3.7.

2 Electrical output
We can now bring together the main factors that determine the total electrical out-
put from a PV installation over a year:
― Annual average daily insolation (section 3.7.1)
― Tilt and orientation of PV array (see Fig. 3.6).
― Whether there will be any overshadowing or partial shading (see Fig. 3.17).
― Extent of solar heating (or ineffectiveness of ventilation cooling, Fig. 3.18).
― Efficiency of the balance-of-system components (section 2.1).
― Efficiency of PV module, as dependent on the type of PV material (section 2.5).

There are many PV software packages available to carry out this calculation.
Just to give an idea of what the calculation might look like, here are some example
values:
― Data available for the site for average daily insolation might be 3.5kWh/(m2·day)
for a horizontal surface and 4.0kWh/(m2·day) at the optimum tilt that maxi-
mises output.
― A vertical surface facing south might have a relative efficiency of 72% compa-
red to the optimum tilt.
― The south face might be free of shading.
― Heating of the PV system may reduce the output by 4%.
― Balance of system losses might be 15%.

The estimate of annual output per kWP of the PV system would be:
annual output = 365 days/y·4 .0kWh/(m2·day)·72%·96%·85%
= 860kWh (electrical)/y

If the PV array is monocrystalline silicon with 8m2/kWP (section 2.5), then an area of
8m2 is estimated to generate 860kWh/y of electricity, or 1m2 would generate about
175kWh/y.

3.7.3 Specific yield

A useful parameter making use of generation data from existing nearby PV instal-
lations is the specific yield. This is the energy generated divided by the “boiler-
plate” or STC rating given as kWh/(kWP·y). In other words, “how much energy (kWh)
is produced over one year by a specific quantity of installed PV modules (1kWP)”.
The energy part is a figure read directly from an electricity meter, thus taking into
account reduction in system output caused by losses associated with balance-of-
system (BOS) components such as inverters, resistance of wiring and load matching.
There are many factors wrapped up in this figure including latitude, weather,
orientation, type of installation as well as how well the system was designed and
maintained. Therefore a comparison should be made for similar installations in
similar conditions.
For the case studies featured in this handbook, their performance is collated in
Chapter 13 including their specific yields. Example values:
― System in Hamburg, Germany, on a vertical surface facing south:
599kWh/(kWP·y)
― System in San Francisco, USA, on a horizontal surface: 1238kWh/(kWP·y)

42 3. PV FOR DESIGNERS