SUMMER II 2016-2017

GEN 103 CRITICAL & CREATIVE THINKING

ASSIGNMENT 1

CHAIN OF REASONING

By:
Student Name: Taye Safyan Almenhali
Student ID #:201630001

In Partial
Fulfillment of the Requirements
For the Degree of Bachelor of Human Resource Management

Submitted To:
Dr. James Ryan Reblando

August 2017
What is reasoning?

If we see dark clouds in the sky, we infer that it is likely to rain. If we hear the sound of laughter

behind a closed door, we infer that behind that door there is either a person or a device like a tape

recorder or TV set. The experience of seeing the dark clouds and of hearing the sound of laughter

is an instance of the grounds that lead us to the conclusion about the likelihood of rain and about

a person or device behind the door. The process of inference connects the grounds to the

conclusion

In some cases, the grounds of inference and the steps leading from the grounds to the conclusion

can be expressed (either verbally or using some other symbolic system) such that someone else

can scrutinize the process and make an assessment its quality.

Reasoning is a form of inference that can be expressed in words or other symbols such that the

legitimacy of the process can be evaluated if needed.

Implicit in what we have said above is the idea that not all forms of inference can be overtly

expressed. Suppose you walk into an auditorium with a friend, look around at the seated people,

and tell your friend, “There seems to almost a hundred people here.” You didn’t actually count

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the number of people and arrive at this conclusion, instead, you made in inference, based on your

visual experience. If your friend challenged you to express the steps of your inference in words

or numbers, you may not be in a position to do so.

Reasoning is an integral component of the various aspects of academic inquiry, including

 looking for answers/solutions to questions/problems (methodology);

 justifying/proving our answers/solutions (justification); and

 evaluating the merit of the answers/solutions (critical thinking).

Given the centrality of reasoning in inquiry, it is important for us to understand the nature of

reasoning in academic inquiry. In what follows, we will explore forms of reasoning that can be

expressed in words (qualitative reasoning) or in numbers (quantitative reasoning)

Premises and conclusions

When formulated as statements expressed in words or numbers, the grounds that we appeal to in

our inferences are called premises.

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Chains of Reasoning

Arguments can have more than two layers; indeed they can have many layers. Such arguments

are chains of reasoning.

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Toulmin Model of Argument

Stephen Toulmin, originally a British logician, is now a professor at USC. He became frustrated

with the inability of formal logic to explain everyday arguments, which prompted him to develop

his own model of practical reasoning.

The first triad of his model consists of three basic elements: the claim, ground, and warrant.

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A claim is the point an arguer is trying to make. The claim is the proposition or assertion an

arguer wants another to accept.

The claim answers the question "So, what is your point?"

Example: "You should send a birthday card to Mimi, because she sent you one on your

birthday."

Example: "I drove last time, so this time it is your turn to drive."

There are three basic types of claims:

Fact: claims which focus on empirically verifiable phenomena; a claim that is simply a fact is

not appropriate as a thesis for an English  1A essay or research paper;

Judgment/value: claims involving opinions, attitudes, and subjective evaluations of things; a

subjective, personal values-based claim is not appropriate as a thesis for an English  1A essay or

research paper;

Policy: claims advocating courses of action that should be undertaken; this is the type of claim

that is an appropriate thesis for an English 1A essay or research paper.

The term "grounds" refers to the proof or evidence an arguer offers.   Grounds answers the

questions, "What is your proof?" or "How come?" or "Why?"

Grounds can consist of statistics, quotations, reports, findings, physical evidence, or various

forms of reasoning.

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Grounds can consist of statistics, quotations, reports, findings, physical evidence, or various

forms of reasoning.

Example: "It looks like rain. The barometer is falling."

Example: "The other Howard Johnson's restaurants I've been in had clean restrooms, so I'll bet

this one has clean restrooms, too."

Grounds can be based on the following:

evidence: facts, statistics, reports, or physical proof,

source credibility: authorities, experts, celebrity endorsers, a close friend, or someone's say-so

analysis and reasoning: reasons may be offered as proof

The warrant is the inferential leap that connects the claim with the grounds.

The warrant is typically implicit (unstated) and requires the listener to recognize the underlying

reasoning that makes sense of the claim in light of the grounds.

The warrant performs a "linking" function by establishing a mental connection between the

grounds and the claim

Example: "Muffin is running a temperature. I'll bet she has an infection." warrant: sign

reasoning; a fever is a reliable sign of an infection.

Example: "That dog is probably friendly. It is a Golden Retriever." warrant: generalization;

most or all Golden Retrievers are friendly.

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Warrants can be based on the following:

Ethos: source credibility, authority

Logos: reason-giving, induction, deduction

Pathos: emotional or motivational appeals

Shared values: free speech, right to know, fairness, etc.

Note: these categories aren't mutually exclusive; there is considerable overlap.

The second triad of the Toulmin model involves three additional elements:

Backing provides additional justification for the warrant.

Backing usually consists of evidence to support the type of reasoning employed by the warrant.

The qualifier states the degree of force or probability to be attached to the claim.

The qualifier states how sure the arguer is about his/her claim

The rebuttal acknowledges exceptions or limitations to the argument.

The rebuttal admits to those circumstances or situations where the argument would not hold.

The Toulmin Model asserts that most arguments consist of the following six parts:

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We can also identify three other important parts of an argument

            Assumptions                           Counter-examples                  Implications

                                                            Counter-arguments

The Toulmin Model

1. Claim: the position or claim being argued for; the conclusion of the argument.

2. Grounds:  reasons or supporting evidence that bolster the claim. 

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 3. Warrant: the principle, provision or chain of reasoning that connects the

grounds/reason to the claim.  

4. Backing: support, justification, reasons to back up the warrant.

5. Rebuttal/Reservation: exceptions to the claim; description and rebuttal of

counter-examples and counter-arguments.

6. Qualification: specification of limits to claim, warrant and backing.  The degree

of conditionality asserted. 

Warrants/General Strategies of Argument

Warrants are chains of reasoning that connect the claim and evidence/reason. A warrant is the

principle, provision or chain of reasoning that connects the grounds/reason to the claim. 

Warrants operate at a higher level of generality than a claim or reason, and they are not normally

explicit.

Example: “Needle exchange programs should be abolished [claim] because they only cause more

people to use drugs.” [reason]

The unstated warrant is: “when you make risky behavior safer you encourage more people to

engage in it.”

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There are six main argumentative strategies via which the relationship between evidence and

claim are often established.  They have the acronym “GASCAP.”

 Generalization            

 Analogy                                         

 Sign                                      

 Causality                               

 Authority                               

 Principle           

These strategies are used at various different levels of generality within an argument, and rarely

come in neat packages - typically they are interconnected and work in combination.

Common Warrants

1.  Argument based on Generalization

A very common form of reasoning.  It assumes that what is true of a well chosen sample is likely

to hold for a larger group or population, or that certain things consistent with the sample can be

inferred of the group/population. 

2. Argument based on Analogy

Extrapolating from one situation or event based on the nature and outcome of a similar situation

or event.  Has links to "case-based" and precedent-based reasoning used in legal discourse. What

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is important here is the extent to which relevant similarities can be established between two

contexts.  Are there sufficient, typical, accurate, relevant similarities?

3. Argument via Sign/Clue

The notion that certain types of evidence are symptomatic of some wider principle or outcome. 

For example, smoke is often considered a sign for fire.  Some people think high SAT scores are a

sign a person is smart and will do well in college. 

4.  Causal Argument

Arguing that a given occurrence or event is the result of, or is effected by, factor X.  Causal

reasoning is the most complex of the different forms of warrant. The big dangers with it are:

1. Mixing up correlation with causation

2. Falling into the post hoc, ergo propter hoc trap.  Closely related to confusing

correlation and causation, this involves inferring 'after the fact, therefore because

of the fact').

5.  Argument from Authority

Does person X or text X constitute an authoritative source on the issue in question?  What

political, ideological or economic interests does the authority have?  Is this the sort of issue in

which a significant number of authorities are likely to agree on? 

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6.  Argument from Principle

Locating a principle that is widely regarded as valid and showing that a situation exists in which

this principle applies.  Evaluation: Is the principle widely accepted? Does it accurately apply to

the situation in question? Are there commonly agreed on exceptions?  Are there "rival"

principles that lead to a different claim?  Are the practical consequences of following the

principle sufficiently desirable? 

Rebuttals and Main/Faulty/Return Paths 

Unlike many forms of writing, academic arguments will often include discussions of possible

objections and counterarguments to the position being advanced. Academic arguments typically

take place in disciplinary communities in which a variety of competing or divergent positions

exist. When preparing to "speak" to the community by writing an argument, writers are aware of

the arguments against which they must build their claims, and of the counterarguments which are

likely to emerge. Dealing with counterarguments and objections is thus a key part of the process

of building arguments, refining them, interpreting and analyzing them. There are several main

reasons for introducing counterarguments and objections.

1. It demonstrates that the author is aware of opposing views, and is not trying to "sweep them

under the table." It thus is more likely to make the writer's argument seem "balanced" or "fair" to

readers, and as a consequence be persuasive.

2. It shows that the writer is thinking carefully about the responses of readers, anticipating the

objections that many readers may have. Introducing the reader to some of the positions opposed

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to your own, and showing how you can deal with possible objections can thus work to

"inoculate" the reader against counterarguments.

3. By contrasting one's position with the arguments or alternative hypotheses one is against, one

clarifies the position that is being argued for. 

When dealing with objections or counterarguments, authors tend to take one of three approaches.

1. Strategic concession: acknowledgment of some of the merits of a different view.

In some cases, this may mean accepting or incorporating some components of an

authors' argument, while rejecting other parts of it.

2. Refutation: this involves being able to show important weaknesses and

shortcomings in an opponent's position that demonstrate that his/her argument

ought to be rejected.

3. Demonstration of irrelevance: showing that the issue in question is to be

understood such that opposing views, while perhaps valid in certain respects, do

not in fact meet the criteria of relevance that you believe define the issue.

How well authors produce rebuttals and deal with counter-arguments is an important part of how

we evaluate the success of an argume

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Bibliography

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http://commfaculty.fullerton.edu/: http://commfaculty.fullerton.edu/rgass/toulmin2.htm

purdue.edu. (2017). The Toulmin Model. Retrieved August 17, 2017, from

http://web.ics.purdue.edu: http://web.ics.purdue.edu/~pbawa/421/THE%20TOLUMIN

%20MODEL.htm

rationaleonline.com. (2017). 4.6 Chains of Reasoning. Retrieved August 17, 2017, from

https://www.rationaleonline.com:

https://www.rationaleonline.com/explore/en/tutorials/tutorials/Tutorial_4/4a_Chain/chain

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wikimedia. (2007, November 10). Talk:Chains of Reason. Retrieved August 17, 2017, from

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