European Literature

Celtic literature relied heavily on magic and mysticism to explain nearly every aspect of

nature. The emphasis on how different groups of gods invaded the island then shaped the land

and fauna before being dispatched by the next group. Moreover, many of these deities

represented aspects of nature and were made redundant by newer deities who shared their divine

portfolio, such as two deities of fertility serving on opposing sides of an invasion conflict.

Interestingly, the production and consumption of food and drink are more important than

other forms of godly power seen in other polytheistic ancient religions. For example, where Zeus

has his weaponized lightning, Thor is best known for Mjölnir, or how the Hindu pantheon

wielded the world shattering Astras, yet rather than mystical armor or shields Dagda is best

known for his eternally food producing cauldron, ever-bearing fruit orchard, and even

regenerating pigs for feasting. Even his one godly wonder of war served the dual purpose of

acting as a healing implement. This suggests that the Celtic people viewed natural production

and sustenance as more wondrous than combat or war.

Other oddities are present in the gender rolls of older Celtic deities especially before the

influence of Christianity. Dagda’s role as a god of fertility differs from the stereotypical feminine

depiction associated with such deities, such as Nidaba, Heqet, Renenūtet, Demeter, Gaea,

Persephone, Terra, Sif, Iyatiku, Pachamama, or Mbaba Mwana Waresa, even Chinese Daoism

has di or earth as the feminine aspect of nature. This prevalence to associate fertility and

agriculture to goddesses and by association femininity is a common trend in nearly every

pantheon, which make the masculine roll seen in Celtic mythology interesting and unique.

Similarly, the importance given to the deity of agriculture is far above normal for ancient

religions. While many pantheons venerated a goddess or rarely god, or agriculture and fertility
they rarely serve as a chief deity and instead are a peripheral entity before the more warlike gods.

Odin, Zeus, Jupiter, Horus, and most other lead deities are often associated with the sky or war.

Again, Dagda’s association with the earth rather than what lies above it is a nearly unique trait of

the mythology, which may explain the higher than usual cultural connection to the land and

nature as a whole as seen later with the veneration of druids.

Norse mythology on the other hand falls more in line with most gender roles, with the

exception of women being seen as warriors, which is likely a deep-rooted cultural aspect which

affected their myths and legends. Where Norse myth differs from Greek, Roman, and other

European pantheons however is the views about the inevitability of death and destruction as well

as a dark emphasis on unstoppable fate and self-fulfilling prophecies. Whereas Greek heroes

defy the gods and struggle at great length to achieve despite their wrath, Sigmund is quickly

dispatched as soon as Odin deems it so. The gods are felled by plots and subterfuge just as easily

as men and the idea that the world is going to end anyway is constantly brought up as the

inevitable outcome of any series of events. Oddly, these dark undertones often lead to boldness

and bravery rather than the existential crisis one might expect. The constant reminder that all

men are mortal and must die is used as motivation to do something rather than an excuse not to,

in this way it is somewhat similar to the Hindu eschatology. Both belief systems work with the

ideas of the fated and inevitable destruction of reality as well as the birthing of a new reality in a

cyclical pattern.

Loki is often depicted as a trickster god who is also bizarrely indiscriminate about his

sexual partners, which is often interpreted as benign or humorous. However, as the death of

Baldur shows, he is actually the representation of deceit, greed, jealousy, envy and all manner of

petty emotions. These petty behaviors were the antithesis to Norse ideals and as such the
embodiment of them, Loki, set into motion the series of events which would eventually end the

world, which would also be brought about by the child of Loki, Fenrir. Baldur on the other hand

is a Christ like figure, he is innocent and beloved and ultimately betrayed. Following through on

these similarities, Baldur is brought back for a second coming at the end of the world just as the

biblical description of Revelations.

Sigurd and Arthur have many similarities in their stories, both achieve power and fame

from a sword placed by a deity and pulled from an object, both are great warriors, both have wise

men as teachers, with mixed results, both get mixed up in love triangles, and both are undone by

a woman who acts through others. These similarities are not by chance as Sigurd the Volsung

has long been though of as an inspirational source for some of the legends of King Arthur. While

Arthurian legends are decidedly less dark than Norse mythology, they share the same general

story ark from being destined for greatness, to doing good acts, and succumbing to a foretold

dark fate because of love. The major contrast between the two is the redemption aspects near the

end, whereas Brunhild kills herself and curses everyone after her actions lead to Sigurd’s death,

Guinevere and Lancelot instead see the error of their ways and seek redemption through the

clergy.

Additionally, the roles of the deity are somewhat different, Odin directly influences

Sigurd’s story but does not direct it. He helps Sigurd choose a horse but does not make him pick

a certain one, he advises him of the dangers of Regin’s trap but does not advise him to seek

revenge, ultimately, he allows Sigurd to find his own destiny because fate is inevitable.

Moreover, Odin is not always recognized and even when he is it is not until after he has left. The

Christian god is more direct and gives specific instructions directly to individuals with little
ambiguity, this takes importance away from the abstract ideas of fate or destiny and instead

reinforce the concept of God’s omnipotence and divine will.