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VArticle - Volume 2 (12 Articles) PDF
VArticle - Volume 2 (12 Articles) PDF
VArticle - Volume 2 (12 Articles) PDF
Reactive
Power Management
It gives us immense pleasure to present a compilation of the next twelve issues of –|VArticle|–, a
technical write-up related to Reactive Power Management. Over the past twelve articles, we
have tried our best to provide insights into selection of capacitors, filters, switchgear for capacitor
switching and harmonics.
Our aim has been to create awareness on latest technology trends, and present some facts in the
domain of Reactive Power Management. This –|VArticle|– also gives information about
available product options to satisfy customer requirements.
Most of the information included in the –|VArticle|– is based on basic electrical engineering
fundamentals and our on-field experience.
This compilation would be useful to consultants, end users and individuals interested in
understanding current issues in Reactive Power Management.
Please feel free to get back to us with technical queries or requests for covering specific topics in
future –|VArticle|– .
Regards,
Discharge Resistors 08
Harmonic Amplification 09
Harmonic Resonance 11
Starter
Even though this is the effective method of power
factor compensation, there is a limitation in sizing of
the capacitors. That is, the maximum kVAr should be
decided such that, the rated capacitor current is less
than 90% of the motor’s no-load current. If this
condition is not met, self-excitation may occur, in
M which the motor acts as a generator. This happens
when a motor has enough inertia to keep rotating even
after being disconnected from the power system and
c the capacitor is large enough to supply the reactive
power needs of the motor. Self-excitation would result
in high voltage at the terminals of the motor and this
can damage the contactor and the capacitor. As this
The below given chart can be referred as a ready method has the limitation in the sizing of maximum
reckoner, where kVAr can be selected for various motor kVAr rating, it is not possible to achieve unity power
ratings (in HP) and motor rpm: factor.
01
Method – 2: Points to remember:
In this method, the capacitor is connected to the • The operating power factor varies with respect to
motor before the starter and it is switched through a the percentage loading of the motors. Hence with
separate capacitor-duty contactor. The capacitors are the varying load, the fixed capacitors would not
disconnected as soon as the motor is switched off be able to maintain the unity power factor
hence, self-excitation is avoided. There is no need of continuously.
any limitations in capacitor sizing and unity power
factor can be achieved by this method. • After switching off the capacitor, it is very
important to maintain a minimum time delay of 60
seconds, for switching ON the capacitor again.
Else, there are more chances of contactor damage
because of charged capacitor.
M
c
kVAr=kw (tanftanf
1- )
2
02
Reactive Power Compensation of DG Sets
Whenever an industry is drawing power from utility, • Conversely, if the connected load is 600 kW and if
there are no major complications in managing the the power factor is at 0.6, the entire generator
reactive power and close to unity power factor can be capacity (1000 kVA) is blocked for this partial load.
maintained. But when diesel generators are operating, If the power factor was to be improved to 0.8, then
some precautions are to be taken for managing the as in case 1 additional 200 kW load could have
reactive power. This article briefs the performance of been connected to the same generator, thereby
the DG sets at various power factors and thereby increasing the capacity and productivity of the
showing the optimal manner of power factor industry. Moreover, if 600 kW load is operated at
compensation of generators with some examples. unity power factor, the load current (1391 A) will
be reduced by 40%, thereby 64% reduction in the
Normally DG sets are rated in apparent power (kVA) copper loss/cable loss. This will result in fuel
along with power factor and typical rated power factor savings of the engine. This is what is described in
is 0.8 lag (considering the power factor of motors, case 3 below.
without any capacitors) irrespective of alternator’s
apparent power. The diesel engine’s mechanical Case 3:
output power (bhp/kW) is designed to match the
electrical real power (kW = kVA x PF) of the alternator. Apparent power = 1000 kVA; connected load = 800
kW; power factor = 1.0
For example, consider a generator rated for 1000 kVA
and lagging power factor of 0.8. The maximum Current drawn, I3 = 1391 A
possible real power (kW) the generator can supply is
800 kW (rated current = 1739 A). Thus, the diesel • The genset is connected to its full capacity of 800
engine will also be rated to deliver 800 kW equivalent kW operating at unity power factor. Unlike case 1,
mechanical power to the alternator. The following the load draws 20% less current at UPF (1391 A).
cases show the operation of the alternator at different This in turn results in 36% reduction in copper
power factor. loss/cable loss and thereby saving some fuel.
Current drawn, I1 = 1739 A • Even though the current drawn is less than the
rated current (1739 A), the genset is delivering its
• Here, the generator is operated at the rated name maximum real power (800 kW).
plate values. The load draws maximum rated
current from the generator and the generator • Hence at UPF, utmost care should be taken such
draws the maximum permissible mechanical that the total connected electrical load must not
power (800 kW) from the diesel engine. exceed 800 kW. Otherwise the diesel engine will be
overloaded.
Case 2:
Summary:
Apparent power = 1000 kVA; connected load = 800
kW; power factor = 0.6 • Close to unity power factor shall be maintained for
the loads connected to the DG sets by using
Current drawn, I2 = 1000 x 1000/ (1.732 x 415 x 0.6) = capacitors. This will result in the reduction of
2318.9 A copper loss and hence savings in fuel.
• In case 2, the connected load is 800 kW (operated at • The load (active power) connected to the generator
0.6 PF) which is equal to the maximum mechanical must not exceed the engine’s equivalent kW rating.
power that the engine can deliver. But the actual
current drawn by the load is greater than the rated
alternator current. This results in generator
overloading. In order to avoid generator overloading,
the maximum load (at the same PF) that can be
connected to the generator is 600 kW at 0.6 PF.
03
Reactive Power Management in Wind Farms
Nowadays, developing countries are looking forward conditions, as well as during generator start-up. The
to renewable energy sources to suffice the increasing consumption of reactive power increases with increase
power demands in a sustainable way. This has led to a in power output (kW). Overall efficiency of the wind
significant growth in power generation through wind electric generator is significantly impacted by the
farms in recent years. Out of various types of reactive power compensation system. Hence the usage
generators used in wind farms, the most popular of power factor correction capacitors is mandatory in
design is with induction generator (asynchronous wind mills.
fixed speed machine), as it is more economical and
simpler in electrical as well as mechanical design and in The below figure is a typical block diagram of constant
its operation. They are also more rugged, requiring no speed wind electric generating station, which depicts
brushes or commutator. wind turbine, gear box to maintain same rotor speed,
induction generator, power capacitors and step-up
A drawback of the inductive wind electric generator is transformers.
the consumption of reactive power under all load
Transformer
Gearbox Induction
generator
Power
Capacitors Grid
An induction generator is a type of electrical generator power capacitors is mandatory for Wind Electric
that is mechanically and electrically similar to an Generators.
induction motor. Induction generators produce
electrical power when their shaft is rotated faster than Following are some technical challenges in wind farms,
the synchronous frequency of the equivalent induction in relation to the reactive power management and
motor. Induction generators are not self-exciting, i.e., their appropriate solutions.
they require an external supply to produce a rotating
magnetic flux and the power required for this is called 1. Sizing of compensation:
reactive power. This is in contrast with synchronous
Majority of wind farms are based on asynchronous
generators, where permanent magnets or dedicated
generation, consuming reactive power instead of
DC supply is given for excitation of the rotor. Hence
contributing, unlike synchronous generators.
synchronous generators do not consume reactive
Furthermore, the consumption of reactive power of
power and no capacitors are required.
asynchronous wind generators fluctuates randomly
Torque
with wind velocity, which imposes still more
Tmax
disturbance on the grid voltage.
04
Following are the typical wind mill ratings and the invariably limit the in-rush peak to 20x In. But still, even
power ratings of capacitor required by them: with capacitor duty contactors, the time delay is
necessary, else it will result in contacts welding.
Rated active power of Approx reactive power
The solution for both the challenges (switching time
the wind mill required to achieve UPF***
and transients) would be Thyristor Switching, which
250 kW 150 kVAr can repeatedly switch the capacitors in less than 20
600 kW 375 kVAr ms. The zero-voltage switching method employed in
1000 kW 625kVAr thyristor switching modules will take care of inrush
current too. In order to prevent the premature failure
1200 kW 750 kVAr
of thyristors because of transient spikes, the Peak
1500 kW 950 kVAr
Inverse Voltage (PIV) of the semiconductor should be
2000 kW 1250 kVAr at least 2200 V.
***These are typical values. Actual values may vary
with respect to wind mill manufacturers. 3. Self-excitation:
Typical generating voltage is 690 V and hence all the Most wind electric generators employ induction
capacitors and switchgear should be rated for the generators as electromechanical energy converters.
same. Sudden disconnection of the generators from the grid
may result in over compensation or self-excitation of
2. Switching technology: the induction generators because of the capacitors
connected across them. This sudden islanding would
The reactive power requirement fluctuates widely also result in over voltages, which could be dangerous.
in a very short duration, due to rapid wind speed
variations and hence faster correction by frequent Hence the capacitance connected across the induction
switching is required. Conventional systems with generators must be immediately disconnected as soon
electromechanically (contactor) switched capacitor as the grid drops. Thyristor switches can disconnect
steps are limited by their inherently slow reaction to the capacitors in less than 20ms on disconnection of
load fluctuations. This is due to the fact that capacitor the generator from the grid; thus reducing the
discharge time has to be taken into account before capacitance to a value lower than the critical value,
step reconnection can take place. Hence it is whereas the contactor switched capacitor requires at
impossible to maintain unity power factor with the least 100ms to isolate the capacitors and thereby it
time delay (60 seconds) in switching. When someone cannot prevent any over voltage.
tries to override the time delay criterion, life of the
capacitors and the contactors will comedown. Also the Conclusion:
contactor’s contacts would be welded, which is the
most common failure that happens in this application. All the wind mills with induction generators should be
equipped with power factor correction capacitors for
Additionally, conventional method of utilizing efficient power generation. The switching of
multiple power contactors results in generation of capacitors should be done through thyristor switching
disturbances (peak inrush current of >100 x In) on the modules for dynamic compensation and proper
electrical system during connection and voltage regulation. As the switching is very frequent,
disconnection. Hence they are prone to early failure the capacitor should also be rated for higher switching
due to the very frequent switching of capacitive loads. operations, such as LTXL capacitors.
The usage of capacitor duty contactors that are
normally fitted with in-rush limiting resistors, can
05
Voltage Selection of Power Capacitors
My capacitor name plate shows three ratings at three Similarly, for 25 kVAr and 440 V capacitor, the name
different voltages. What is the relation between plate contains the respective kVAr ratings and current
capacitor applied voltage and kVAr rating? ratings at 440 V, 415 V and 400 V.
kVAr rating of the capacitor is directly proportional to My system voltage is 415 V; should I select 415 V
square of the applied voltage. This is evident from the capacitors or 440 V capacitors?
below formula:
V2 Before deciding the voltage of the capacitor, it is
kVAr =
Xc important to understand about the percentage
impedance of the transformer (%Z). The percentage
As capacitance (C in uF) remains same for a capacitor, impedance is the voltage drop on full load due to the
XC will remain constant. winding resistance and leakage reactance of the
transformer. This is expressed as a percentage of the
For example, if a capacitor is rated for 30 kVAr at 480 V, rated voltage. For example, if the secondary of the
and if the applied voltage is 440 V, the kVAr output can transformer is rated for 433 V and %Z as 4%, the
be calculated as follows: voltage available at the load end, during full load
(applied voltage)2 conditions, would be 415 V only. When the load
kVAr output =
Rated kVAr ´
(Rated Voltage)2 decreases, the voltage drop decreases and hence the
2
(440) voltage at the load end increases. During no-load
30 ´2
=
(480) conditions, the voltage can reach a maximum of 433 V.
= 25.2 kVAr at 440 V
If a capacitor is selected with 415 V (in the above case),
Similarly, if we apply 500 V for the same capacitor, the it would be subjected to over-voltage during partial
kVAr output will be 32.5 kVAr. In this case, we are load or no-load conditions. This would impact the
applying voltage more than the rated value and the capacitor life drastically. For a normal capacitor,
capacitor will deliver kVAr output more than its rated following are the over-voltage limits permitted
value. Hence the life of the capacitor will reduce as per IS:
drastically, because of over-voltage and over-current.
• 10% over-voltage for 12 hours in every 24 hours
To summarize, the product label of a capacitor (for e.g. • 15% over-voltage for 30 minutes in every 24
30 kVAr, 480V)has the following details: hours
• 20% over-voltage for 5 minutes in every 24 hours
• 30% over-voltage for 1 minute in every 24 hours
06N13
MADE IN INDIA
DISCHARGE CAPACITOR BEFORE HANDLING
06
Cable Selection for Capacitors
Switchgear and cable selection for capacitor up to 146% of the rated current, which comprises the
application is quite challenging. The reason is the following:
capacitive networks are more prone to over-current,
high peak inrush current and continuous flow of full • Harmonics overload and over voltage – 30%
load current. Usually the capacitors are designed to • Capacitance tolerance – 10%
withstand and operate normally, even during the • Frequency variation – 2%
above said abnormalities, for a finite amount of time.
Hence, the switchgear and cables in the capacitor Accordingly, the cables should also be derated, to
network should be rated accordingly, so as to continuously withstand permitted over-current. The
withstand & operate normally during these derated cable will also help in withstanding the
abnormalities. electrical and thermal stresses that occur during every
switching cycle because of high inrush current.
The capacitors draw over-current because of the
harmonics, capacitance tolerances, voltage variation Following is the recommended cable selection chart:
and frequency variation. The permitted over-current is
**Cross section values mentioned above are guidelines that are valid for operation under
normal conditions and at ambient temperature of 40° C.
Busbar selection in APFC panels can be done with the reduce the magnitude of peak inrush current. This will
standard calculations for short circuit withstand reduce the thermal and electrical stress in the
capability and temperature rise (current density). The capacitors, cables and switchgear, which happens
only assumption is that the rated current should be during each switching cycle. This also prevents the
considered as 146% of the total capacitor rated premature failure of capacitors and nuisance tripping
current. of short circuit protection device. The above special
selection for cables will also overcome the heating and
It is recommended to use capacitor duty contactors to losses that happen because of skin effect.
07
Discharge Resistors
• Typically, power factor correction capacitors are • In order to ensure the sufficient discharge, make
fitted with discharge resistors connected directly sure that the capacitor is re-switched only after 45
across the terminals (two resistors between three to 60 seconds. This time delay (for re-switching the
phases). These resistors are mandatory safety same capacitor bank) can be set in APFC relay.
requirement, recommended by the capacitor
standards, to discharge the residual voltage that • In case, any application demands frequent
remains in the capacitor, once it is switched off. switching of capacitors by contactors, time delay
can be reduced by faster discharge of the residual
voltage. Faster discharging can be achieved by
replacing the existing resistors with new resistors
of lesser resistance. Formula to calculate the
Cylindrical capacitor's resistance is:
terminal block with
t
discharge resistor R£
æ 2 Vn ö
log e ç
3C ´ ç Vr ÷
÷
è ø
• This is to protect human beings from the risk of The above formula is valid for resistors assembly in the
electric shock and also for re-switching the same delta connected capacitor (two resistors between
capacitor in APFC panel. three terminals), as shown below:
Voltage
Initial Charge R
Voltage ( 2V n )
C
08
Harmonic Amplification
Harmonic amplification is an undesired increase in the MÙ’s
magnitude of harmonics beyond the level that is being
generated in the system. This in turn amplifies the ill
effects of the harmonics. The article briefs how the
Reactance in Ohms
amplification happens in the network and solutions to
avoid the amplification. Capacitive
Reactance
Power capacitors are added to the network for (Xc)
improving the power factor. The addition of capacitor
results in reduction of system impedance for high
frequency harmonics, because capacitive impedance is
inversely proportional to frequency (as shown in the
Ù’s
figure 1).
Capacitive impedance XC = 1
---------> Eq 1 0 Frequency Hz
2ðfc
Hence the capacitor offers lower impedance for high Figure 1
frequency (250 Hz, 350 Hz, 550 Hz and so on). This will
result in increase in the magnitude of harmonic
currents. This can be practically seen by measuring Following are the snapshots of harmonic
harmonics at a particular location in the electrical measurement done at the main incomer, with and
network with and without power factor correction without capacitors.
capacitors (APFC panels).
0 0
-1.41 k -1.52 k
<t= 5.0 ms A1= +1.179k A2= 628.9 A3=530.4 <t= 5.0 ms A1= +1.349k A2= 735.0 A3=604.7
% £
³
% £
³
100 100
Amplified
I-THD I-THD
50 50
DC 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 DC 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25
Figure 2: Measurement with APFC Panel OFF Figure 3: Measurement with APFC Panel ON
In this case, the power factor, obviously, will be As soon as the power factor correction capacitors are
poor. But the harmonic contents are very much connected, the THD value shoots up. The overall I-
within the limit (overall I-THD around 3.5% and THD increased from 3.5% to 22% and 5th harmonic
5th harmonic around 2%) increased from 2% to 17%. The absolute magnitude
of 5th harmonic amplified from 16 A to 144 A. The
distortions in the waveform also indicate the same.
09
In the above equation (1), for the same set of harmonic The solutions to prevent harmonic amplification are:
frequencies, on adding more capacitors for PF
improvement, the capacitive impedance (XC) will drop • By connecting a series inductor, so as to form a
further. Again this will result in amplification of the detuned filter (series LC), the impedance will increase,
harmonics. If the power factor goes to leading, the when the frequency increases (as XL = 2ðfL). The
amplification will be worse. The unnecessary impedance will be high for high frequency harmonics
amplification of high frequency harmonics will and no amplification will happen. Hence, the THD
damage power capacitors and over heat switchgear, (with reactor + capacitor) will be less than or equal
cables and busbars. to the earlier THD levels with no capacitors.
In summary, the harmonic amplification will happen • By strictly avoiding leading power factor, the excess
because of increase in frequency, excessive addition of addition of capacitors can be prevented and hence the
capacitors or both the above. amplification because of this can also be avoided. The
optimum power factor of 0.97 to 0.99 should be
maintained always.
10
Harmonic Resonance
Many industries may not generate high harmonics. match with any of the predominant harmonics and
Sometimes harmonic resonance occurring between causes more damage. Let us see a practical case study
power capacitors and transformers causes very high of resonance happening between variable PFC
magnification of harmonics. This causes increased rate capacitors (C) and transformer.
of failures and over-heating of electrical equipments.
This article briefs about the basics of harmonic Consider an industry with 1000 kVA transformer of
resonance, a practical case study and solution to avoid %Z = 5.67% and 750 kVAr APFC panel. The resonant
resonance. frequency can be calculated from the below formula:
kVA
In a system with inductive (XL) and capacitive (XC) Where, Resonant frequency = Fs ´ sc
kVAR
impedances, resonance can happen at one particular
Fs is the System frequency = 50 Hz
frequency (resonant frequency, FR). At this point XL will
be equal to XC and the net impedance will be very low. kVA SC is the short circuit =
kVA =1000
=
17636kVA
Hence, at resonance point, the magnitude of the power of the transformer %z 100 0.0567
current (with frequency FR) will be maximum and only kVAr is the power rating of the capacitor connected
inherent resistance in the network would limit the under the transformer for power factor correction.
current.
Ohms Case 1:When 145 kVAr is connected to the system,
Typically, the inductance (L, of the transformer)in the Ah 11 1 27.5% 2 26.6% 3 22.1%
103.1 A 99.3 A 81.3 A
system will remain almost constant, but the -137° +112° +107°
capacitance(C) is varied (in steps) as per the
%
requirement to maintain higher power factor. So, 100
-,+
11
Case 2: When 250 kVAr of capacitor is switched on in resonance. Resonance or worst case THD may not be
the same industry, revealed at the moment of harmonic measurement or
17636 troubleshooting. Hence at times, finding the root
Resonant frequency =
50 ´ = 420Hz
250 cause of any such failures would be very difficult.
In this case, no resonance will happen; hence the Solution for harmonic resonance is to detune, by using
amplification level will be less than the case 1. If a reactor in series with each capacitor. This detuned
harmonics study is carried at this particular moment, filter will forcefully create one resonant frequency, so
the system would reveal relatively lesser harmonics that the combination offers higher impedance for high
level (%I-THD) frequency harmonics. For example, installation of 7%
reactor with each capacitor in APFC panel, will create
Case 3: When 700 kVAr is connected to the system, tuning frequency at 189 Hz. Hence, resonance at
17636 harmonic frequencies (5th harmonics and above) can
Resonant frequency =
50 ´ = 250Hz
700 be avoided. Moreover, all the harmonics having
Once again, this frequency perfectly matches with 5th frequency above 189 Hz (i.e., from 5th harmonics
harmonic. Typically 5th harmonic is the least order onwards) will lie in inductive region, where the
harmonic with higher magnitude (6 pulse drives). impedance increases when the frequency increases
Resonance at this harmonic order would result in even (XL = 2ðfL). One important point to note is that all the
worse damage than the case 1. capacitors in the industry must have similar series
inductor; else the overall tuning frequency may not be
From the above cases it is evident that any peculiar at 189 Hz.
problem like frequent failure of capacitors, nuisance
tripping of MCCBs, frequent blowing of fuses and
over-heating of busbars is may be because of harmonic
12
Selection of Capacitors for Detuned
Harmonics Filters
How to select the capacitor voltage and kVAr for The actual amount of voltage increase can be
detuned harmonics filter application? calculated using the following formula:
440
Vc =
Vs æ14 ö
1-
ç ÷
è 100 ø
VC=512 V
Vc
Here the capacitor should be rated for 525 V when
used along with 14% reactor.
Vs 10 kVAr 10 kVAr 12.5 kVAr 480 V 12.5 kVAr 525 V 10 kVAr 12.5 kVAr 525 V
Vs = Vc - VL 12.5 kVAr 12.5 kVAr 15 kVAr 480 V 15 kVAr 525 V 12.5 kVAr 15 kVAr 525 V
15 kVAr 15 kVAr 20 kVAr 480 V 20 kVAr 525 V 15 kVAr 20 kVAr 525 V
20 kVAr 20 kVAr 25 kVAr 480 V 25 kVAr 525 V 20 kVAr 25 kVAr 525 V
25 kVAr 25 kVAr 30 kVAr 480 V 33.3 kVAr 525 V 25 kVAr 30 kVAr 525 V
13
Triplen Harmonic Mitigation
Triplen harmonics have frequencies in multiples of 3, R
like 3rd harmonic (150 Hz), 9th harmonic (450 Hz),
15th harmonic (750 Hz) and so on. These harmonics
have some peculiar characteristics, which make them Y R
very difficult to handle and mitigate. This article Y
explains about the basics, sources, effects and B
mitigation techniques of triplen harmonics.
100
Time R- Phase
40
Time Y- Phase
100
harmonic component.
80
60
Time Addition of third harmonics in neutral conductor
0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 Time
Third harmonic current of R,Y & B Phases
Harmonic number are in-phase with each other and hence
CFL adds up, without cancellation in the
neutral conductor.
All the triplen harmonics are zero sequence in nature
and they are exactly in-phase in all the three phases, Reaching maximum at the same time
where as the fundamental component (50 Hz), has The accumulated neutral current, because of the
positive phase sequence, displaced by 120° between additive triplen current, can go up to 200% of the
the three phases. phase current.
14
Ill effects of triplen harmonics: The zigzag transformer contains six coils on three
cores. Each limb carries two windings, similar to
• The harmonics accumulate in neutral and cause primary and secondary. The first coil on each core is
hot neutral or neutral burning due to neutral over- connected contrarily to the second coil on the
loading. So unnecessary increase in the size of previous/next core. The second coils are then all tied
neutral would be required. together to form the neutral and the phases are
connected to the primary coils.
• Distribution transformer over heating
If three currents, equal in magnitude but 120° out of
• Busbars and cable overheating due to skin effect phase with each other, are applied to the three
terminals, the ampere-turns in the windings cannot
• Eddy current losses (as eddy current is proportional
cancel and the transformer restricts the current flow to
to square of the frequency)
the negligible level of magnetizing current. Therefore,
• Reduced life of electrical equipments like the zigzag winding provides an easy path for in-phase
transformers, power capacitors, switchgear, etc. currents (triplen harmonics) but does not allow the
flow of currents that are 120°out of phase with each
Triplen harmonic mitigation using passive elements: other.
1. Detuned passive filter: The zig-zag transformers are relatively smaller in size
and can be installed close to the group of single phase
Most commonly used passive filter for triplen loads that generate triplen harmonics. These
harmonics is 14% detuned filter. This filter has the transformers are more effective during balanced load
tuning frequency of 133 Hz, which is below the 3rd condition. Thus the harmonics are trapped at the
harmonic (150 Hz). This filter is very effective in source and neutral overloading can be avoided.
averting the harmonic amplification of 3rd harmonics
& above and thereby protecting power capacitors and
other equipments. But detuned filter will not eliminate
the harmonics completely.
R Y B
E E
Io=1 Ð
0 Io=1 Ð
0 Io=1 Ð
0
E/3 Zig
E/ 3
Zig
I0
I0 N I0
NGR 3I0
15
Tuned Harmonic Filters
What are tuned harmonic filters? Based on the tuning frequency, the LC combination
forms a series resonant circuit and provides a low
Tuned harmonic filters are used in various installations resistance path for the targeted harmonic frequency.
to supress harmonics at their source. The use of tuned Depending on the harmonic spectrum of the
filters ensures that harmonics do not spread installation, a tuned filter may consist of several LC
throughout the system and to other neighbouring branches tuned at different frequencies.
installations.
As the tuned filter needs to sink in large currents, it is
Tuned harmonic filters are passive filters that consist of important that the inductor used in the filter has a high
an inductor (L) and a capacitor (C) connected in series. linearity and that the capacitor is able to withstand this
The value of L and C is selected in such a manner that higher current. Typically derated ultra-heavy duty
the tuning frequency of the combination capacitors with higher voltage are employed in a
(ft=1/2ðv (LC)) is as close to the frequency of the tuning filter along with inductors having much higher
harmonic that needs to be cleansed from the system as linearity. The impedance characteristics of a tuned
possible. filter are shown below:
Z
Impedance
O 0 0 0
The above arrangement consists of three tuned filter branches tuned for the 5th, 7th and 11th harmonic frequencies.
How to select a tuned harmonic filter? is able to withstand the overvoltage caused by the
series connected reactor. When multiple branches are
Tuned harmonic filters are placed close to the source of being used, the distribution of the load KVARs across
harmonic currents. The filter is sized primarily to different branches is iterative and is meant to optimize
provide the reactive power requirement of the load the filter efficiency. This needs to be simulated before
and should be capable of handling an incremental finalization.
current to account for the harmonic currents that are
expected. Once the capacitor is sized as per the The tuned filter will improve the load power factor.
reactive power requirements of the load, the tuning Tuned filters are susceptible to voltage and frequency
frequency needs to be arrived at, based on the variations and changes in load profile. The filtering
harmonic order that needs to be filtered. The tuning efficiency can change dramatically with changes in
frequency should be close to the targeted harmonic load profile.
order. Once the tuning frequency has been arrived at,
the reactor L value can be calculated using the formula
Ft=1/(2ðv LC). Care should be taken that the capacitor
16
Thermal Design of APFC Panels
The life of the power capacitors and other equipments upwards. The hot air would go out through the louvers
in APFC panels depends very much on the operating provided at the top side of the panel. Fresh cold air
temperature. In panels with detuned harmonic filter would enter the panel through the louvers provided at
reactors and thyristor switches, the chances of the bottom. This is represented in Figure 1.
elevated temperature are high, as these equipments
generate relatively more heat. Hence in order to Figure 2 represents the common usage of extra louvers
maximise the life of the capacitors and other in-between the top and bottom louvers. The common
important equipments in the APFC panel, the misconception behind this is that, extra louver would
temperature must not be allowed to increase beyond increase the volume of air flow. Practically, this does
certain limit. This article briefs some guidelines about not happen because the volume of the panel is fixed.
the thermal design of APFC panels and thereby This results in the reduced air flow at the bottom
dissipating the generated heat effectively. section of the panel, as some air enters through the
middle louvers. Hence, the temperature of the lower
For any panel, the temperature rise can be reduced section of the panel will be higher than the upper
by the following three ways: section.
There is minimal control over the first two conditions. Hot air
Hot air outlet
But the third condition completely depends upon the outlet
design of the panel. By offering effective cooling
methods, the excess heat generated by the
equipments can be dissipated. Selection of the cooling
methods can decided based on the internal
Reduced
temperature rise inside the panel. The maximum rate of
internal temperature can be calculated using the air flow,
following formula: hence,
pd over
Internal Temperature ( Ti )= + Ta Cool air heating
kxs inlet
17
For painted sheet-steel enclosure, k = 5.5 W/m2 °C
Figure 3 Exhaust Fan Figure 4 S = Open surface area of the panel (in sq. m) can be
calculated using one of the below formulas:
Formula for calculating S
Hot air Louvers Position of the enclosure (in sq. m) as per IEC 890
outlet
forced out accessible on sides S=1.8xHx(W+D)+1.4xWxD
via fan placed against a wall S=1.4xWx(H+D)+1.8xDxH
18
50 kVAR
25 kVAR
100kVAR
Zig-zag
arrangement
of reactors
Hence, in APFC panels, a proper thermal design
would pave way for maximising the life of
100kVAR 100kVAR
REACTORS important equipments like capacitors, thyristor
14% DETUNED
switches, reactors and other switchgear.
CAPACITORS
525V
25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25
Capacitors kept below
kVAR kVAR kVAR kVAR kVAR kVAR kVAR kVAR the major heat source
(reactors)
PLINTH
19
Notes
Electrical Standard Products (ESP) Branch Offices:
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