AppemdEx T

- A1.1 Proof that the Path is Parabotic

We will prove this for uni-level projection.
Consider a projectile launched with
a speed u, itunangle 0 above the Y
horizontal.
horizontal comp. of initial velocity:
I/, =ucos? uu
vertical comp of initial velociry:
il, =asin0
vertical acceleration : -C .

Let (x, y) be any point on the curve.

Obviously the x coordinate of the point is the horizontal displacement of the projectile from its
launch point at some time /, while the y coordinate is the vertical displacement of the projectile
from its launch position at the same time.
Thus it is possible for us to derive expressions for the .r and y coordinates of the poht in
terms
of the parameter I and hence find the cartesian equation of this curve, as below.
Therefore x : horizontal displacement: sr, andy : vertical displacement: s,.
s =u I sr=urt*Iat'
x =u t y=u,t-+gt'
x
Substituting frorn the first equation into the second, yields the foliorving
u

y
xx'
=u"--;g-;
' ur u:
J. - qx'+ tx
,=-(*).'.(?),
This is of the form ! = -ax2 + 6x , which is the equalion of a parabola.

A1 .2 Calculation of the Maximum Height Reached

The maximum height reached is the maximum vertical displacement from the
launch position-
plus the launch height. The maximum vertical displacement from the initial
launcrr;";iri"il"
achieved at the peak of the trajectory, when the vertical component of the velocity ,, :
O. f,n"
maximum vertical displacement above the launch position is most easily calculated ul
fo[o*r. "

,j -ul =2a,s,
0 -ul = *Zgs
,-",
uj
"r-*
E
Note that this gives us the maximum vertical displacement from the initial launch point. In
the
case of uni-level projection this gives us the maximum height directly. In the
case bf bi-level
pro.iection, w9 need to add this height to the launch height io get the maximum height
reached.
Thus, in Example 2, maximum height reached by the cricket ball = 7.97m; in Example
3, the,
maximum height of the shot put = 7.2m;.and, in Example 4, the maximum height reached
by
the basketball = 3.45m.

t
158 Ideas in PhYsi' Stage 2 PhY:

A1.3 Alternative Means of Galculating Time of Flight

Thetimeofflightcanbecalculatedinawaythatdoesnotinvolvetheuseofthequadraticformulatosolvea
the time of flightis re-calculated for Examples 2' 3 and4 of
quadratic equation. rrii. "*"-ples below,
is only of general use in the case of uni-level projection (Example 2)' In
Section 1.3. we believe that this
many steps'
other cases this method requires too

Example 2 Uni-level angled proiection

time of flight by calculatins JhtiiTt taken to reach
In the case of uni-level projection, we can calculate the
symmetry of the trajectory). This method is very
the maximum height u.,i trr.n jusi doubling it
(using the
projection where multiple steps are needed'
,oulgir,ro.*urd, unlite the case of bi-level
Thus, using the data in ExamPle 2:
Y), =llt+ayt
0=12'5-9'8/
/= 12.5
9s
' time to max.height = l'2755s
time of flieht = 2'55 s

Example 3 Bi-level angled proiection - Finat level below originot height

Using the data in ExamPle 3:
Step 1 Find the time taken to reach the maximum height'
l)=ltt+d).t
0=9'8995-9'81
t--
9.8995
9.8
tirne to n:alt. he ight * 1'0102 s

Find the maximum height above the ooint o.f proiection'

Step 2
,i -"1 =2a,s,
syv =u t+la.,t' 0-9.8995'? =2x-9'8xs,,
or
=9.8995xi'0102-4'9xl'0102' -9.899s'
max.height = 5'qgql= ' - 19.6
max.height = 5:00991-

Step 3 ,;,

Therefore from here it must fall a total distance of 7'2

m'

Step 4 Find the time to.fall this distance'

s, =urt+*art'
-7'2=O-4'9t'
l=
timeto fallxl'2122s

Step 5 Add these two times toqether' (from Step I and SteP 4)
Therefore total time of flight :2'22s

,.

i
:]
i
n

-l
 Appendix 1 Projectile Matian 158

Exantple 4 Bi-level angled proiection - Final level above original height

Using the data in Example 4:
Srep I Find the time taken to reach the maximum heisht
yr=l.t),+alt
,,
0=4.855-9.8r
4 .855
9.8
time to max. height = 0'4954 s

Step 2 l,'ind the maximum heisht above the point o.f oro-iection.
17
Yyfy''
-U =la.s
s,,:urt+!a,,t1 0-4.855' = 2x-9.8xs,
, = 4'855 x 0'49 54 - 4'9 x0' 4954'? or
- 4 .855'
max:height =1.2026m ' -19.6
max.height -1.2026m

Step 3 Subtract the height the basket above the projection ooint -{rom this.
o-f

Therefore from here it must fall a total distance of (1.2026 * 0'8) : 0.4026 m.
Step 4 Find the time to fall this distance.
s, =urt+|artl
-0-4026=0-4.9t'1
t={trl4026
-a+
time to fall = 0. 2866 s

Step 5 Ad{l these two tbnes toqether. (fro* Step I and Step 4)
Therefore total time of flight : 0r82-s

A1 .4 Tri gonometric Formulae

In Section 1.4 on Page 17, in proving that, for uni-level projection, the range is maximum when launch angle
is 45o, we use the trigonomehic duplication formulae, which relate the trigonometric ratios of an angle and
double that angle, Specifrcally, the formula used in this section is:
sin20=2sin0cos0
In the same section, in proving tha( launch angles that are symrnetrically' located,about 45o yield the same
range, we,used two of the trigonometric addition formulae. These formulae give a relationship betnreen the
trigonometric ratios of the sum or difference of two angles and the trig ratios of the individual angles. The
two formulae used in this section are:
sin(e + q) = sin 6cos $ + cosg sin $
sin(e - q)= sin 0 cos $ - cos 0 sin $

A{ .5 More About Air Resistance

The air resistance
"r.r;a;" -- aJtiig on a large body moving at high ryeed through air can be given
by fi = '/rDpf,where B is the resistive force, p is the density of air; A is the cross.sectiotal area of ttre body
Ineasured in a plarle perpendicular to its direction of motion, y is the speed of the body aud D is a
dimensionless value (i.e. it has no units), called tk drag coefficient. The drag coefficient has a value of
about 0.5 for a sphere but can be as high as 2 for inegularly shaped objects.
Note that air resista{rce increases greatly as the speed ofthe body increases, as air resistance is directly
proportional to the square ofthe speed.
Modem cars are designed to have drag coefficients of about 0.3.
160 ldeas in P

A1.6 Effect of lnitial Speed on Launch Angle for Maximum Range

It can be shown that another factor that affects the range ofa projectile is the initial speed ofthe projectile.
Examine the excerpt from Spreadsheet Al reproduced below. This sheet shows the maximum theoretical
range that is achievid when a projectile is projected at various speeds ranging from 10ms-l to 20ms-r, from a
height of 1.8m. On this spreadsheet the launch angle yielding maximum range is highlighted in bold for
each speed of projection. As can be seen, the launch angle necessary to achieve the maximum range
increases as the initial speed increases. Over the given range ofspeeds the launch angle increases from 41o
to 44". Obviously an athlete cannot project a shot put at 20ms-r, but this will have implications for events
such as the hammer throw, where the ipeeds of projection are much greater (up to about 30ms-t).
It is extremely doubiful whether a shot putter can judge an angle of launch with 1" precision. However the
results of the discussion in Section 1.8, "Projectiles in Sport", indicate that if he knows how fast he can
launch the shot put, and if he knows the height at which he releases it, he can determine the angle of launch
that he should try to achieve to gain maximum range. A hammer thlower, on the other hand, should aim for
an angie ofrelease of45", as his launch speed is much greater.

Effect of Launch Speed on the Launch Angle for Maximum Range

: Vertical Horizontal
Launch l?'.":i ,,'l'lll
.,'lili:l
velocltY
yfl:ly
, c#p"*"t
,
c",io'"*"t
";;,,ll1*^
initial
i"*p""".t
i"*p"""nt
"y",llifl . 'S:,.?t r*"i,iir
Ranse

roli,t:,r , ,Hii?jlr (ms 1) i;i;;ii;

of of lnitial
Verocity ,,lJSiJ,,
40 1.8 10.0 : 6.428 7660 1.549 11'866
4i 18 1o.o 6 561
!5!7 1.s73 11.868

1,9 11.0 , 7.071 8.426 1.664 14.020

1.8
,

ir.o ', t .itt 8.302 1.690 ta.ost

qi , 1.8 8.175 1 .716 tq.ozg

Ai : {A r 12o : 8.030
,,9.os7]3]!0J6:389
8.918 1.838 16.395
43 ' 1.8 , 12.0 : 8-184 8.776 1.867 16'385
41 1.8 , 13.0 8.529 9,811 .. ...*"_..1".,931.. .i ..18:944-. :

42 ::--.^ 1.8
-..:.:.:. - . I
13.0
.'."j.
4i
..,
': ..---i.8-' . .. 1... .
--15'.0
10.404 21.721

, 42 j 1.8 i 16.0 2.342

', - !1* --,... . 1",8 , 19o
44 . 1.8 . 16.0
17.0 12.633 31.207

17.O 11.809
18.0 12.044 13.377

43 :,. 1..q
44 , 1.8 t 19.0
13.435;13.435,2.870:38.556
.....1...-..

45 :
I ud
1.8 1
19.0
43_. 13.640 2.910.
14.387 2.959
14.142 14.142

Spreadsheet A1
 ndix 1 161

A1,7 Formulae Used in SPreadsheets

The spreadsheet program used to'generate the output in Spreadshee ts 1,2,3 and A1 was Microsoft Excel 97.
The for-mulae may require some minor modifications for use with other spreadsheet programs or with other
versions ofExcel.
Note that in evaluating the sines and cosines of angles, in order to calculate the horizontal and vertical
components of the initial velocity, each angle cell reference is multiplied by n and then divided by 180. For
example, A5*PI0/180. This is because the angle is entered in cell A5 in degrees, and this multiplication and
division converLs it into radians for the Excel SIN and COS functions to evaluate it correctly.

Spreadsheet 1 Uni-level Projection

Time of Flight is derived as at right. s, =urt+!art'
'rhi s trans rate s to the A = t(u, -4'9t)
"']:;'irTil:1*il,tffi f . u, usinO
w'here ceil C2 holds the speed and cell A5 holds the launch angle 4.9 4.9

Maximum Height is derived as previously in this Appendix A1.2

2
The spreadsheet formula is uv
:(c2* srN(As*PI0/1 80))"2/1 9. 6
)m:x2a
t
rvhere cel1 C2 holds the speed and cell A5 holds the launch angle.

Range is derived as at right

s, =v,t
The spreadsheet formula is
:C2 *COS(A5*P(y1 80)*B5 =ucos0l
Ce11 C2 hotds the speed. cell A5 holds the launch angle, ce1l 85 holds the tirne of tlight.

Spreadsheets 2 & 3 Effect of Launch Angle on Range

Vertical Component of lnitial Velocity: u, =ilsin0
The spreadsheet formula is:
=D2*SIN(A7*P(y180)
where cell D2 holds:the speed and cell A7 holds the launch angle.

Horizontal Component of lnitial Velocity: tl. = a.cos 0

The spreadsheet formula is:

:D2*COS(A7*P(yI80)
where cellD2 holds the speed and cell A7 holds the launch angle.

Time of Flight is calculated as below

sy=uyt+tart'
- h=uyt -*St'
lgt'z-urt-h=0

l= -b! -4ac
2a

:
u,*/4*N ,,

(we only want the positive'value)

,i

,ii
ci
IA
I

I
 162 ldeas in Ph

The spreadsheet formula for time of flight is

:(B7+SQRT (87 ^2+2* D 4+ D3))/D4
the gravitational acceleration
where cell 87 holds the vertical component of initial velocity, cell D4 holds
and cellD3 holds the launch height.

Maximum Height
The spreadsheet formula is
:B_7^21(2*D4)+D3
the gravitational acceleration
where cell 87 holds the vertical component of initial velocity, cell D4 holds
and cel1 D3 holds the launch height.

Range
-l'he
spreadsheet formula is
:C7*D1
rvhere cell C7 holds the horizontal component of initial velocity & cell D7 holds the time ofrflight'

spreadsheet A1 Effect of lnitial Speed on Angle for Maximum Range

The formulae used in this spreadsheet are the same as those for Spreadsheets
2 and 3.

"i
tt
l; r

ii{