TUNNELLING – Nick Shirlaw

Six lectures:
• Methods – soft ground and rock
• Aspects of tunnel lining design
• Assessing stability and face pressures
• Settlement prediction
• Building damage assessment
• Site investigation & Instrumentation for
tunnels

GENERAL

What do we use tunnel for, how

does the use constrain alignment,
and what does this mean for
tunnelling methods?

1
MRT Lines generally under roads. Current lines connect
the satellite towns with the CBD/Orchard road

FUNCTION
• Trunk sewers – connect population
centres with treatment works or deep
collector sewers
• MRT tunnels – connect population
centres
• Deep sewers – feed to treatment plants
• Road Tunnels – connect population
centres
• Storage caverns – location important,
but cost also major issue

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 FUNCTION & SIZE
• Trunk sewers - typically 3m diameter,
6m to 12m depth
• Subway tunnels – typically 6m
diameter,15m to 30m depth
• Deep sewers – 4m to 7.5m diameter –
30 to 50m depth
• Road Tunnels – typically 10 to 15m
diameter
• Storage caverns – can be huge & deep

ALIGNMENT CONSTRAINTS
• Trunk sewers – gentle vertical gradient
(gravity flow) – tight curves (50m radius)
• MRT tunnels – up to 3% vertical
gradient, curve radius >200m
• Deep sewers – gentle vertical gradient
(gravity flow)
• Road Tunnels – up to 8% vertical
gradient
• Storage Caverns – depends on usage

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 OTHER CONSTRAINTS
• Avoid other underground infrastructure,
building foundations, basements
• Availability of land for shafts & work
sites
• Trying to avoid going under buildings –
due to risk of damage

Singapore Kallang River

River
MRT
MRT

4
 IMPACT OF ALIGNMENT ON
TUNNELLING METHODS
• The alignment of the tunnel is affected by a
number of factors that result from the end use
of the tunnel and existing land use and
infrastructure. For many urban tunnels, these
factors control the vertical and horizontal
alignment, and therefore the ground
encountered during tunnelling. There is often
limited scope to alter the alignment to tunnel
is better ground.
• Storage caverns are a major exception, as
economy of construction is often the
governing factor.

TUNNELLING METHODS

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 CONTENT
• Ground behaviour
• Excavation methods
• Methods for Ground Support
• Singapore experience

GROUND BEHAVIOUR

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TUNNELMAN’S CLASSIFICATION –
SOFT GROUND
Squeezing Plastic squeeze into tunnel. Soft to
medium clays, Stability Number 5 to 9
Flowing Soil and water flows into the tunnel.
Silts and sands below the water table
Running Dry granular materials run back to angle
of repose. Sands above the water table
Ravelling Chunks of material progressively drop
out. Fractured materials, lightly
cemented sands.
Swelling Ground absorbs water, slowly swelling
into tunnel. Swelling clays, desiccated
soils.
Firm Ground has sufficient ‘stand-up time’ to
allow heading to be advanced, lining
installed

SQUEEZING BEHAVIOUR - MARINE CLAY (Bukit

Timah Subway)

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 MARINE CLAY - BASE HEAVE FAILURE,
13m DEEP EXCAVATION, JGP BASE SLAB

FLOWING BEHAVIOUR, Sand fill, Marina Bay

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 OLD ALLUVIUM - FLOWING
EVEN WITH DEWATERING

COMPLETELY & HIGHLY WEATHERED JURONG

FORMATION – RUNNING/FLOWING/RAVELLING

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FIRM BEHAVIOUR - HARD CLAY OF THE FORT
CANNING BOULDER BED

CLASSIFICATION – ROCK TUNNELS

Swelling Rock swells into tunnel. Some
mudrocks
Slow Chunks of material progressively drop
Ravelling out, failure progresses slowly
Fast Chunks of material progressively drop
Ravelling out, failure progresses rapidly
Bursting Under high stress, pieces of rock ‘burst’
from sides of tunnel
Stable Rock needs little or no support

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RAVELLING IN FAULT ZONE IN THE
JURONG FORMATION

UNSTABLE ROCK OF THE JURONG

FORMATION

11
STABLE ROCK OF THE JURONG
FORMATION

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STABLE ROCK OF THE BUKIT TIMAH
GRANITE

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 WEATHERED GRANITE

GRADE V GRANITE – NEEDED TO BE

FROZEN TO STABILISE IT.

Need to deal with variety
Excavation

of conditions, but all tunnels
Temporary support
need consideration of:
Permanent support

Hand mining Sprayed Open Shield Tunnel Boring

Concrete Machine
lining (SCL)

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 EXCAVATION METHODS

Drill and blast in rock

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 BEAUMONT TUNNELLING
MACHINE, CHANNEL TUNNEL,
1880’S, SOFT ROCK

ROADHEADER FOR WEAK TO STRONG

ROCK

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 HARD ROCK TUNNEL BORING MACHINE

Ventilation

Belt conveyor
for spoil

A modern hard Grippers

rock TBM – a
mobile excavation
factory

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 HAND MINING

Soft ground and rock

Sprayed concrete lining (SCL) method

Pneumatic spades or small excavators

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 SCL – BIGGER TUNNELS, BIGGER
EXCAVATORS

Fort Canning tunnel – SCL method, 15m diameter

tunnel, soil with boulders

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 DIGGER SHIELD, CITY HALL TO BUGIS, 1986
Extendable hoods

Face Grids

Extendable deck

Digger arm

Used in soil with compressed air for face support

SLURRY SHIELD, RUSSIA

Soft ground tools - scrapers

HERRENKNECHT

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 EPB SHIELD, CLARKE QUAY, 1999

Mixed rock/soft cutting head

– Disks and scrapers

SUPPORTING THE GROUND

DURING TUNNELLING

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 SUPPORTING THE GROUND
• ‘Good rock’ – may need little or no
support
• Stable ground – needs long term
support
• Ravelling ground – needs support
quickly after excavation
• Squeezing/flowing/running ground –
needs continuous support during
excavation

BOLTS AND
ANCHORS
Rock, stiff soil

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Sprayed concrete
-Stable or
stabilised soil
Stable or Slow ravelling rock

1 Cutterhead
2 Cutterhead Support
3 Ring Erektor
4 Anchor Drilling Devices
5 Wire Mesh Erector (Net Support)

5
2

1 4
3

Hard rock TBM with facility to install support close

to face
HERRENKNECHT

23
 SUPPORTING THE GROUND
DURING TUNNELLING
Soft and mixed conditions

STEEL SETS AND LAGGING

Can be used though most conditions except flowing

ground, fast squeezing ground

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Sprayed concrete lining – suitable for stable (or
stabilised) ground

BRUNEL TUNNEL
First shield driven tunnel

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 BRUNEL SHIELD, RIVER
THAMES, 1830’S

DIGGER SHIELD, CITY HALL TO BUGIS, 1986

Extendable hoods

Face Grids

Extendable deck

Digger arm
Shield skin provides temporary support, except at
face. Used with compressed air in soft clay, sand
below the water table

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 Ravelling ground – can be supported in a digger
shield, but only with skilled miners and slow
progress

Mechanised Tunnelling – Slurry Shield & EPB – used

for the majority of tunnelling in Singapore
Page 54

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 Face Pressure Control on EPB, Slurry and
Mixshield
Bentonite Bentonite
Soil suspension suspension

Bulk head Bulk head Bulk head

Air bubble

Hydraulic Hydraulic
transport cycle transport cycle
Screw conveyor

without air bubble with air bubble

EPB Shield Slurry Shield Mixshield

EPB Shield – Layout

1. Tunnel face

1 2. Cutting wheel
8
3. Excavation
chamber
4. Pressure
4
7 bulkhead
2
6
5. Thrust cylinders
3
6. Screw conveyor
5
7. Segment erector

8. Segmental Lining

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 EPB Shield - Face Pressure Control
Increase / Lowering of Shield Advance Rate

Increase / Lowering of
Screw Discharge Rate

Water Earth
Pressure

SCREW CONVEYOR

Plenum Chamber
– face pressure

Discharge – at atmospheric
pressure

Pressure drop along screw conveyor = difference between face

pressure and atmospheric
Typically 20 kPa per flight, if spoil has correct consistency

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EBP-Shield Taipai (Ø 6.26 m) , belt conveyor outlet

Ideal soil for EPB operation – low permeability & plastic, to

support pressure drop along screw conveyor
HERRENKNECHT

HERRENKNECHT

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 LIMITS ON EPB SHIELD
• Minimum size (1200mm) to
accommodate screw
• Coarse granular soil - difficult to turn
into suitable plastic spoil. Also mixed
face of rock and permeable soil

Application Range EPB with Additives

Körnungslinie
Hydrometer Sieve
Clay Silt Sand Gravel
Fine- Medium- Coarse- Fine- Medium- Coarse- Fine- Medium- Coarse-
Percent coarser by weight d in %

100 0
Percent finer by weight d in %

90 10
80 20
70 30
60 EPB Foam
40
50 50
40 60
30 70
20 80
Slurry 90
10
0 100
0,001 0,002 0,006 0,02 0,06 0,2 0,6 2,0 6,0 20,0 60,0
Sieve size d in mm

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without foam treatment with foam treatment

HERRENKNECHT

EPB Shield – Soil Conditioning

 Bentonite
 Water
 Polymers
 Foam

The initial state of the soil should be kept unchanged as

possible; the consistency of the soil should guarantee the
transport to the disposal site and should be economical.

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Poor EPB material. Mixture of rock chips and
granular soil. Difficult to condition.

Manlock for entry

under compressed air

HERRENKNECHT

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Air lock

SLURRY SHIELDS
• Slurry is used to provide both support to
the face and to transport the excavated
ground
• Slurry may be formed by mixing water
with bentonite, polymer or the ground (if
enough clay)
• Bentonite (or polymer) properties
selected depending on the ground and
the shield size

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SECTION THROUGH AVN D-SERIES

1 Cutting wheel 6 Air pressure cushion 11 Slurry discharge line 16 Hydraulic oil tank
2 Excavation chamber 7 Motor gearbox assembly 12 Pressure bulkhead 17 Airlock bulkhead
3 Crusher chamber 8 Bentonite 13 Steering cylinder 18 Airlock
4 Submerged wall 9 Bentonite level indicator 14 Bypass assembly 19 Air pressure regulation equipment
5 Main bearing 10 Face access hatch 15 Drive motor 20 Electric cabinet

HERRENKNECHT

Mixshield – Layout

4
1. Submerged
Wall
2. Excavation
Chamber
3. Regulation
5 Chamber
1
3 4. Air Cushion
5. Pressure
2
Bulkhead

Page 70

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Face Pressure Control by Air Bubble – Used for
many European designed slurry shields

Japanese designed machines typically rely on

adjusting the rate of inflow vs discharge to adjust
face pressure

Slurry behaviour

Membrane model Penetration model

∆P
slurry soil slurry soil

Filter cake formed Pure penetration

Fine sand Coarse sand

Medium sand Gravel

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TBM Technique – Filter Cake at Tunnel Face

slurry soil

Filter cake
formed

Page 73

Creation of Filter Cake

Thickness of filter cake:

 4% loose bedding

 5% medium dense bedding

 6% compact bedding

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 Stone Crusher

Can be incorporated into slurry shields, but not into EPB machines

MUD CLEANING, SLURRY

SHIELDS

Shaker, Desander, Desilter, Centrifuge,

coarse sand silt clay
particles particles particles particles

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FLOW DIAGRAM OF SLURRY TREATMENT

TREATMENT PLANT FOR SLURRY

Requires space and cost for plant – something not

required for EPB tunnelling

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CONVERTIBLE EPB / SLURRY MACHINE

Slurry Mode

HERRENKNECHT

CONVERTIBLE EPB / SLURRY MACHINE

EPB Mode

HERRENKNECHT

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PERMANENT LININGS FOR
SOFT GROUND

PRECAST CONCRETE PIPES

Widely used up to 3m diameter

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CAST INSITU CONCRETE

Cast inside temporary lining

CONCRETE SEGMENTS

Supporting the ground at the tail

Of the shield

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 TAIL VOID GROUTING
• Typical diameter of shield for MRT
construction:6.46 to 6.55m
• Typical outside dimension of ring: 6.3m
• Average gap: 80 to 125mm all around
ring
• Needs to be filled to minimise
settlement and ensure even ground
pressure on ring. Properties of grout
important to function of ring – will deal
with in next lecture

43
 SHIELD LAUNCH

Difference in diameter
between shield & lining

Conventional grouting
– through lining. Only
suitable in stable
ground

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radial gap to be grouted

Simultaneous
grouting of the tail
void

Shove rams
typically 20 to 30
100t to 200t rams

Grout pipes

Wire brush
tail seals

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 Grout

Concrete segment

CONCRETE SEGMENT,
GROUT, GROUND

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 USE OF RIBS AND LAGGING IN
SINGAPORE
• Exploratory adits under Bukit Timah canal
• Exploratory adits, tunnelling Clarke Quay to
Dhoby Ghaut
• Some crosspassages

USE OF SCL IN SINGAPORE

• Initial drives, Orchard to Somerset, Phase 1 MRT
• Raffles Place to Shenton Way (towards Marina Bay),
Phase 2A, MRT
• Widely used for crosspassages between tunnels,
MRT, all phases
• Crossover, Outram Park (NEL)
• Over-run tunnels north of Dhoby Ghaut (CCL)
• Shield chambers for DTSS
• Connection between main DTSS tunnels and drop
shafts
• Fort Canning tunnel

Typically for short sections of tunnel,

non-circular section

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 USE OF SCL IN SINGAPORE
FORT CANNING TUNNEL
Short tunnel (about 240m)
Stable ground (some
treatment)
Large size (15m diameter)
Non-circular cross-section

CROSSPASSAGES
Short tunnel (6m to 40m)
Stable ground (some
treated by grouting or dewatering)
Non-circular cross-section

USE OF OPEN FACE SHIELDS IN

SINGAPORE
• Most of the tunnelling for Phase 1 MRT by
open face shield – generally with compressed
air and/or ground treatment
• Half of the tunnelling for Phase 2A MRT, with
compressed air
• Under 10% of tunnelling for NEL, with some
compressed air
• Not used on CCL

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 USE OF EPBS IN SINGAPORE
• Ulu Pandan sewer outfall - 3.754m machine, let 1983
• Lavender to Bugis, two 5.93m machines, let 1986
• North East Line, 14 No approx. 6.5m machines, let
1997
• Changi Line, two 6.13m machines, let 1998
• DTSS, eight machines of varying diameter, 2000-
2005
• Cable tunnel
• Circle line (part)
• DownTown Line 1

USE OF EPBS IN SINGAPORE

• Excellent performance in marine clay, Old
Alluvium and Fort Canning boulder bed
• Some ground control problems in variably
weathered rock of the Bukit Timah granite and
Jurong Formation – will be discussed at a later
lecture

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 USE OF SLURRY SHIELDS
IN SINGAPORE
• Extensively used for pipe jacking, typical
diameter up to 3m
• Used for several sections of the Circle line

ADVANTAGES OF SLURRY
SHIELDS IN SINGAPORE
• Better ground control in mixed faces of
rock and granular soil

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DISADVANTAGES OF SLURRY
SHIELDS
• Cost of slurry treatment plant
• Slower maximum rates of tunnelling than EPB
shields
• Issues with disposal of slurry
• Noise from treatment plant in urban
environment (mitigation measures possible)
• Some difficulties handling completely
weathered mudstone due to high clay content

USE OF MIXED MODE SLURRY/EPB

SHIELDS IN SINGAPORE

• Long (3,072m) link sewer for DTSS,

Upper Thomson area

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