
unit weight of cement paste using a higher w/c ratio is smaller was 0.289. This result implied that the mechanical property of

Please cite this article in press as: Yeih W et al. Properties of pervious concrete made with air-cooling electric arc furnace slag as aggregates. Constr Build
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 W. Yeih et al. / Construction and Building Materials xxx (2015) xxx–xxx 5

EAFS was worse than the natural aggregate. It is then natural to Aggregate A, w/c=0.35
guess that the compressive strength of pervious concrete made Aggregate A, w/c=0.35+
with EAFS is weaker than that made with gravels. Aggregate A, w/c=0.45+
The compressive strength of concrete should be affected by the Aggregate B, w/c=0.35
Aggregate B, w/c=0.35+
mechanical property of aggregate. However, this factor does not Aggregate B, w/c=0.45+
dominate the compressive strength for concrete. Why the com- Aggregate C, w/c=0.35
pressive strength for pervious concrete made with EAFS is stronger Aggregate C, w/c=0.35+
Aggregate C, w/c=0.45+
than that made with natural aggregate? The reason comes from the
fact that the binding materials could penetrate into EAFS and a 30

strong interlocking effect was formed. It is well known that in

the concrete repair the concrete surface which receives the new
repairing material is required to have enough micro-paths to allow
the penetration of the repairing material such that the interlocking

Compressive Strength (MPa)

effect can enhance the properties of interface between repairing 20
material and concrete matrix. Similar to this concept, the penetra-
tion of binding materials into EAFS constructs a better bound due
to the interlocking effect. It is then very interesting that the porous
nature EAFS allow us to make pervious concrete with higher poros-
ity (higher water permeability) yet with stronger mechanical 10
behaviors. The evidence of interlocking can be found in Fig. 2. It
can be seen that the dark black color represents the solid phase
of EAFS and the gray phase represents the cement paste which fills
the voids inside EAFS.
In addition to this, one can also find that as the aggregate size of 0
EAFS increased the compressive strength decreased. Similar results 70 80 90
were also found for other mechanical properties such as splitting Filled percentage of voids by cement paste (%)
tensile strength test and flexural strength test. For the pervious
concrete, four phases (paste, interface transition zone which is Fig. 1. The compressive strengths for pervious concretes using different aggregates.
known as ITZ, coarse aggregates and designed porosity) exist.
Unlike the conventional concrete which adopts mortar to fill the and has a better mechanical strength. The addition of viscosity
space between aggregates, we only partially fill the space between modifier made the compressive strength of pervious concrete
aggregates by cement paste for pervious concrete. This concept became lower which indicated that the viscosity modifier although
intentionally makes some porosity inside concrete in order to increased the uniformity for paste but might weakened the CSH gel
allow water penetration. Among these four phases, the designed strength.
porosity has the worst properties. It has no mechanical strength Among all concrete mixes, the pervious concrete made with
at all and highest water permeation coefficient. Therefore, the vol- EAFS (0.24 cm–0.48 cm) and w/c = 0.35 had the highest 28-day
ume fraction of the porosity dominates the behaviors of pervious compressive strength of 28 MPa which is already exceed the low-
concrete. As explained above, for the conventional concrete the est strength requirement (21 MPa) of structural concrete. Later
property of ITZ dominates the property of concrete since ITZ plays from data of water permeability, we can find out that the water
as the weakest part in concrete. However, for pervious concrete the permeability of this mixture was higher than 0.01 cm/s and can
weakest part now is designed porosity. As an increase in aggregate be classified as the pervious concrete according to the Japan
size, a higher volume of void then is expected under the same con- Road Association. In other words, the pervious concrete with struc-
dition. In such a manner, the compressive strength decreased. tural strength is possible by using EAFS aggregates.
Similar result has been observed in [40].
When the aggregate type and other conditions were the same,
the compressive strength increased as the filled percentage of 3.4. Flexural strength
voids by cement paste increased. The filled percentage of voids
by cement paste controlled the volume fraction of voids. As it For pavement design, flexural strength may be more important
increased, more cement paste was introduced to fill the space than the compressive strength. The 28-day flexural strengths for all
between aggregates and consequently a higher compressive
strength was expected.
Also, the compressive strengths decreased as the w/c ratio
increased. The microstructure for lower w/c ratio paste is denser

Table 5
Unit weights for all mixes.

Label Unit weight Label Unit weight Label Unit weight

(kg/m3) (kg/m3) (kg/m3)
35A70 2288 35A70+ 2348 45A70+ 2275
35A80 2361 35A80+ 2397 45A80+ 2347
35A90 2410 35A90+ 2452 45A90+ 2391
35B70 2042 35B70+ 2085 45B70+ 1999
35B80 2205 35B80+ 2232 45B80+ 2044
35B90 2263 35B90+ 2274 45B90+ 2061
35C70 1990 35C70+ 2027 45C70+ 1976
35C80 2011 35C80+ 2076 45C80+ 1991
35C90 2078 35C90+ 2111 45C90+ 2062
Fig. 2. The microscope photo for EAFS aggregate.

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6 W. Yeih et al. / Construction and Building Materials xxx (2015) xxx–xxx

mixes are shown in Fig. 3. Basically the trends for flexural strength
are similar to compressive strength. That means the flexural
4
strength for pervious concrete made with EAFS was higher than
that made with gravels. As the aggregate size of EAFS increased
the flexural strength decreased. The flexural strength increased

Flexural Strength (MPa)

as the filled percentage of voids by cement paste increased and it 3

decreased as the w/c ratio increased. The reasons for these obser-
vations have been given in Section 3.3. Flexural strength
Aggregate A, w/c=0.35
2 Aggregate A, w/c=0.35+
3.5. Splitting tensile strength Aggregate A, w/c=0.45+
Aggregate B, w/c=0.35
Aggregate B, w/c=0.35+
The results for splitting tensile strength are illustrated in Fig. 4. Aggregate B, w/c=0.45+
1
Basically the trends for splitting tensile strength are similar to Aggregate C, w/c=0.35
compressive strength. That means the splitting tensile strength Aggregate C, w/c=0.35+
for pervious concrete made with EAFS was higher than that made Aggregate C, w/c=0.45+

with gravels. As the aggregate size of EAFS the splitting tensile 0

strength decreased. The splitting tensile strength increased as the 70 80 90
filled percentage of voids by cement paste increased and it Filled percentage of voids by cement paste (%)
decreased as the w/c ratio increased. The reasons for these obser-
vations have been given in Section 3.3. Fig. 3. The flexural strengths for pervious concretes using different aggregates.

3.6. Water permeability

Splitting tensile strength
Aggregate A, w/c=0.35
Water permeability is a major index for evaluating the perfor-
Aggregate A, w/c=0.35+
mances of pervious concrete. Here we adopt the definition of per- Aggregate A, w/c=0.45+
vious concrete according to the Japan Road Association which Aggregate B, w/c=0.35
requires the water permeability coefficient being greater than Aggregate B, w/c=0.35+
0.01 cm/s. The test results of water permeability are tabulated in Aggregate B, w/c=0.45+
Aggregate C, w/c=0.35
Table 6.
Aggregate C, w/c=0.35+
We first examine the influences of aggregate type and the filled Aggregate C, w/c=0.45+
percentage of voids by cement paste on the water permeability
coefficient of pervious concrete as shown in Fig. 5. The results
reveal that under the same condition the water permeability coef-
3
ficient for pervious concrete made with EAFS was higher than that
made with gravel (comparing aggregate A and aggregate C). The
Splitting Tensile Strength (MPa)

reason was explained earlier that due to the porous nature of

EAFS the initial porosity after packing for EAFS is higher than grav-
els. Therefore, for the same filled percentage of voids by cement 2
paste the remaining connected porosity for pervious concrete
made with EAFS became greater than that made with gravels.
Furthermore, as the aggregate size increased the water permeabil-
ity coefficient increased (comparing aggregate A and aggregate B).
1
This result comes from the fact that a greater size aggregate
resulted in a greater void volume after packing which conse-
quently leads to a greater water permeability coefficient. In addi-
tion, for the same aggregate type as the filled percentage of voids
by cement paste increased the water permeability coefficient 0
decreased which is easy to be understood by physical intuition. 70 80 90
Although in Fig. 5 w/c ratio is fixed at 0.35, the above mentioned Filled percentage of voids by cement paste (%)
trends remain the same for w/c = 0.35+ and w/c = 0.45+ groups.
Next, the effect of w/c ratio and viscosity modifier is examined Fig. 4. The splitting tensile strengths for pervious concretes using different
using fixed aggregate type (aggregate A) as shown in Fig. 6. One aggregates.

can first observe that as the w/c ratio increased the water perme-
ability coefficient seemed to decrease (by comparing w/c = 0.35+
consequently a higher water permeability coefficient was
and w/c = 0.45+ group) which violated our physical intuition. As
observed. In Fig. 6, the aggregate type is aggregate A. However,
w/c increased the microstructure of CSH gel became looser, and
the abovementioned trends remain for aggregates B and C.
consequently a greater water permeability coefficient then was
expected. The contradiction mainly comes from the sagging effect
for insufficient viscosity modifier for w/c = 0.45. Once again, test 3.7. Soundness test
results here suggested that 0.1% (by cement weight) viscosity mod-
ifier was not enough for w/c = 0.45 and a higher amount of viscos- The weight losses for soundness tests are tabulated in Table 7.
ity modifier is necessary in such a case. In addition, the results The results for weight loss with w/c = 0.35 are illustrated in
reveal that the viscosity modifier help pervious concrete to have Fig. 7. As seen from this figure, the weight loss of pervious concrete
a higher water permeability coefficient (by comparing w/c = 0.35 made with EAFS was less than that made with gravels (by compar-
and 2/c = 0.35+ group). When viscosity modifier was introduced, ing aggregates A and C). This result implied that EAFS had a better
the sagging phenomenon had less opportunity to occur and resistance for sulfate attack than gravels. In addition, a greater size

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 W. Yeih et al. / Construction and Building Materials xxx (2015) xxx–xxx 7

EAFS seemed to result in a larger weight loss. When a larger size 1.4
aggregate was used, it resulted in a greater water permeability w/c=0.35
coefficient as mentioned earlier. Consequently, the aggressive sul- Aggregate A
1.2 Aggregate B
fate solution penetrated into concrete more rapidly and a greater Aggregate C
weight loss reflected this physical truth. All these trends remain
for groups w/c = 0.35+ and w/c = 0.45+. 1
In addition, the weight losses for fixed aggregate type (aggre-

K (cm/sec)
gate A) is shown in Fig. 8. From this figure, it is observed that as
0.8
w/c increased the weight loss increased (by comparing
w/c = 0.35+ and w/c = 0.45+ groups). The trend is different from
that in connected porosity and water permeability. It is worth 0.6
mentioned here that the water permeability and connected
porosity should decrease as w/c decrease provided no sagging
0.4
happens. However, sagging did happen for w/c = 0.45+ group
such that reverse trends were observed in our experiments.
Sagging is a local phenomenon and it affects the value of con- 0.2
nected porosity and water permeability coefficient as mentioned
70 80 90
above. Nevertheless, sagging in the local region did not affect the
Filled percentage of voids by cement paste (%)
overall sulfate penetration amount, which was the major factor
influencing the weight loss. Consequently, a lower w/c allowed Fig. 5. The influences of aggregate type and filled percentage of voids by cement
less overall amount of sulfate solution and consequently a lower paste on the water permeability of pervious concrete.
weight loss was observed. Furthermore, a lower weight loss was
found for w/c = 0.35 group than that for w/c = 0.35+ group. It
implies that the addition of adequate amount viscous enhancer
resulted in a larger initial porosity (as shown in Section 3.1).
1.2
Consequently, the sulfate resistance capability for pervious con-
crete using adequate viscosity modifier was lower. Here, we need
to make a comment that when the amount of viscous enhancer is
adequate the paste then can wrap the aggregates uniformly. In
K (cm/sec)

such a case, no sagging happens and physical intuition works. 0.8

However, when the amount of viscous modifier is not enough
sagging happens and block water penetration path locally. In
such a case, physical intuition for uniformly distributed concrete
then does not work. 0.4
Finally, from Figs. 7 and 8, the weight loss decreased as the Aggregate A
filled percentage of voids by cement paste increased which is obvi- w/c=0.35
w/c=0.35+
ous from our physical intuition. w/c=0.45

3.8. Dimension stability test 70 80 90

Filled percentage of voids by cement paste (%)
The length changes for pervious concretes with w/c = 0.35 are
Fig. 6. The influences of w/c ratio and viscosity modifier on the water permeability
shown in Fig. 9. For pervious concrete made with EAFS, elongation
of pervious concrete.
was found which implied the expansion due to free CaO and MgO
happened here. However, due to the design concept of pervious
concrete there exist voids intentionally. These voids can help Table 7
dimension stability (both expansion and contraction). For pervious Weight losses for soundness tests.
concrete made with gravels, contraction was found. The length Label Weight loss Label Weight loss Label Weight loss
changes (no matter expansion or contraction) were all within (%) (%) (%)
0.04% which was small. From this observation, it is concluded that 35A70 0.99 35A70+ 1.03 45A70+ 1.16
using EAFS as aggregate for pervious concrete is adequate and the 35A80 0.95 35A80+ 1.01 45A80+ 1.10
length change is minor. 35A90 0.78 35A90+ 0.86 45A90+ 1.00
35B70 1.82 35B70+ 1.87 45B70+ 1.97
35B80 1.71 35B80+ 1.79 45B80+ 1.86
35B90 1.51 35B90+ 1.55 45B90+ 1.66
35C70 1.15 35C70+ 1.20 45C70+ 1.27
Table 6
35C80 1.11 35C80+ 1.15 45C80+ 1.19
Water permeability coefficients for all mixes.
35C90 1.01 35C90+ 1.08 45C90+ 1.13
Label K (cm/s) Label K (cm/s) Label K (cm/s)
35A70 0.9098 35A70+ 1.1919 45A70+ 0. 5463
35A80 0.8372 35A80+ 0.9408 45A80+ 0.4675 3.9. British pendulum test
35A90 0.7044 35A90+ 0.7391 45A90+ 0.3343
35B70 1.2366 35B70+ 1.3296 45B70+ 1.1267
35B80 1.1865 35B80+ 1.2504 45B80+ 1.0257
The results for British pendulum tests are shown in Fig. 10.
35B90 0.7220 35B90+ 0.7653 45B90+ 0.7024 When the aggregate size increased (comparing aggregate A and
35C70 0.5983 35C70+ 0.892 45C70+ 0.5204 aggregate B), the British pendulum number (BPN) decreased which
35C80 0.4716 35C80+ 0.5317 45C80+ 0.3763 meant the friction force decreased. A larger aggregate size resulted
35C90 0.3945 35C90+ 0.4372 45C90+ 0.3156
in a less amount of aggregates on a cross section. Consequently, the

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8 W. Yeih et al. / Construction and Building Materials xxx (2015) xxx–xxx

2 100

90
1.5
Weight loss (%)

80

BPN
1

70
w/c=0.35
Aggregate A
0.5 w/c=0.35
Aggregate A Aggregate B
60 Aggregate C
Aggregate B
Aggregate C

0 50

70 80 90 70 80 90
Filled percentage of voids by cement paste (%) Filled percentage of voids by cement paste (%)

Fig. 7. Weight loss for pervious concrete made with w/c = 0.35. Fig. 10. BPN for pervious concretes made with different aggregates.

1.5
Table 8
Suggested minimum BPN for various conditions.

Conditions BPN
Curve road, roundabouts, inclined slope 65
1 Common highway with traffic flow greater than 2000 vehicles/day 55
Others 45
Weight loss (%)

0.5 Table 9
Aggregate A Water quality.
w/c=0.35
w/c=0.35+ Item Unit Samples
w/c=0.45+
Tap Pervious Pervious
water concrete concrete
0 made with made with
EAFS gravels
70 80 90
Turbidity NTU 98 105 105
Filled percentage of voids by cement paste (%)
Total dissolved solids ppm 117 120 120
Free chlorine ppm 0 0 0
Fig. 8. Weight loss for pervious concrete made with aggregate A.
Iron ppm 0.006 0.010 0.011
Barium ppm 0.033 0.028 0.032
Cadmium, chromium, ppm ND ND ND
0.04
aluminum, silver, copper,
zinc, magnesium,
manganese, mercury,
nickel, selenium

0.02
friction force provided by aggregates decreased. In addition, EAFS
Elongation percentage (%)

w/c=0.35
Aggregate B, filled percentage=70%
Aggregate B, filled percentage=80%
Aggregate B, filled percentage=90%
Aggregate A, filled percentage=70%
0 Aggregate A, filled percentage=80%
Aggregate A, filled percentage=90%
Aggregate C, filled percentage=70%
Aggregate C, filled percentage=80%
Aggregate C, filled percentage=90%
-0.02
provided greater friction than gravel did by comparing aggregates
A and C. The reason may come from the fact that the surface of
EAFS is rougher than that of gravels.
In addition, the BPN decreased as the filled percentage of voids
by cement paste increased which indicated that more cement
paste resulted in a smoother surface and consequently reduced
the friction.
According to the research report from Wessex Engineering Ltd.,
the suggested minimum values for BNP are shown in Table 8. All
BPN values shown in Fig. 10 exceed 75. This result indicates that
the pervious concrete match the requirements in all cases.

-0.04
3.10. Water quality
0 20 40 60
Age (day)
Water quality tests were performed for tap water, the water
Fig. 9. Length changes for pervious concretes (w/c = 0.35). where pervious concrete made with EAFS was immersed for six

Please cite this article in press as: Yeih W et al. Properties of pervious concrete made with air-cooling electric arc furnace slag as aggregates. Constr Build
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 W. Yeih et al. / Construction and Building Materials xxx (2015) xxx–xxx
months and the water where pervious concrete made with gravels
was immersed for six months. Test results are tabulated in Table 9.
In this table, ‘ND’ denotes the value was not detected by the appa-
ratus. From this table, we can find that water qualities for all these
three cases were almost the same. It implies that the solidification
effect of cement paste forbids the possible leaching of heavy metal
ions in EAFS. Therefore, engineers do not need to worry that the
penetrated water may be polluted and consequently it may pollute
underground water resource.
4. Conclusions
In this study, an alternative for producing the pervious concrete
by using EAFS is first proposed. It is found that the pervious con-
crete made with EAFS has a higher water permeability and higher
compressive strength than that made with gravels. The porous nat-
ure of EAFS allows a greater porosity in the unit volume, also forms
a better interface bounding due to the interlocking effect. In addi-
tion, the possible expansion in EAFS is not so significant since the
designed porosity inside pervious concrete reduces the expansion
hazard. Meanwhile, the solidification effect from cement paste
restricts the possible leaching of heavy metal ions. In addition,
the pervious concrete made with EAFS provides a greater
anti-skid capability which may avoid accidents in the rainy day.
The pervious concrete made with EAFS can have a water perme-
ability coefficient greater than 0.01 cm/s and a 28-day compressive
strength higher than 21 MPa, which is the minimum strength
requirement of structural concrete. It means the so-called pervious
concrete may be used for the engineering applications where
structural concrete strength and high water permeability are
needed.
Acknowledgment
The first author and the third author want to express their
thanks to the National Science Council, Taiwan for its financial sup-
port under the contract number: NSC99-2221-E-019-034.
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